Health informatics

Health informatics is the field of science and

engineering that aims at developing methods and
technologies for the acquisition, processing, and study
of patient data,[1] which can come from different
sources and modalities, such as electronic health
records, diagnostic test results, medical scans. The
health domain provides an extremely wide variety of
problems that can be tackled using computational
techniques.[2]

Health informatics is a spectrum of multidisciplinary

fields that includes study of the design, development
and application of computational innovations to
improve health care.[3] The disciplines involved
combines medicine fields with computing fields, in
particular computer engineering, software engineering,
information engineering, bioinformatics, bio-inspired
computing, theoretical computer science, information
systems, data science, information technology,
autonomic computing, and behavior informatics.[4] In
academic institutions, medical informatics research
focus on applications of artificial intelligence in
healthcare and designing medical devices based on Medical informatics introduces information
embedded systems.[2] In some countries term
processing concepts and machinery to the
informatics is also used in the context of applying
domain of medicine.
library science to data management in hospitals.

'Clinical informaticians' are qualified health and social care professionals and 'clinical informatics' is a
subspecialty within several medical specialties.

Subject areas within health informatics

Jan van Bemmel has described medical informatics as the theoretical and practical aspects of information
processing and communication based on knowledge and experience derived from processes in medicine
and health care.[2]

The Faculty of Clinical Informatics has identified six high level domains of core competency for clinical
informaticians:[5]

Health and Wellbeing in Practice

Information Technologies and Systems
Working with Data and Analytical Methods
Enabling Human and Organizational Change
Decision Making
 Leading Informatics Teams and projects.

Tools to support practitioners

Clinical informaticians use their knowledge of patient care

combined with their understanding of informatics concepts,
methods, and health informatics tools to:

assess information and knowledge needs of health

care professionals, patients and their families.
characterize, evaluate, and refine clinical processes,
develop, implement, and refine clinical decision
support systems, and
lead or participate in the procurement, customization,
development, implementation, management,
evaluation, and continuous improvement of clinical
information systems.

Clinicians collaborate with other health care and information

technology professionals to develop health informatics tools
which promote patient care that is safe, efficient, effective,
timely, patient-centered, and equitable. Many clinical An example of an application of
informaticists are also computer scientists. informatics in medicine is bioimage
informatics.
The frustration experiences by many practitioners is described
in "Why Doctors Hate their Computers" [6]

Telehealth and telemedicine

Telehealth is the distribution of health-related services and

information via electronic information and telecommunication
technologies. It allows long-distance patient and clinician
contact, care, advice, reminders, education, intervention,
monitoring, and remote admissions. Telemedicine is sometimes
used as a synonym, or is used in a more limited sense to
describe remote clinical services, such as diagnosis and
monitoring. Remote monitoring, also known as self-monitoring
or testing, enables medical professionals to monitor a patient
remotely using various technological devices. This method is
primarily used for managing chronic diseases or specific An example of how the 2D Fourier
conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes mellitus, or asthma. transform can be used to remove
These services can provide comparable health outcomes to unwanted information from an X-ray scan
traditional in-person patient encounters, supply greater
satisfaction to patients, and may be cost-effective.[7]
Telerehabilitation (or e-rehabilitation[40][41]) is the delivery of rehabilitation services over
telecommunication networks and the Internet. Most types of services fall into two categories: clinical
assessment (the patient's functional abilities in his or her environment), and clinical therapy. Some fields of
rehabilitation practice that have explored telerehabilitation are: neuropsychology, speech-language
pathology, audiology, occupational therapy, and physical
therapy. Telerehabilitation can deliver therapy to people who
cannot travel to a clinic because the patient has a disability or
because of travel time. Telerehabilitation also allows experts in
rehabilitation to engage in a clinical consultation at a distance.

Decision support, artificial intelligence and

machine learning in healthcare

A pioneer in the use of artificial intelligence in healthcare was Telemedicine system. Federal Center of
American biomedical informatician Edward H. Shortliffe. This Neurosurgery in Tyumen, 2013
field deals with utilisation of machine-learning algorithms and
artificial intelligence, to emulate human cognition in the
analysis, interpretation, and comprehension of complicated
medical and healthcare data. Specifically, AI is the ability of
computer algorithms to approximate conclusions based solely
on input data. AI programs are applied to practices such as
diagnosis processes, treatment protocol development, drug
development, personalized medicine, and patient monitoring
and care. A large part of industry focus of implementation of
AI in the healthcare sector is in the clinical decision support
systems. As more data is collected, machine learning
algorithms adapt and allow for more robust responses and
solutions.[8] Numerous companies are exploring the
possibilities of the incorporation of big data in the healthcare
industry. Many companies investigate the market opportunities
through the realms of "data assessment, storage, management,
and analysis technologies" which are all crucial parts of the
healthcare industry.[9] The following are examples of large
companies that have contributed to AI algorithms for use in
healthcare: X-ray of a hand, with automatic
calculation of bone age by a computer
IBM's Watson Oncology is in development at software
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center and
Cleveland Clinic. IBM is also working with CVS
Health on AI applications in chronic disease treatment and with Johnson & Johnson on
analysis of scientific papers to find new connections for drug development. In May 2017, IBM
and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute began a joint project entitled Health Empowerment by
Analytics, Learning and Semantics (HEALS), to explore using AI technology to enhance
healthcare.
Microsoft's Hanover project, in partnership with Oregon Health & Science University's Knight
Cancer Institute, analyzes medical research to predict the most effective cancer drug
treatment options for patients. Other projects include medical image analysis of tumor
progression and the development of programmable cells.
Google's DeepMind platform is being used by the UK National Health Service to detect
certain health risks through data collected via a mobile app. A second project with the NHS
involves analysis of medical images collected from NHS patients to develop computer vision
algorithms to detect cancerous tissues.
Tencent is working on several medical systems and services. These include AI Medical
Innovation System (AIMIS), an AI-powered diagnostic medical imaging service; WeChat
Intelligent Healthcare; and Tencent Doctorwork
 Intel's venture capital arm Intel Capital recently invested in startup Lumiata which uses AI to
identify at-risk patients and develop care options.
Kheiron Medical developed deep learning software to detect breast cancers in
mammograms.
Fractal Analytics has incubated Qure.ai which focuses on using deep learning and AI to
improve radiology and speed up the analysis of diagnostic x-rays.
Neuralink has come up with a next generation
neuroprosthetic which intricately interfaces with
thousands of neural pathways in the brain.[8] Their
process allows a chip, roughly the size of a quarter,
to be inserted in place of a chunk of skull by a
precision surgical robot to avoid accidental injury .[8]

Digital consultant apps like Babylon Health's GP at Hand, Ada

Health, AliHealth Doctor You, KareXpert and Your.MD use AI
to give medical consultation based on personal medical history Elon Musk premiering the surgical robot
and common medical knowledge. Users report their symptoms that implants the Neuralink brain chip
into the app, which uses speech recognition to compare against
a database of illnesses. Babylon then offers a recommended
action, taking into account the user's medical history. Entrepreneurs in healthcare have been effectively
using seven business model archetypes to take AI solution[buzzword] to the marketplace. These archetypes
depend on the value generated for the target user (e.g. patient focus vs. healthcare provider and payer
focus) and value capturing mechanisms (e.g. providing information or connecting stakeholders). IFlytek
launched a service robot "Xiao Man", which integrated artificial intelligence technology to identify the
registered customer and provide personalized recommendations in medical areas. It also works in the field
of medical imaging. Similar robots are also being made by companies such as UBTECH ("Cruzr") and
Softbank Robotics ("Pepper"). The Indian startup Haptik recently developed a WhatsApp chatbot which
answers questions associated with the deadly coronavirus in India. With the market for AI expanding
constantly, large tech companies such as Apple, Google, Amazon, and Baidu all have their own AI research
divisions, as well as millions of dollars allocated for acquisition of smaller AI based companies.[9] Many
automobile manufacturers are beginning to use machine learning healthcare in their cars as well.[9]
Companies such as BMW, GE, Tesla, Toyota, and Volvo all have new research campaigns to find ways of
learning a driver's vital statistics to ensure they are awake, paying attention to the road, and not under the
influence of substances or in emotional distress.[9] Examples of projects in computational health informatics
include the COACH project.[10][11]

Clinical Research Informatics

Clinical research informatics (CRI) is a sub-field of health informatics that tries to improve the efficiency of
clinical research by using informatics methods. Some of the problems tackled by CRI are: creation of data
warehouses of health care data that can be used for research, support of data collection in clinical trials by
the use of electronic data capture systems, streamlining ethical approvals and renewals (in US the
responsible entity is the local institutional review board), maintenance of repositories of past clinical trial
data (de-identified). CRI is a fairly new branch of informatics and has met growing pains as any up and
coming field does. Some issue CRI faces is the ability for the statisticians and the computer system
architects to work with the clinical research staff in designing a system and lack of funding to support the
development of a new system. Researchers and the informatics team have a difficult time coordinating
plans and ideas in order to design a system that is easy to use for the research team yet fits in the system
requirements of the computer team. The lack of funding can be a hindrance to the development of the CRI.
Many organizations who are performing research are struggling to get financial support to conduct the
research, much less invest that money in an informatics system that will not provide them any more income
or improve the outcome of the research (Embi, 2009). Ability to integrate data from multiple clinical trials is
an important part of clinical research informatics. Initiatives, such as PhenX and Patient-Reported
Outcomes Measurement Information System triggered a general effort to improve secondary use of data
collected in past human clinical trials. CDE initiatives, for example, try to allow clinical trial designers to
adopt standardized research instruments (electronic case report forms).[12] A parallel effort to standardizing
how data is collected are initiatives that offer de-identified patient level clinical study data to be downloaded
by researchers who wish to re-use this data. Examples of such platforms are Project Data Sphere,[13]
dbGaP, ImmPort[14] or Clinical Study Data Request.[15] Informatics issues in data formats for sharing
results (plain CSV files, FDA endorsed formats, such as CDISC Study Data Tabulation Model) are
important challenges within the field of clinical research informatics. There are a number of activities within
clinical research that CRI supports, including:

more efficient and effective data collection and acquisition

improved recruitment into clinical trials
optimal protocol design and efficient management
patient recruitment and management
adverse event reporting
regulatory compliance
data storage, transfer,[16] processing and analysis
repositories of data from completed clinical trials (for secondary analyses)

One of the fundamental elements of biomedical and translation

research is the use of integrated data repositories. A survey
conducted in 2010 defined "integrated data repository" (IDR)
as a data warehouse incorporating various sources of clinical
data to support queries for a range of research-like
functions.[17] Integrated data repositories are complex systems
developed to solve a variety of problems ranging from identity
management, protection of confidentiality, semantic and
syntactic comparability of data from different sources, and
most importantly convenient and flexible query.[18]
Development of the field of clinical informatics led to the Example IDR schema
creation of large data sets with electronic health record data
integrated with other data (such as genomic data). Types of
data repositories include operational data stores (ODSs), clinical data warehouses (CDWs), clinical data
marts, and clinical registries.[19] Operational data stores established for extracting, transferring and loading
before creating warehouse or data marts.[19] Clinical registries repositories have long been in existence, but
their contents are disease specific and sometimes considered archaic.[19] Clinical data stores and clinical
data warehouses are considered fast and reliable. Though these large integrated repositories have impacted
clinical research significantly, it still faces challenges and barriers. One big problem is the requirement for
ethical approval by the institutional review board (IRB) for each research analysis meant for publication.[20]
Some research resources do not require IRB approval. For example, CDWs with data of deceased patients
have been de-identified and IRB approval is not required for their usage.[20][17][19][18] Another challenge is
data quality. Methods that adjust for bias (such as using propensity score matching methods) assume that a
complete health record is captured. Tools that examine data quality (e.g., point to missing data) help in
discovering data quality problems.[21]

Translational bioinformatics

Translational Bioinformatics (TBI) is a relatively new field that surfaced in the year of 2000 when human
genome sequence was released.[22] The commonly used definition of TBI is lengthy and could be found on
the AMIA website.[23] In simpler terms, TBI could be defined as a collection of colossal amounts of health
related data (biomedical and genomic) and translation of the data into individually tailored clinical
entities.[22] Today, TBI field is categorized into four major themes that are briefly described below:

Clinical big data is a collection of electronic health records that are used for innovations. The
evidence-based approach that is currently practiced in medicine is suggested to be merged
with the practice-based medicine to achieve better outcomes for patients. As CEO of
California-based cognitive computing firm Apixio, Darren Schutle, explains that the care can
be better fitted to the patient if the data could be collected from various medical records,
merged, and analyzed. Further, the combination of similar profiles can serve as a basis for
personalized medicine pointing to what works and what does not for certain condition (Marr,
2016).
Genomics in clinical care
Genomic data are used to identify the genes involvement in unknown or rare
conditions/syndromes. Currently, the most vigorous area of using genomics is oncology. The
identification of genomic sequencing of cancer may define reasons of drug(s) sensitivity and
resistance during oncological treatment processes.[22]
Omics for drugs discovery and repurposing
Repurposing of the drug is an appealing idea that allows the pharmaceutical companies to
sell an already approved drug to treat a different condition/disease that the drug was not
initially approved for by the FDA. The observation of "molecular signatures in disease and
compare those to signatures observed in cells" points to the possibility of a drug ability to
cure and/or relieve symptoms of a disease.[22]
Personalized genomic testing
In the US, several companies offer direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing. The company
that performs the majority of testing is called 23andMe. Utilizing genetic testing in health
care raises many ethical, legal and social concerns; one of the main questions is whether
the health care providers are ready to include patient-supplied genomic information while
providing care that is unbiased (despite the intimate genomic knowledge) and a high quality.
The documented examples of incorporating such information into a health care delivery
showed both positive and negative impacts on the overall health care related outcomes.[22]

Medical signal processing

An important application of information engineering in medicine is medical signal processing.[2] It refers to

the generation, analysis, and use of signals, which could take many forms such as image, sound, electrical,
or biological.[24]

Medical image computing and imaging informatics

Imaging informatics and medical image computing develops
computational and mathematical methods for solving problems
pertaining to medical images and their use for biomedical
research and clinical care. Those fields aims to extract
clinically relevant information or knowledge from medical
images and computational analysis of the images. The methods
can be grouped into several broad categories: image
segmentation, image registration, image-based physiological
modeling, and others. A mid-axial slice of the ICBM diffusion
tensor image template. Each voxel's
value is a tensor represented here by an
Medical robotics ellipsoid. Color denotes principal
orientation: red = left-right, blue=inferior-
A medical robot is a robot used in the medical sciences. They superior, green = posterior-anterior
include surgical robots. These are in most telemanipulators,
which use the surgeon's activators on one side to control the
"effector" on the other side. There are the following types of medical robots:

Surgical robots: either allow surgical operations to be carried out with better precision than
an unaided human surgeon or allow remote surgery where a human surgeon is not
physically present with the patient.
Rehabilitation robots: facilitate and support the lives of infirm, elderly people, or those with
dysfunction of body parts affecting movement. These robots are also used for rehabilitation
and related procedures, such as training and therapy.
Biorobots: a group of robots designed to imitate the cognition of humans and animals.
Telepresence robots: allow off-site medical professionals to move, look around,
communicate, and participate from remote locations.[25]
Pharmacy automation: robotic systems to dispense oral solids in a retail pharmacy setting or
preparing sterile IV admixtures in a hospital pharmacy setting.
Companion robot: has the capability to engage emotionally with users keeping them
company and alerting if there is a problem with their health.
Disinfection robot: has the capability to disinfect a whole room in mere minutes, generally
using pulsed ultraviolet light.[26][27] They are being used to fight Ebola virus disease.[28]

International history
Worldwide use of computer technology in medicine began in the early 1950s with the rise of the
computers. In 1949, Gustav Wagner established the first professional organization for informatics in
Germany. The prehistory, history, and future of medical information and health information technology are
discussed in reference.[29] Specialized university departments and Informatics training programs began
during the 1960s in France, Germany, Belgium and The Netherlands. Medical informatics research units
began to appear during the 1970s in Poland and in the U.S.[30] Since then the development of high-quality
health informatics research, education and infrastructure has been a goal of the U.S. and the European
Union.

Early names for health informatics included medical computing, biomedical computing, medical computer
science, computer medicine, medical electronic data processing, medical automatic data processing, medical
information processing, medical information science, medical software engineering, and medical computer
technology.
The health informatics community is still growing, it is by no means a mature profession, but work in the
UK by the voluntary registration body, the UK Council of Health Informatics Professions has suggested
eight key constituencies within the domain–information management, knowledge management,
portfolio/program/project management, ICT, education and research, clinical informatics, health
records(service and business-related), health informatics service management. These constituencies
accommodate professionals in and for the NHS, in academia and commercial service and solution
providers.

Since the 1970s the most prominent international coordinating body has been the International Medical
Informatics Association (IMIA).

History, current state and policy initiatives by region and country

Americas

Argentina

The Argentinian health system is heterogeneous in its function, and because of that, the informatics
developments show a heterogeneous stage. Many private health care centers have developed systems, such
as the Hospital Aleman of Buenos Aires, or the Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires that also has a residence
program for health informatics.

Brazil

The first applications of computers to medicine and health care in Brazil started around 1968, with the
installation of the first mainframes in public university hospitals, and the use of programmable calculators in
scientific research applications. Minicomputers, such as the IBM 1130 were installed in several universities,
and the first applications were developed for them, such as the hospital census in the School of Medicine of
Ribeirão Preto and patient master files, in the Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade de São Paulo,
respectively at the cities of Ribeirão Preto and São Paulo campuses of the University of São Paulo. In the
1970s, several Digital Corporation and Hewlett-Packard minicomputers were acquired for public and
Armed Forces hospitals, and more intensively used for intensive-care unit, cardiology diagnostics, patient
monitoring and other applications. In the early 1980s, with the arrival of cheaper microcomputers, a great
upsurge of computer applications in health ensued, and in 1986 the Brazilian Society of Health Informatics
was founded, the first Brazilian Congress of Health Informatics was held, and the first Brazilian Journal of
Health Informatics was published. In Brazil, two universities are pioneers in teaching and research in
medical informatics, both the University of Sao Paulo and the Federal University of Sao Paulo offer
undergraduate programs highly qualified in the area as well as extensive graduate programs (MSc and
PhD). In 2015 the Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, also
started to offer undergraduate program.

Canada

Health Informatics projects in Canada are implemented provincially, with different provinces creating
different systems. A national, federally funded, not-for-profit organisation called Canada Health Infoway
was created in 2001 to foster the development and adoption of electronic health records across Canada. As
of December 31, 2008, there were 276 EHR projects under way in Canadian hospitals, other health-care
facilities, pharmacies and laboratories, with an investment value of $1.5-billion from Canada Health
Infoway.[31]
Provincial and territorial programmes include the following:

eHealth Ontario was created as an Ontario provincial government agency in September

2008. It has been plagued by delays and its CEO was fired over a multimillion-dollar
contracts scandal in 2009.[32]
Alberta Netcare was created in 2003 by the Government of Alberta. Today the netCARE
portal is used daily by thousands of clinicians. It provides access to demographic data,
prescribed/dispensed drugs, known allergies/intolerances, immunizations, laboratory test
results, diagnostic imaging reports, the diabetes registry and other medical reports.
netCARE interface capabilities are being included in electronic medical record products that
are being funded by the provincial government.

United States

Even though the idea of using computers in medicine emerged as technology advanced in the early 20th
century, it was not until the 1950s that informatics began to have an effect in the United States.[33]

The earliest use of electronic digital computers for medicine was for dental projects in the 1950s at the
United States National Bureau of Standards by Robert Ledley.[34] During the mid-1950s, the United States
Air Force (USAF) carried out several medical projects on its computers while also encouraging civilian
agencies such as the National Academy of Sciences – National Research Council (NAS-NRC) and the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) to sponsor such work.[35] In 1959, Ledley and Lee B. Lusted published
"Reasoning Foundations of Medical Diagnosis," a widely read article in Science, which introduced
computing (especially operations research) techniques to medical workers. Ledley and Lusted's article has
remained influential for decades, especially within the field of medical decision making.[36]

Guided by Ledley's late 1950s survey of computer use in biology and medicine (carried out for the NAS-
NRC), and by his and Lusted's articles, the NIH undertook the first major effort to introduce computers to
biology and medicine. This effort, carried out initially by the NIH's Advisory Committee on Computers in
Research (ACCR), chaired by Lusted, spent over $40 million between 1960 and 1964 in order to establish
dozens of large and small biomedical research centers in the US.[35]

One early (1960, non-ACCR) use of computers was to help quantify normal human movement, as a
precursor to scientifically measuring deviations from normal, and design of prostheses.[37] The use of
computers (IBM 650, 1620, and 7040) allowed analysis of a large sample size, and of more measurements
and subgroups than had been previously practical with mechanical calculators, thus allowing an objective
understanding of how human locomotion varies by age and body characteristics. A study co-author was
Dean of the Marquette University College of Engineering; this work led to discrete Biomedical
Engineering departments there and elsewhere.

The next steps, in the mid-1960s, were the development (sponsored largely by the NIH) of expert systems
such as MYCIN and Internist-I. In 1965, the National Library of Medicine started to use MEDLINE and
MEDLARS. Around this time, Neil Pappalardo, Curtis Marble, and Robert Greenes developed MUMPS
(Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System) in Octo Barnett's Laboratory of
Computer Science[38] at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, another center of biomedical
computing that received significant support from the NIH.[39] In the 1970s and 1980s it was the most
commonly used programming language for clinical applications. The MUMPS operating system was used
to support MUMPS language specifications. As of 2004, a descendant of this system is being used in the
United States Veterans Affairs hospital system. The VA has the largest enterprise-wide health information
system that includes an electronic medical record, known as the Veterans Health Information Systems and
Technology Architecture (VistA). A graphical user interface known as the Computerized Patient Record
System (CPRS) allows health care providers to review and update a patient's electronic medical record at
any of the VA's over 1,000 health care facilities.

During the 1960s, Morris Collen, a physician working for Kaiser Permanente's Division of Research,
developed computerized systems to automate many aspects of multi-phased health checkups. These
systems became the basis the larger medical databases Kaiser Permanente developed during the 1970s and
1980s.[40] The American College of Medical Informatics (ACMI) has since 1993 annually bestowed the
Morris F. Collen, MD Medal for Outstanding Contributions to the Field of Medical Informatics.[41] Kaiser
permanente

In the 1970s a growing number of commercial vendors began to market practice management and
electronic medical records systems. Although many products exist, only a small number of health
practitioners use fully featured electronic health care records systems. In 1970, Warner V. Slack, MD, and
Howard L. Bleich, MD, co-founded the academic division of clinical informatics[42] at Beth Israel
Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School. Warner Slack is a pioneer of the development of
the electronic patient medical history,[43] and in 1977 Dr. Bleich created the first user-friendly search engine
for the worlds biomedical literature.[44] In 2002, Dr. Slack and Dr. Bleich were awarded the Morris F.
Collen Award for their pioneering contributions to medical informatics.[45]

Computerised systems involved in patient care have led to a number of changes. Such changes have led to
improvements in electronic health records which are now capable of sharing medical information among
multiple health care stakeholders (Zahabi, Kaber, & Swangnetr, 2015); thereby, supporting the flow of
patient information through various modalities of care. One opportunity for electronic health records
(EHR)to be even more effectively used is to utilize natural language processing for searching and analyzing
notes and text that would otherwise be inaccessible for review. These can be further developed through
ongoing collaboration between software developers and end-users of natural language processing tools
within the electronic health EHRs.[46]

Computer use today involves a broad ability which includes but isn't limited to physician diagnosis and
documentation, patient appointment scheduling, and billing. Many researchers in the field have identified
an increase in the quality of health care systems, decreased errors by health care workers, and lastly savings
in time and money (Zahabi, Kaber, & Swangnetr, 2015). The system, however, is not perfect and will
continue to require improvement. Frequently cited factors of concern involve usability, safety, accessibility,
and user-friendliness (Zahabi, Kaber, & Swangnetr, 2015). As leaders in the field of medical informatics
improve upon the aforementioned factors of concern, the overall provision of health care will continue to
improve.[47]

Homer R. Warner, one of the fathers of medical informatics,[48] founded the Department of Medical
Informatics at the University of Utah in 1968. The American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA) has
an award named after him on application of informatics to medicine.

There are Informatics certifications available to help informatics professionals stand out and be recognized.
The American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC) offers a board certification in Nursing Informatics.[49]
For Radiology Informatics, the CIIP (Certified Imaging Informatics Professional) certification was created
by ABII (The American Board of Imaging Informatics) which was founded by SIIM (the Society for
Imaging Informatics in Medicine) and ARRT (the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists) in 2005.
The CIIP certification requires documented experience working in Imaging Informatics, formal testing and
is a limited time credential requiring renewal every five years. The exam tests for a combination of IT
technical knowledge, clinical understanding, and project management experience thought to represent the
typical workload of a PACS administrator or other radiology IT clinical support role.[50] Certifications from
PARCA (PACS Administrators Registry and Certifications Association) are also recognized. The five
PARCA certifications are tiered from entry-level to architect level. The American Health Information
Management Association offers credentials in medical coding, analytics, and data administration, such as
Registered Health Information Administrator and Certified Coding Associate.[51] Certifications are widely
requested by employers in health informatics, and overall the demand for certified informatics workers in
the United States is outstripping supply.[52] The American Health Information Management Association
reports that only 68% of applicants pass certification exams on the first try.[53] In 2017, a consortium of
health informatics trainers (composed of MEASURE Evaluation, Public Health Foundation India,
University of Pretoria, Kenyatta University, and the University of Ghana) identified the following areas of
knowledge as a curriculum for the digital health workforce, especially in low- and middle-income
countries: clinical decision support; telehealth; privacy, security, and confidentiality; workflow process
improvement; technology, people, and processes; process engineering; quality process improvement and
health information technology; computer hardware; software; databases; data warehousing; information
networks; information systems; information exchange; data analytics; and usability methods.[54]

In 2004, President George W. Bush signed Executive Order 13335,[55] creating the Office of the National
Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONCHIT) as a division of the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services (HHS). The mission of this office is widespread adoption of interoperable electronic
health records (EHRs) in the US within 10 years. See quality improvement organizations for more
information on federal initiatives in this area. In 2014 the Department of Education approved an advanced
Health Informatics Undergraduate program that was submitted by the University of South Alabama. The
program is designed to provide specific Health Informatics education, and is the only program in the
country with a Health Informatics Lab. The program is housed in the School of Computing in Shelby Hall,
a recently completed $50  million state of the art teaching facility. The University of South Alabama
awarded David L. Loeser on May 10, 2014, with the first Health Informatics degree. The program
currently is scheduled to have 100+ students awarded by 2016. The Certification Commission for
Healthcare Information Technology (CCHIT), a private nonprofit group, was funded in 2005 by the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services to develop a set of standards for electronic health records
(EHR) and supporting networks, and certify vendors who meet them. In July 2006, CCHIT released its
first list of 22 certified ambulatory EHR products, in two different announcements.[56] Harvard Medical
School added a department of biomedical informatics in 2015.[57] The University of Cincinnati in
partnership with Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center created a biomedical informatics (BMI)
Graduate certificate program and in 2015 began a BMI PhD program.[58][59][60] The joint program allows
for researchers and students to observe the impact their work has on patient care directly as discoveries are
translated from bench to bedside.

Europe

European Union

The European Commission's preference, as exemplified in the 5th Framework[61] as well as currently
pursued pilot projects,[62] is for Free/Libre and Open Source Software (FLOSS) for health care. Another
stream of research currently focuses on aspects of "big data" in health information systems. For background
information on data-related aspects in health informatics see, e.g., the book "Biomedical Informatics" [63] by
Andreas Holzinger.

The European Union's Member States are committed to sharing their best practices and experiences to
create a European eHealth Area, thereby improving access to and quality health care at the same time as
stimulating growth in a promising new industrial sector. The European eHealth Action Plan plays a
fundamental role in the European Union's strategy. Work on this initiative involves a collaborative approach
among several parts of the Commission services.[64][65] The European Institute for Health Records is
involved in the promotion of high quality electronic health record systems in the European Union.[66]

UK

The broad history of health informatics has been captured in the book UK Health Computing:
Recollections and reflections, Hayes G, Barnett D (Eds.), BCS (May 2008) by those active in the field,
predominantly members of BCS Health and its constituent groups. The book describes the path taken as
'early development of health informatics was unorganized and idiosyncratic'. In the early 1950s, it was
prompted by those involved in NHS finance and only in the early 1960s did solutions including those in
pathology (1960), radiotherapy (1962), immunization (1963), and primary care (1968) emerge. Many of
these solutions, even in the early 1970s were developed in-house by pioneers in the field to meet their own
requirements. In part, this was due to some areas of health services (for example the immunization and
vaccination of children) still being provided by Local Authorities. The coalition government has proposed
broadly to return to the 2010 strategy Equity and Excellence: Liberating the NHS (July 2010); stating: "We
will put patients at the heart of the NHS, through an information revolution and greater choice and control'
with shared decision-making becoming the norm: 'no decision about me without me' and patients having
access to the information they want, to make choices about their care. They will have increased control
over their own care records."

There are different models of health informatics delivery in each of the home countries (England, Scotland,
Northern Ireland and Wales) but some bodies like UKCHIP[67] (see below) operate for those 'in and for' all
the home countries and beyond.

NHS informatics in England was contracted out to several vendors for national health informatics solutions
under the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT) label in the early to mid-2000s, under
the auspices of NHS Connecting for Health (part of the Health and Social Care Information Centre as of 1
April 2013). NPfIT originally divided the country into five regions, with strategic 'systems integration'
contracts awarded to one of several Local Service Providers (LSP). The various specific technical solutions
were required to connect securely with the NHS 'Spine', a system designed to broker data between different
systems and care settings. NPfIT fell significantly behind schedule and its scope and design were being
revised in real time, exacerbated by media and political lambasting of the Programme's spend (past and
projected) against the proposed budget. In 2010 a consultation was launched as part of the new
Conservative/Liberal Democrat Coalition Government's White Paper 'Liberating the NHS'. This initiative
provided little in the way of innovative thinking, primarily re-stating existing strategies within the proposed
new context of the Coalition's vision for the NHS. The degree of computerization in NHS secondary care
was quite high before NPfIT, and the programme stagnated further development of the install base – the
original NPfIT regional approach provided neither a single, nationwide solution nor local health community
agility or autonomy to purchase systems, but instead tried to deal with a hinterland in the middle.

Almost all general practices in England and Wales are computerized under the GP Systems of Choice[68]
programme, and patients have relatively extensive computerized primary care clinical records. System
choice is the responsibility of individual general practices and while there is no single, standardized GP
system, it sets relatively rigid minimum standards of performance and functionality for vendors to adhere to.
Interoperation between primary and secondary care systems is rather primitive. It is hoped that a focus on
interworking (for interfacing and integration) standards will stimulate synergy between primary and
secondary care in sharing necessary information to support the care of individuals. Notable successes to
date are in the electronic requesting and viewing of test results, and in some areas, GPs have access to
digital x-ray images from secondary care systems.
In 2019 the GP Systems of Choice framework was replaced by the GP IT Futures framework, which is to
be the main vehicle used by clinical commissioning groups to buy services for GPs. This is intended to
increase competition in an area that is dominated by EMIS and TPP. 69 technology companies offering
more than 300 solutions have been accepted on to the new framework.[69]

Wales has a dedicated Health Informatics function that supports NHS Wales in leading on the new
integrated digital information services and promoting Health Informatics as a career.

The British Computer Society (BCS) [70] provides 4 different professional registration levels for Health and
Care Informatics Professionals: Practitioner, Senior Practitioner, Advanced Practitioner, and Leading
Practitioner. The Faculty of Clinical Informatics (FCI) [71] is the professional membership society for health
and social care professionals in clinical informatics offering Fellowship, Membership and Associateship.
BCS and FCI are member organisations of the Federation for Informatics Professionals in Health and
Social Care (FedIP),[72] a collaboration between the leading professional bodies in health and care
informatics supporting the development of the informatics professions.

The Faculty of Clinical Informatics has produced a Core Competency Framework that describes the wide
range of skills needed by practitioners. [73]

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, health informatics is currently a priority for research and implementation. The
Netherlands Federation of University medical centers (NFU)[74] has created the Citrienfonds, which
includes the programs eHealth and Registration at the Source.[75] The Netherlands also has the national
organizations Society for Healthcare Informatics (VMBI)[76] and Nictiz, the national center for
standardization and eHealth.[77]

Asia and Oceania

In Asia and Australia-New Zealand, the regional group called the Asia Pacific Association for Medical
Informatics (APAMI)[78] was established in 1994 and now consists of more than 15 member regions in the
Asia Pacific Region.

Australia

The Australasian College of Health Informatics (ACHI) is the professional association for health
informatics in the Asia-Pacific region. It represents the interests of a broad range of clinical and non-clinical
professionals working within the health informatics sphere through a commitment to quality, standards and
ethical practice.[79] ACHI is an academic institutional member of the International Medical Informatics
Association (IMIA)[80] and a full member of the Australian Council of Professions.[81] ACHI is a sponsor
of the "e-Journal for Health Informatics",[82] an indexed and peer-reviewed professional journal. ACHI has
also supported the "Australian Health Informatics Education Council" (AHIEC) since its founding in
2009.[83]

Although there are a number of health informatics organizations in Australia, the Health Informatics Society
of Australia[84] (HISA) is regarded as the major umbrella group and is a member of the International
Medical Informatics Association (IMIA). Nursing informaticians were the driving force behind the
formation of HISA, which is now a company limited by guarantee of the members. The membership comes
from across the informatics spectrum that is from students to corporate affiliates. HISA has a number of
branches (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia) as well as special interest groups
such as nursing (NIA), pathology, aged and community care, industry and medical imaging (Conrick,
2006).

China

After 20 years, China performed a successful transition from its planned economy to a socialist market
economy. Along this change, China's health care system also experienced a significant reform to follow and
adapt to this historical revolution. In 2003, the data (released from Ministry of Health of the People's
Republic of China (MoH)), indicated that the national health care-involved expenditure was up to RMB
662.33 billion totally, which accounted for about 5.56% of nationwide gross domestic products. Before the
1980s, the entire health care costs were covered in central government annual budget. Since that, the
construct of health care-expended supporters started to change gradually. Most of the expenditure was
contributed by health insurance schemes and private spending, which corresponded to 40% and 45% of
total expenditure, respectively. Meanwhile, the financially governmental contribution was decreased to 10%
only. On the other hand, by 2004, up to 296,492 health care facilities were recorded in statistic summary of
MoH, and an average of 2.4 clinical beds per 1000 people were mentioned as well.[85]

Along with the development of information technology since the

1990s, health care providers realized that the information could
generate significant benefits to improve their services by
computerized cases and data, for instance of gaining the information
for directing patient care and assessing the best patient care for
specific clinical conditions. Therefore, substantial resources were
collected to build China's own health informatics system. Most of
these resources were arranged to construct hospital information
system (HIS), which was aimed to minimize unnecessary waste and Proportion of nationwide hospitals
repetition, subsequently to promote the efficiency and quality- with HIS in China by 2004
control of health care. [86] By 2004, China had successfully spread
HIS through approximately 35–40% of nationwide hospitals.[87]
However, the dispersion of hospital-owned HIS varies critically. In the east part of China, over 80% of
hospitals constructed HIS, in northwest of China the equivalent was no more than 20%. Moreover, all of
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) above rural level, approximately 80% of health care
organisations above the rural level and 27% of hospitals over town level have the ability to perform the
transmission of reports about real-time epidemic situation through public health information system and to
analysis infectious diseases by dynamic statistics.[88]

China has four tiers in its health care system. The first tier is street health and workplace clinics and these
are cheaper than hospitals in terms of medical billing and act as prevention centers. The second tier is
district and enterprise hospitals along with specialist clinics and these provide the second level of care. The
third tier is provisional and municipal general hospitals and teaching hospitals which provided the third
level of care. In a tier of its own is the national hospitals which are governed by the Ministry of Health.
China has been greatly improving its health informatics since it finally opened its doors to the outside world
and joined the World Trade Organization (WTO). In 2001, it was reported that China had 324,380 medical
institutions and the majority of those were clinics. The reason for that is that clinics are prevention centers
and Chinese people like using traditional Chinese medicine as opposed to Western medicine and it usually
works for the minor cases. China has also been improving its higher education in regards to health
informatics. At the end of 2002, there were 77 medical universities and medical colleges. There were 48
university medical colleges which offered bachelor, master, and doctorate degrees in medicine. There were
21 higher medical specialty institutions that offered diploma degrees so in total, there were 147 higher
medical and educational institutions. Since joining the WTO, China has been working hard to improve its
education system and bring it up to international standards.[89] SARS played a large role in China quickly
improving its health care system. Back in 2003, there was an outbreak of SARS and that made China hurry
to spread HIS or Hospital Information System and more than 80% of hospitals had HIS. China had been
comparing itself to Korea's health care system and figuring out how it can better its own system. There was
a study done that surveyed six hospitals in China that had HIS. The results were that doctors didn't use
computers as much so it was concluded that it wasn't used as much for clinical practice than it was for
administrative purposes. The survey asked if the hospitals created any websites and it was concluded that
only four of them had created websites and that three had a third-party company create it for them and one
was created by the hospital staff. In conclusion, all of them agreed or strongly agreed that providing health
information on the Internet should be utilized.[90]

Collected information at different times, by different participants or systems could frequently lead to issues
of misunderstanding, dis-comparing or dis-exchanging. To design an issues-minor system, health care
providers realized that certain standards were the basis for sharing information and interoperability,
however a system lacking standards would be a large impediment to interfere the improvement of
corresponding information systems. Given that the standardization for health informatics depends on the
authorities, standardization events must be involved with government and the subsequently relevant
funding and supports were critical. In 2003, the Ministry of Health released the Development Lay-out of
National Health Informatics (2003–2010)[91] indicating the identification of standardization for health
informatics which is 'combining adoption of international standards and development of national standards'.

In China, the establishment of standardization was initially facilitated with the development of vocabulary,
classification and coding, which is conducive to reserve and transmit information for premium management
at national level. By 2006, 55 international/ domestic standards of vocabulary, classification and coding
have served in hospital information system. In 2003, the 10th revision of the International Statistical
Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) and the ICD-10 Clinical Modification
(ICD-10-CM) were adopted as standards for diagnostic classification and acute care procedure
classification. Simultaneously, the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) were translated and
tested in China 's local applied environment.[92] Another coding standard, named Logical Observation
Identifiers Names and Codes (LOINC), was applied to serve as general identifiers for clinical observation
in hospitals. Personal identifier codes were widely employed in different information systems, involving
name, sex, nationality, family relationship, educational level and job occupation. However, these codes
within different systems are inconsistent, when sharing between different regions. Considering this large
quantity of vocabulary, classification and coding standards between different jurisdictions, the health care
provider realized that using multiple systems could generate issues of resource wasting and a non-
conflicting national level standard was beneficial and necessary. Therefore, in late 2003, the health
informatics group in Ministry of Health released three projects to deal with issues of lacking national health
information standards, which were the Chinese National Health Information Framework and
Standardization, the Basic Data Set Standards of Hospital Information System and the Basic Data Set
Standards of Public Health Information System.

The objectives of the Chinese National Health Information Framework and Standardization project
were:[85]

1. Establish national health information framework and identify in what areas standards and
guidelines are required
2. Identify the classes, relationships and attributes of national health information framework.
Produce a conceptual health data model to cover the scope of the health information
framework
3. Create logical data model for specific domains, depicting the logical data entities, the data
attributes, and the relationships between the entities according to the conceptual health data
model
 4. Establish uniform represent standard for data elements according to the data entities and
their attributes in conceptual data model and logical data model
5. Circulate the completed health information framework and health data model to the
partnership members for review and acceptance
6. Develop a process to maintain and refine the China model and to align with and influence
international health data models

Comparing China's EHR Standard and ASTM E1384

In 2011, researchers from local universities evaluated the performance of China's Electronic Health Record
(EHR) Standard compared with the American Society for Testing and Materials Standard Practice for
Content and Structure of Electronic Health Records in the United States (ASTM E1384 Standard,
withdrawn in 2017).[93] The deficiencies that were found are listed in the following.

1. The lack of supporting on privacy and security. The ISO/TS 18308 specifies "The EHR must
support the ethical and legal use of personal information, in accordance with established
privacy principles and frameworks, which may be culturally or jurisdictionally specific" (ISO
18308: Health Informatics-Requirements for an Electronic Health Record Architecture,
2004). However this China's EHR Standard did not achieve any of the fifteen requirements
in the subclass of privacy and security.
2. The shortage of supporting on different types of data and reference. Considering only ICD-9
is referenced as China's external international coding systems, other similar systems, such
as SNOMED CT in clinical terminology presentation, cannot be considered as familiar for
Chinese specialists, which could lead to internationally information-sharing deficiency.
3. The lack of more generic and extensible lower level data structures. China's large and
complex EHR Standard was constructed for all medical domains. However, the specific and
time-frequent attributes of clinical data elements, value sets and templates identified that this
once-for-all purpose cannot lead to practical consequence.[94]

In Hong Kong, a computerized patient record system called the Clinical Management System (CMS) has
been developed by the Hospital Authority since 1994. This system has been deployed at all the sites of the
authority (40 hospitals and 120 clinics). It is used for up to 2 million transactions daily by 30,000 clinical
staff. The comprehensive records of 7 million patients are available on-line in the electronic patient record
(ePR), with data integrated from all sites. Since 2004 radiology image viewing has been added to the ePR,
with radiography images from any HA site being available as part of the ePR.

The Hong Kong Hospital Authority placed particular attention to the governance of clinical systems
development, with input from hundreds of clinicians being incorporated through a structured process. The
health informatics section in the Hospital Authority[95] has a close relationship with the information
technology department and clinicians to develop health care systems for the organization to support the
service to all public hospitals and clinics in the region.

The Hong Kong Society of Medical Informatics (HKSMI) was established in 1987 to promote the use of
information technology in health care. The eHealth Consortium has been formed to bring together
clinicians from both the private and public sectors, medical informatics professionals and the IT industry to
further promote IT in health care in Hong Kong.[96]

India

eHCF School of Medical Informatics[97]

 eHealth-Care Foundation[98]

Malaysia

Since 2010, the Ministry of Health (MoH) has been working on the Malaysian Health Data Warehouse
(MyHDW) project. MyHDW aims to meet the diverse needs of timely health information provision and
management, and acts as a platform for the standardization and integration of health data from a variety of
sources (Health Informatics Centre, 2013). The Ministry of Health has embarked on introducing the
electronic Hospital Information Systems (HIS) in several public hospitals including Putrajaya Hospital,
Serdang Hospital and Selayang Hospital. Similarly, under Ministry of Higher Education, hospitals such as
University of Malaya Medical Centre (UMMC) and University Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre
(UKMMC) are also using HIS for healthcare delivery.

A hospital information system (HIS) is a comprehensive, integrated information system designed to manage
the administrative, financial and clinical aspects of a hospital. As an area of medical informatics, the aim of
hospital information system is to achieve the best possible support of patient care and administration by
electronic data processing. HIS plays a vital role in planning, initiating, organizing and controlling the
operations of the subsystems of the hospital and thus provides a synergistic organization in the process.

New Zealand

Health informatics is taught at five New Zealand universities. The most mature and established programme
has been offered for over a decade at Otago.[99] Health Informatics New Zealand (HINZ), is the national
organisation that advocates for health informatics. HINZ organises a conference every year and also
publishes a journal- Healthcare Informatics Review Online.

Saudi Arabia

The Saudi Association for Health Information (SAHI) was established in 2006[100] to work under direct
supervision of King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences to practice public activities,
develop theoretical and applicable knowledge, and provide scientific and applicable studies.[101]

Russia

The Russian health care system is based on the principles of the Soviet health care system, which was
oriented on mass prophylaxis, prevention of infection and epidemic diseases, vaccination and immunisation
of the population on a socially protected basis. The current government health care system consists of
several directions:

Preventive health care

Primary health care
Specialised medical care
Obstetrical and gynecologic medical care
Pediatric medical care
Surgery
Rehabilitation/ Health resort treatment
One of the main issues of the post-Soviet medical health care system was the absence of the united system
providing optimisation of work for medical institutes with one, single database and structured appointment
schedule and hence hours-long lines. Efficiency of medical workers might have been also doubtful because
of the paperwork administrating or lost book records.

Along with the development of the information systems IT and health care departments in Moscow agreed
on design of a system that would improve public services of health care institutes. Tackling the issues
appearing in the existing system, the Moscow Government ordered that the design of a system would
provide simplified electronic booking to public clinics and automate the work of medical workers on the
first level.

The system designed for that purposes was called EMIAS (United Medical Information and Analysis
System) and presents an electronic health record (EHR) with the majority of other services set in the system
that manages the flow of patients, contains outpatient card integrated in the system, and provides an
opportunity to manage consolidated managerial accounting and personalised list of medical help. Besides
that, the system contains information about availability of the medical institutions and various doctors.

The implementation of the system started in 2013 with the organisation of one computerised database for all
patients in the city, including a front-end for the users. EMIAS was implemented in Moscow and the region
and it is planned that the project should extend to most parts of the country.

Law
Health informatics law deals with evolving and sometimes complex legal principles as they apply to
information technology in health-related fields. It addresses the privacy, ethical and operational issues that
invariably arise when electronic tools, information and media are used in health care delivery. Health
Informatics Law also applies to all matters that involve information technology, health care and the
interaction of information. It deals with the circumstances under which data and records are shared with
other fields or areas that support and enhance patient care.

As many health care systems are making an effort to have patient records more readily available to them via
the internet, it is important that providers implement security standards in order to ensure that the patients'
information is safe. They have to be able to assure confidentiality, integrity, and security of the people,
process, and technology. Since there is also the possibility of payments being made through this system, it is
vital that this aspect of their private information will also be protected through cryptography.

The use of technology in health care settings has become popular and this trend is expected to continue.
Various health care facilities had instigated different kinds of health information technology systems in the
provision of patient care, such as electronic health records (EHRs), computerized charting, etc.[102] The
growing popularity of health information technology systems and the escalation in the amount of health
information that can be exchanged and transferred electronically increased the risk of potential infringement
in patients' privacy and confidentiality.[103] This concern triggered the establishment of strict measures by
both policymakers and individual facility to ensure patient privacy and confidentiality.

One of the federal laws enacted to safeguard patient's health information (medical record, billing
information, treatment plan, etc.) and to guarantee patient's privacy is the Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act of 1996 or HIPAA.[104] HIPAA gives patients the autonomy and control over their own
health records.[104] Furthermore, according to the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (n.d.),
this law enables patients to:[104]

view their own health records

request a copy of their own medical records
 request correction to any incorrect health information
know who has access to their health record
request who can and cannot view/access their health information

Health and medical informatics journals

Computers and Biomedical Research, published in 1967, was one
of the first dedicated journals to health informatics. Other early
journals included Computers and Medicine, published by the
American Medical Association; Journal of Clinical Computing,
published by Gallagher Printing; Journal of Medical Systems,
published by Plenum Press; and MD Computing, published by
Springer-Verlag. In 1984, Lippincott published the first nursing-
specific journal, titled Journal Computers in Nursing, which is now
known as Computers Informatics Nursing (CIN).[105]
Impact factors of scholarly journals
As of September 7, 2016, there are roughly 235 informatics
publishing digital health (ehealth,
journals listed in the National Library of Medicine (NLM) catalog
mhealth) work
of journals.[106] The Journal Citation Reports for 2018 gives the
top three journals in medical informatics as the Journal of Medical
Internet Research (impact factor of 4.945), JMIR mHealth and uHealth (4.301) and the Journal of the
American Medical Informatics Association (4.292).[107]

Competencies, education and certification

In the United States, clinical informatics is a subspecialty within several medical specialties. For example,
in pathology, the American Board of Pathology offers clinical informatics certification for pathologists who
have completed 24 months of related training,[108] and the American Board of Preventive Medicine offers
clinical informatics certification within preventive medicine.[109]

In October 2011 American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS), the organization overseeing the
certification of specialist MDs in the United States, announced the creation of MD-only physician
certification in clinical informatics. The first examination for board certification in the subspecialty of
clinical informatics was offered in October 2013 by American Board of Preventive Medicine (ABPM) with
432 passing to become the 2014 inaugural class of Diplomates in clinical informatics.[110] Fellowship
programs exist for physicians who wish to become board-certified in clinical informatics. Physicians must
have graduated from a medical school in the United States or Canada, or a school located elsewhere that is
approved by the ABPM. In addition, they must complete a primary residency program such as Internal
Medicine (or any of the 24 subspecialties recognized by the ABMS) and be eligible to become licensed to
practice medicine in the state where their fellowship program is located.[111] The fellowship program is 24
months in length, with fellows dividing their time between Informatics rotations, didactic method, research,
and clinical work in their primary specialty.

See also
Medicine portal
 Technology portal

Related concepts
Clinical documentation improvement
Continuity of care record (CCR)
Diagnosis-related group (DRG)
eHealth
Health information exchange (HIE)
Health information management (HIM)
Human resources for health (HRH) information system
International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
National minimum dataset
Neuroinformatics
Nosology
Nursing documentation
Personal health record (PHR)

Clinical data standards

DICOM
Health Metrics Network
Health network surveillance
HL7
Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR)
Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise
Omaha System
openEHR
SNOMED
xDT

Algorithms
Datafly algorithm

Governance

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-certification?id=40). American Board of Pathology. Retrieved 2022-02-12.
109. "Clinical Informatics" (https://www.theabpm.org/become-certified/subspecialties/clinical-infor
matics/). American Board of Preventive Medicine. Retrieved 2022-02-12.
110. "Clinical Informatics 2014 Diplomats" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140108022944/http://w
ww.theabpm.org/public/newci.cfm). American Board of Preventive Medicine. December
2013. Archived from the original (http://www.theabpm.org/public/newci.cfm) on 8 January
2014. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
111. "Clinical Informatics Board Certification" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131229045944/htt
p://www.theabpm.org/applicationci/ci_requirements.pdf) (PDF). American Board of
Preventive Medicine. 1 January 2013. Archived from the original (https://www.theabpm.org/a
pplicationci/ci_requirements.pdf) (PDF) on 29 December 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2014.

Further reading
Embi PJ, Payne PR (2009). "Clinical research informatics: challenges, opportunities and
definition for an emerging domain" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC273224
2). Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association. 16 (3): 316–27.
doi:10.1197/jamia.M3005 (https://doi.org/10.1197%2Fjamia.M3005). PMC 2732242 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732242). PMID 19261934 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/19261934).
Hersh W (May 2009). "A stimulus to define informatics and health information technology" (ht
tps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695439). BMC Medical Informatics and
Decision Making. 9: 24. doi:10.1186/1472-6947-9-24 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1472-6947
-9-24). PMC 2695439 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695439).
PMID 19445665 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19445665).
Kahn MG, Weng C (June 2012). "Clinical research informatics: a conceptual perspective" (ht
tps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3392857). Journal of the American Medical
Informatics Association. 19 (e1): e36–42. doi:10.1136/amiajnl-2012-000968 (https://doi.org/1
0.1136%2Famiajnl-2012-000968). PMC 3392857 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC3392857). PMID 22523344 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22523344).
Katzan IL, Rudick RA (November 2012). "Time to integrate clinical and research informatics"
(https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscitranslmed.3004583). Science Translational Medicine. 4 (162):
162fs41. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3004583 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscitranslmed.30045
83). PMID 23197569 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23197569).
Johnson JD, Andrews JE, Allard S (December 2001). "A model for understanding and
affecting cancer genetics information seeking". Library & Information Science Research. 23
(4): 335–49. doi:10.1016/S0740-8188(01)00094-9 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0740-818
8%2801%2900094-9).
Serenko A, Dohan M, Tan J (2017). "Global ranking of management- and clinical-centered
eHealth journals" (http://aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Dohan_Tan_eHealth_Journal_Ran
 king.pdf) (PDF). Communications of the Association for Information Systems. 41: 198–215.
doi:10.17705/1CAIS.04109 (https://doi.org/10.17705%2F1CAIS.04109).

External links
Health informatics (https://curlie.org/Health/Medicine/Informatics) at Curlie

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