Discrete Mathematics

Quantifiers
Logic using propositions are incapable of
describing most of the statements in
mathematics and computer science
such as the use of variables
 Quantification
• Predicate – relationship between objects
Examples:
x<3 x>y x + y < 25

• Atomic formula - a formula for which the

terms do not involve any of the logical
operations (and, or, Implications, biconditional,
negation), but propositional letters and
constants from the universal set.
Example: P(x,y), Q(x1,x2)
 Examples of Predicates
• let P(x,y,z) denotes “ x + y = z”

• let Q(x1,x2) denotes “x1 – x2  0”

• let M(x,y) denotes “x is married to y”

• let E(x,y) denote “x = y”

Note:
P(x,y,z), Q(x1,x2), M(x,y), and E(x,y)
are atomic formulas
 Quantifiers
• Definition:
Let P(x) be a statement (predicate) involving x
and let D be a set.

P is a propositional function with respect to D

P(x) is a proposition
D is the domain of discourse of P.
Examples:
1. n2 + 2n is an odd number
(D = set of odd numbers)
2. x2 – x – 6 = 0 (D = 3, -2)
 Universal quantifier
• Universally quantified statement:
x, P(x)
where:
 - universal quantifier P(x) – proposition
which means:
• For every x, P(x) • For all x, P(x)
• For any x, P(x)
• x, P(x) is true if P(x) is true for every x in D;
x, P(x) is false if P(x) is false for at least one
x in D.
 Existential quantifier
• Existentially quantified statement:
x, P(x)
where:
 - existential quantifier P(x) – proposition
which means:
• For some x, P(x) • There exists x, P(x)
• For at least one x, P(x)

• x, P(x) is true if P(x) is true for at least one x in D;

• x, P(x) is false if P(x) is false for every x in D.
 Examples of Quantification
• Validate the ff. quantified statements:
1. for every real number x, x2  0
2. for every real number x,
if x > 1 then x + 1 > 1
3. for every real number x, x2 -1 0
4. for every positive integer n,
if n is even then n2 + n + 19 is prime
5. for some real number x, x = 2
x2 + 1 5
 Examples of Quantification
• Validate the ff. quantified statements:
6. for every real number x, x = 2
x2 + 1 5
7. for some positive integer n, if n is prime then
n+ 1, n+ 2, n+3, and n+4 are not prime
8. For some real number x, x >1
x2 + 1
9. for every real number x, for every real number
y, if x2 + y2 then x < y.
10. for every real number x, for some real number
y, if x2 + y2 then x < y.
 Assignment
• Determine the truth value of each statement. The
domain of discourse is the set of real numbers:
1. for every x, x2 > x
2. for some x, x2 > x
3. for every x, if x > 1 then x2 > x
4. for every x, if x > 1 then x < 1
x2 + 1 3
5. for every x, for every y, x2 < y + 1
6. for every x, for every y, x2 + y2 = 9
7. for every x, for some y, x2 + y2  0
 Assignment (cont.)
• Determine the truth value of each statement. The
domain of discourse is the set of real numbers:

8. for every x, for every y, if x < y then x2 < y2

9. for every x, for some y, if x < y then x2 = y2
10. for every x, for every y, if x = y then x2 = y2
 Multiple Quantifiers
• You can have multiple quantifiers on a
statement

• xy P(x, y)
– “For all x, there exists a y such that P(x,y)”

• xy P(x,y)
– There exists an x such that for all y P(x,y) is true”
 Negation and Quantification
• Consider:
~ (x (P(x) ) )
- means, there does not exist even one x in
the universal set that makes P(x) true.
Thus, ~ ( x (P(x) ) )  x ( ~P(x) )

~ (x (P(x) ) )
- means P(x) is not true for all x in the
universal set.
Thus, ~ (x (P(x) ) )  x (~P(x) )
 Negation Examples
1. ~(x(y (P(x,y) ) )
 x ~(y (P(x,y) ) )
 x y ~(P(x,y) )

2. ~(x(y (P(x,y) ) )
 x y ~(P(x,y) )
 Exercise #1: Find the negation
1. ~(x  N (x is prime → x2 + 1 is even)
 x  N ~(x is prime → x2 + 1 is even)

since: (p →q )  ~p  q
 x  N ~(x is not prime  (x2 + 1) is even)

since: ~(p  q )  ~p  ~q
 x  N (x is prime  x2 + 1 is odd)
 Exercises: Find the negation
2. ~(x  Q (x > 0  x3 = 2) )
 x  Q ~(x > 0  x3 = 2) )
 x  Q (x  0  x3  2) )

Your turn..
3. ~(x (y (xy = y) ) )

4. ~(x(y (x < y → (z (x < z  z <y) ) ) ) )

 Validate the ff. quantified statements:

1. For universal set N, x ( (x+3=2)  (x-2 =1))

2. For universal set N, x ( (x-3=1)  (x>3) )
3. For universal set N, x ( (x+ 3 =2)  (x-2=1) )
4. For universal set N, x ( (x-3=1)  (x>3) )
5. x ( ( x2 – 2x + 1 = 0)  (x  x) )
6. x ( ( x  3)  (x >3) )
Discrete Mathematics

PROOFS
Mathematical Induction
 Theorem
• A proposition that has been proven to be
true.

Example:
1. If the two sides of a triangle are equal, then
the angles opposite them are equal.
2. If the diagonals of quadrilateral bisect each
other then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
 Proof
• An argument that establishes the truth of a
theorem.

• Proof Derivation:
– Equivalence rules – describe logical equivalences

– Inference Rules / Deductive– describe when a

weaker statement can be deduced from a stronger
statement.
 Equivalence Rules (A  B)
Equivalence Name

p  ~ (~p) Negation
p → q  ~p  q Implication
~(p  q)  ~p  ~q De Morgan’s laws
~(p  q)  ~p  ~q
pqqp Commutative
pqqp
p  ( q  r)  (p  q)  r Associative
p  ( q  r)  (p  q)  r
 Inference
• To prove the theorem means to show that the
implication is a tautology.

• Example:
( p  (p → q) ) → q

• Could be written as:

p
p→q -> it is called inference
-----------
q
 Inference Form
• Form: p1
p2 hypotheses or
: premises
pn .
q conclusion

• Means (p1  p2  …  pn) → q

 Basic Rules of Inference
• Identity p If p is true, then p
will ALWAYS be
______ true
 p

• Examples:
a. q b. ~r
q ~ r
 Basic Rules of Inference
• Conjuction (And) p
q
______
 pq

• Conjuction (And) Elimination

If p  q is true, pq pq
then p will ______ ______
ALWAYS be true  p  q
 Basic Rules of Inference

• Disjunction (Or) p
If p is true, then p  q ________
will ALWAYS be true  pq

• Disjunction (Or) Elimination

If p  q is true, and p is pq pq
false, then q must be true ___~p___ ___~q___
 q  p
 Basic Rules of Inference
• Modus Ponens p→q Latin word for
p “affirmative
• Example: ________ mode”
~ p→q  q
~p
q
• Modus Tollens p→q Latin word for
___~q___ “denial mode”
• Example:  ~p
~r→s
~s
r
 Inference Rules
Inference Name
Conjunction
(And)
Modus ponens

Modus tollens

(p  q) → p or (p  q) → q And Elimination
(q  p) → q or (q  p) → p (Simplification)
p → (p  q) Disjunction (Or)
q → (q  p) (Addition)
Inference Rules for Propositions

Inference Name
Hypothetical
syllogism
Disjunctive
syllogism
(Or Elimination)
 Inference Example
• Use truth table to prove the following:
p
p→q q (also known as Modus ponens)

Let S be the statement: [ p  (p→q) ] → q

p q p→q p(p→q) S
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
 Examples
• Is the ff. arguments valid? (Rules of Inference)
If you invest in the stock market, then you will
get rich.
if you get rich, then you will be happy

 If you invest in the stock market, then you will

be happy.

Argument is valid although the conclusion may

be false
 Examples
• Is the ff. arguments valid? (Modus Ponens)
Smoking is healthy.
If smoking is healthy, then cigarettes are
prescribed by physicians. .
 Cigarettes are prescribed by physicians.

Argument is valid, however the conclusion is

false
 Examples
• Is the ff. arguments valid?
If taxes are lowered, then income rises.
Income rises. .
 Taxes are lowered.
 Exercises
1. Prove that
Contrapositive:
p→q  ~q →~p

• Solution:
p→q (given)
Modus
ponens: ~q → ~p (Contrapositive)
~q (given)
p→q
~p (Modus ponens)
p
q
 Exercises
1.1 Prove that pq
r
r → ~q
p
• Solution:
pq
p
r
~q
r → ~q
 Exercises (cont.)
2. Prove that
Hypo Syllogism:
p→q
q→r
Solution:
p→r
p
q
p→q s
q→r
q→s
r→s
 Exercises (cont.)
3. Prove that
Solution:
p→r
r→s p →s
~p
x  ~s
~s
u  ~x
~x
~u
 Your Turn…
4. Prove that

5. [ (p → ~q)  (~q→ ~r)  p ] → ~r

6. [ (p→r)(r→s)(w ~s)(~w u) ~u ] →~p

 Exercises:
• Write a proof sequence for the assertion:
1. p
p→q r
q→r

2. pq
~p q
 Exercises:
• Write a proof sequence for the assertion:
3. p → q ~q → ~p

4. p 5. p → (q  r)
qr pr p
~p  ~q s → ~r
s
q → ~p
p .
F
 Exercises:
• Write a proof sequence for the assertion:
6. [p→(q  r)]  (~q  ~r) →~p

7. {~p  q  [q → (p  r)] } → r
 Modus Badus
• Fallacy of affirming the conclusion
• Consider the following: q q
p→q q → p
p p
• Is this true?
p q p→q q(p→q)) (q(p→q)) → p
T T T T T
T F F F T Not a
F T T T F valid
rule!
F F T F T
 Modus Badus
• Consider the following: ~p
p→q
~ q
• Is this true?

p q p→q ¬p(p→q)) (¬p(p→q)) → ¬q

T T T F T
T F F F T Not a
F T T T F valid
rule!
F F T T T
Discrete Mathematics

Mathematical Induction
 Mathematical Induction
• Method of proving a formula

• Principles:
– Step 1: Basic Step S(1) is true
– Step 2: Inductive Step if S(1) is true for all i< n+1,
then S(n+1) is true
 Example #1
1. Show that 1+2+3+…+ n = n(n+1)
2
Solution:
Step 1: S(1) or let n = 1
n = n (n + 1)
2
1 = 1 (1 + 1)
2
1 = 2/2 = 1 TRUE
 Example #1 (cont.)
1. Show that 1+2+3+…+ n = n(n+1)
2
Solution:
Step 2: S(n+1) or let n = n + 1 to show:
= (n+1) (n+1+1)
2
= (n+1) (n+2)
2
 Example #1 (cont.)
1 + 2 + 3 +…+ n = n(n+1) Show that:
2 (n+1) (n+2)
2
Since the last term on the left side is + n then add
both sides with (n+1):
1 + 2 + 3 +…+ n + (n+1) = n(n+1) + (n+1)
2
= n(n+1) + 2(n+1)
2
= (n+1)(n+ 2)
2
 Example #2
2. Show that if r  1, then
a + ar1 + ar2 + … + arn = a(rn+1 -1)
r-1
Step 1: Since r  1 then let n=0

ar0 = a(r0+1 -1)

r-1
a(1) = a(r1 -1)
r-1
a = a
 Example #2
2. Show that if r  1, then
a + ar1 + ar2 + … + arn = a(rn+1 -1)
r-1
Step 2: let n = n+1
Show that: a(rn+2 -1)
r-1
a + ar1 + ar2 + … + arn = a(rn+1 -1)
r-1
a + ar1 + ar2 + … + arn + arn+1 = a(rn+1 -1) + arn+1
r-1
= a(rn+1 -1) + (r-1) arn+1 = a(rn+2 -1)
r-1 r-1
 Example #3
3. Show that n!  2n-1 for n 1
Step 1: S(1) let n = 1
n!  2n-1
1!  21-1
1  20
1  1 TRUE
 Example #3 (cont.)
3. Show that n!  2n-1 for n 1
Step 2: S(n+1) let n = n+1 to show:
 2n+1-1
 2n
Left side equation:
(n+1)! = (n+1) n! ex: 5! = 5  4!
 (n+1) 2n-1
 2 • 2n-1 n+1  2 since n  1
 21 • 2n-1
 2n
 Example #3 (cont.)
3. Show that n!  2n-1 for n 1
Step 2: S(n+1) let n = n+1
(n+1)!  2n+1-1
(n+1) n!  2n but n!  2n-1
2 • 2n-1  2n since n  1 so 1+1 =2
21 • 2n-1  2n
2n  2n
 Example #4
4. Show that 5n – 1 is divisible by 4 for all n1
Step 1: Let n = 1
51 – 1 = 4 is divisible by 4

Step 2: Let n = n + 1
5n+ 1 – 1 = 5 * 5n – 1
= (4 + 1) * 5n – 1
= 4 * 5n + 5n – 1
Note: (5n – 1) is divisible by 4
4 * 5n is divisible by 4
 Exercises:
• Using induction, verify each equation for every
positive integer n.
1. 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n -1) = n2
2. 1•2 + 2•3 + 3•4+ …+ n(n+1) = n(n+1) (n+2)
3
3. 1(1!) + 2(2!) + … + n(n!) = (n+1)! -1
4. 12 + 22 + 32 +… + n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)
6
5. 12 - 22 + 32 -… + (-1)n+1n2 = (-1)n+1n(n+1)
2
 Exercises:
6. 13 + 23+ 33 + … + n3 =  n(n +1)  2
 2 
7. 1 + 1 + 1 + … + 1 = n
1• 3 3 • 5 5 • 7 (2n-1) (2n+1) 2n+1

8. 1 + a + a2+ … + an-1 = an-1

a-1
Discrete Mathematics

End of Presentation