U.S.T.H.

B Coordination SM-ST of
Chapter I.
Faculty of Mathematics Chapter 1 :and
Logic, Sets Logic,
MapsSets, Maps MATH 1 Module
1st year Licence SM-ST Academic year 2023-2024

I) Logic
Logic enables us to model and study mathematical reasoning.

1) Definitions
I Proposition : We call proposition a statement or expression that can be true or false. Every
proposition has a truth value T (true) or F (false)..
Example 1.

• Algiers is a coastal city. (T)

• The triangal rectangal has a right angle. (T)
• 3 + 5 = 0. (F)
• x, y two reals, x is greater than y. (This is not a proposition, it’s a statement)
I Axiom : We call axiom any proposition considered as evident, accepted as true without demonstration.
Example 2. Euclide’s Axiom asserts that through a given point A not on a line (D), there is one and
only one line in the plane of A parallel to (D).
I Theorem : We call theorem any proposition that is proven to be true.

I Corollary : A corollary is a direct consequence of a theorem.

I Lemma : We call lemma any true proposition preparatory to the establishment of a theorem of greater
importance.

2) Logical connectives
Logical connectives are used to define other propositions from one or more initial propositions. Let P and
Q be two propositions, defined by :

I Negation : The negation of a proposition P is the proposition, denoted P , which is true when P is
false and false otherwise.
Example 3. P : 3 is an even number (F), P : 3 is not an even number (T).
I Conjunction : The conjunction of two propositions P and Q is the proposition (P and Q), denoted
(P ∧ Q), which is true if P and Q are both true at the same time. It is false otherwise. This is summarized
in the following truth table :
P Q P∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 4. 2 divides 9 and 136 is a multiple of 17. (F)

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I Disjunction : The disjunction of two propositions P and Q is the proposition (P or Q), denoted
(P ∨ Q), which is true if at least one of the two propositions are true. It is false otherwise. This is
summarized in the following truth table :
P Q P∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example 5. 2 divides 9 or 136 is a multiple of 17. (T)
I Implication : The proposition P implies Q, denoted (P ⇒ Q), is the proposition which is false when
P is true and Q is false. It is true otherwise.
In other words, it is the proposition (P ∨ Q).
P Q P ⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
√
Example 6. 2 × 2 = 6 ⇒ 3 = 1. (T) (If P is false then P ⇒ Q is always true)
Remark. From the implication (P ⇒ Q), we define :
• The implication (Q ⇒ P ), called converse of the implication (P ⇒ Q).
• The implication (Q ⇒ P ), called contrapositive of the implication (P ⇒ Q).
• The negation (P ⇒ Q) is the proposition (P ∧ Q).

Example 7. Let be the following implication : (n2 is even )⇒ (n is even).

1. Its converse is : (n is even )⇒ (n2 is even).
2. Its contrapositive is : (n is odd ) ⇒ (n2 is odd).
3. Its negation is : (n2 is even ) and (n is odd).
I Equivalence : The proposition P equivalent to Q, denoted (P ⇔ Q), is the proposition which is true
when P and Q are both true or both false. It is false otherwise.
In other words, it is the proposition (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ).
P Q P ⇔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Example 8. Let x ∈ R. We have the following equivalence : 2x − 2 = 0 ⇔ x = 1 (the implication and its
converse are both true).
Remark. In mathematical practice, we’re only interested in true propositions. In other words, we’ll write
P ⇔ Q or P ⇒ Q only when they’re true.
Example 9.
√
1. 0 ≤ x ≤ 64 ⇒ x ≤ 8. (T)
2. Let x, y ∈ R. We have the following equivalence : x2 + y 2 = 0 ⇔ x = y = 0. (T)
Proposition. Let P , Q two propositions. We have the following (true) equivalences :
1. P ⇔ P , 2. (P ∧ Q) ⇔ P ∨ Q, 3. (P ∨ Q) ⇔ P ∧ Q, 4. (P ⇒ Q) ⇔ (Q ⇒ P ).

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3) Quantifiers
Let P (x) the proposition dependant on the element x of a set E. We write
• ∀x ∈ E, P (x) : when the proposition P is true for all the elements x ∈ E.
∀, which can be read whatever or for all, is called universal quantifier.
• ∃x ∈ E, P (x) : when there exists at least an element x of the set E for which the proposition P is
true.
∃, which can be read there is at least one, is called existential quantifier.
• ∃ ! x ∈ E, P (x) : when there exists a unique element x of the set E for which the proposition P is
true.
There is jointly existence and uniqueness of the element x verifying the proposition P .
Example 10.
1. ∀x ∈ [0, +∞[, x2 ≥ 0 (T)
2. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 4 (F)
3. ∃n ∈ N, n2 − n > n (T) (n=3, n=10, n=100).
4. ∃x ∈ R, x2 = −4 (F) (no squared real will give a negative numbe).
5. ∃!n ∈ N, n2 − n > n (F)

Negation of propositions depending on quantifiers

• The negation of (∀x ∈ E, P (x)) is (∃x ∈ E, P (x)).
Example 11. The negation of (∀x ∈ [1, +∞[, x2 ≥ 1) is (∃x ∈ [1, +∞[, x2 < 1).

• The negation of (∃x ∈ E, P (x)) is (∀x ∈ E, P (x)).

Example 12. The negation of (∃n ≥ 0, n3 − n is a multiple of 3) is (∀n ≥ 0, n3 − n it is not a
multiple of 3).

Remak.
• We can find propositions that depend on two quantifiers.
For example : ∀x ∈ R, ∃y > 0, x + y > 10.
• The order of quantifiers is very important. Consider the following two propositions:
∀x ∈ R, ∃y ∈ R, y > x and ∃x ∈ R, ∀y ∈ R, y > x.
The first is true and the second is false. Indeed, in the first case, you can always find a number
greater than a given real number, because R is not bounded. For the second, however, you can’t find
a real number that’s smaller than all the others, because R has no lower bound.

4) Modes of reasoning
Here is some mode of reasoning in mathematics.

4.1 Direct reasoning

We want to show that the proposition P ⇒ Q is true. This reasoning consists in assuming that P is true
and showing that Q is true.
a b
Example 13. Let a, b ≥ 0. Let us show that if = then a = b.
1+b 1+a
a b
We suppose that = then a(1 + a) = b(1 + b) so a + a2 = b + b2 d’où a2 − b2 = b − a. This leads
1+b 1+a
to (a − b)(a + b) = −(a − b) that is to say (a − b)(1 + a + b) = 0 thus a = b or a + b = −1. As a, b ≥ 0
then their sum cannot be negative. Therefore, we conclude that a = b.

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4.2 Contrapositive
The reasoning by contrapositive is based on the following equivalence:
(P ⇒ Q) ⇔ (Q ⇒ P ).
So if we want to show P ⇒ Q, we just need to show Q ⇒ P .
Example 14. Let n ∈ N. Let’s show that if n2 is even then n is even.
First, let’s write the contrapositive: If n isn’t even, then n2 isn’t even.
It is assumed that n is not even. We want to show that n2 is not even. Since n is not even, it is odd and
so there exists k ∈ N such that n = 2k + 1. Then
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2l + 1 with l = 2k 2 + 2k ∈ N.
. And so n2 is odd.
Therefore, by contraposition, this is equivalent to: if n2 is even then n is even.

4.3 Contradiction
Reasoning by contradiction to show that a proposition P is true is based on the following principle : We
assume that P is true and look for a contradiction. Thus, if P is false, this means that P must be true.
Example 15. Let’s show the following proposition: 0 has no inverse in R. Let’s reason by the absurd, i.e.
suppose 0 admits an inverse in R.
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Then ∃x0 ∈ R : 0 = 0 ⇒ 0.x0 = 1 ⇒ 0 = 1. Which is absurd, so 0 has no inverse in R.
x

4.4 Counter-example
This mode of demonstration is used to show that a proposition of the form: For any x in E, P (x) is false.
To do this, we need only show that its negation is true, which means that: If there exists x in E, P (x) is
true.
Example 16. Let’s show the following proposition ∀x ∈ R, x2 + 1 = 0 is false.
It suffices to show that its negation is true, i.e. ∃x ∈ R, x2 + 1 6= 0 is true. For x = 1, x2 + 1 = 2 6= 0 is
true. So the proposition ∀x ∈ R x2 + 1 = 0 is false.

4.5 Induction
The principle of induction makes it possible to show that a proposition P (n), depending on n, is true for
all n ∈ N. Demonstration by induction involves three steps:
Initialization: we show that P (0) is true.
Heredity : Assume that P (n) is true for a given n ≥ 0 and show that the assertion at the next rank
P (n + 1) is true.
The conclusion: Recall that the induction principle P (n) is true for all n ∈ N.
Remark. If we need to show that a proposition is true for all n ≥ n0 then we start the initialization at
rank n0 .
Example 17. Let’s show that : ∀n ∈ N, 2n > n.
For n ≥ 0, let’s denote P (n) the following assertion: 2n > n.
We’ll show by induction that P (n) is true for all n ≥ 0.
Initialization: For n = 0 we have 20 = 1 > 0 so P (0) is true.
Heredity: Set n ≥ 1. Assume that P (n) is true and show that P (n + 1) is true.

2n+1 = 2 · 2n
= 2n + 2n
> n + 2n car 2n > n
> n + 1 car 2n ≥ 1
So P (n + 1) is true.
Conclusion : by the induction principle of P (n) is true for each n ≥ 0, i.e. 2n > n ∀n ≥ 0.