Raza 2021

Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123676
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Review
A review on the deteriorating situation of smog and its preventive

measures in Pakistan
Waseem Raza a, Saad Saeed b, Hammad Saulat a, Hajera Gul c, Muhammad Sarfraz a,
Christian Sonne d, Z.-H. Sohn e, Richard J.C. Brown f, Ki-Hyun Kim g, *
a
State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, School of Chemical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, 116024, PR China
b
NFC Institute of Engineering & Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Khanewal Road Opposite Pak Arab Fertilizers, Multan, 60000, Pakistan
c
National Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, 25120, Peshawar, Pakistan
d
Aarhus University, Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark
e
Department of Environmental Engineering, Dong-Eui University, Busan, 47340, Republic of Korea
f
Environment Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, TW11 0LW, UK
g
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-Ro, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Urbanization, industrialization, and increasing fossil fuel consumption are generally identified as the
Received 2 May 2020 main contributors to poor air quality. Smog is a form of visible air pollution processes that can cause
Received in revised form diverse health problems (e.g., pulmonary, respiratory, and skin diseases). In Lahore, the second-largest
1 August 2020
city of Pakistan, smog pollution has been a significant socioeconomic issue since 2013 of which situa-
Accepted 9 August 2020
Available online 15 August 2020
tion has been worsening each year. In this systematic review, we discuss the major issues concerning
smog in Pakistan: the causes, methods of detection, hazardous effects, and opportunities for preventive
Handling editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Klemes measures based on ground-level information. This study identifies smog as a potential source of human
health risk as serious repercussions of economic development. It is thus suggested that adequate
Keywords: abatement measures should be established for the proper protection of public health.
Smog © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Air pollution
Air quality
Smog prevention
Smog formation
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Types of smog and the related chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Classical smog (London smog) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Photochemical smog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3. Polish smog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Sources of smog in Pakistan and methods of detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Hazards of smog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1. Effects on human health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2. Effect on agricultural sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3. Effect on the economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.4. Effects on tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. Smog preventive measures for Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.1. Technical measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.1.1. Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.1.2. Domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kkim61@hanyang.ac.kr (K.-H. Kim).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123676
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 W. Raza et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123676
5.1.3. Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2. Basic measures to improve air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2.1. Increasing plantation area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2.2. Healthy practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3. Administrative measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.1. Public awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.2. Social & behavioral changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Funding source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1. Introduction Lahore, the provincial capital. Lahore has a 4% annual economic

growth rate and is the second-largest city in the country (Riaz and
The adverse effects of air pollution on human health and the Hamid, 2018). In the latest air quality index (AQI) rankings of the
environment, due to the myriad of pollutants released and most polluted cities in the world, Lahore ranked the sixth, while
dispersed into the atmosphere, have been reported to be significant Karachi, the largest city in Pakistan, was the 16th with their AQI
worldwide (Kim et al., 2015b). Among these pollutants, fine par- values of 170 and 155, respectively (2019a).
ticulate matter (PM2.5: particles less than 2.5 mm in diameter) is of The ranking of air quality between cities based on annual
major environmental concern. The extremely small particle(s) can average concentrations of PM2.5 (in 2018) is illustrated in Fig. 3
travel into the human respiratory tract and penetrate the deep lung World most polluted cities (2018). Recent reports by Amnesty In-
epithelia, causing coughing, sneezing, shortness of breath, and ternational and WHO have emphasized the need for immediate and
respiratory infections (Garçon et al., 2006; Grantz et al., 2003; stringent abatement measures to mitigate smog events with the aid
Raaschou-Nielsen et al., 2016). The main components of PM include of comprehensive air quality legislation (Ali, 2019; Carmona-
inorganic ammonium salts, nitrates, sulfates, sodium chloride, Cabezas et al., 2020; Organization, 2007). However, the emphasis
mineral dust, black carbon, organic matter, and water (Pui et al., on creating public awareness as a preventive tool for smog can also
2014; Tucker, 2000). The primary sources of PM2.5 are agricultural be a helpful option to implement such strategy. However, the
activities, road dust, vehicle emissions, power generation, general effectiveness of such approach is not likely significant, especially in
combustion, construction sites, mining operations, and other developing countries like Pakistan. The main factors contributing to
similar industries (Matus et al., 2012). It has been estimated that, the increasing occurrences of smog in the developing countries are
across the world, approximately two million deaths are caused generally identified to be the anthropogenic emission activities.
annually by air pollution of which nearly 25% are associated with Therefore, an organized effort must be made to make the masses
fine PM (Shah et al., 2013). learn more about the harmful effects of smog on the human health
The word “smog” is a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog. and environment as well as the implementation of preventive
Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice measures. Moreover, there are limited studies on the harmful ef-
crystals suspended in the air; it can be considered as a low-lying fects of smog on human health in Pakistan with hardly any efforts to
cloud. The distribution and properties of smog are shaped by assess its economic impact. The acquisition of the local data is also
diverse factors including wind, temperature, and sunlight (Ali et al., necessary to support such mitigation efforts, which should be
2019b). Typically, smog is formed by chemical reactions when instrumental in accelerating public response.
excessive levels of key pollutants in the air (e.g., volatile organic Although the government of Pakistan is making efforts to tackle
compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)) interact with oxi- smog, further actions are needed to fully resolve this problem. In
dants (e.g., hydroxyl, ozone, and nitrates) (Fig. 1) (Arif, 2016; Liu, this paper, we present a detailed analysis of smog, with respect to
2016). The main sources of the particles and pollutants needed causes, detection methods, impacts, and socio-environmental ef-
for smog formation include coal-fired power plants, traffic emis- fects. Further, this review addresses preventive measures and the
sions, stubble burning, and erupting volcanoes (Kim et al., 2015b). steps required to resolve the smog-related problems in Pakistan.
These activities can directly or indirectly contribute to the pro- Finally, we propose short- and long-term measures that may help
duction of PM2.5 which is the main precursor for smog (Wang et al., regulatory authorities establish proper mitigation measures to
2016b). Globally, the occurrences of smog have been reported fairly control the smog issue.
frequently in many major cities around the world (e.g., Beijing,
Delhi, Lahore, Mexico City, Los Angeles, and Tehran) (Chen et al.,
2013; Mohammadi et al., 2012; Shabbir et al., 2019). The environ- 2. Types of smog and the related chemistry
mental significance of smog has started to attract attention since
the 1950s, with the report of well-known air pollution events in The chemistry of smog is complex and cannot be defined exactly
London, UK. To tackle the smog problem, Clean Air Acts were because of variability in its composition, both temporally and
enacted by the UK and US governments, with the aim of mitigating spatially. However, it is conventionally categorized into two types:
air pollution including smog (Longhurst et al., 2016; Thackeray, classical (or London type) smog and photochemical (or Los Angeles
2003). The concerns posed by smog on health and the environ- (LA) type) smog. Both are serious concerns in terms of their detri-
ment have grown rapidly as evidenced by a large number of mental effects on the environment and human health. In addition
research papers on the related issues (Fig. 2). to these types, there is another distinct type of smog, identified
Air pollution has been one of the Pakistan’s main environmental more recently, named Polish smog. In this section, we illustrate the
concerns in recent years. The situation has been worsening in chemistry involved in formation of these types of smog.
W. Raza et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123676 3
Fig. 1. Schematic of smog formation in Pakistan.
2.1. Classical smog (London smog)
Classical, or London, smog is a lethal form of environmental

pollution. In December 1952, such a smog formed in London for
approximately 5 days, resulting in several thousand deaths
(Poulopoulos, 2016). This classical smog is also called sulfurous
smog, because it results from abnormally high concentrations of
sulfur oxides (1340 ppb in 1952) predominantly from burning of
fossil fuels, especially coal (Brimblecombe, 2017). The London Smog
was triggered by accumulation of excessive amounts of PM in the
air. In classical smog, the size of the PM increases due to high hu-
midity levels; these particles then act as nuclei for formation of fog
droplets (Noone et al., 1992). Subsequently, sulfur dioxide dissolves
in the fog droplets and is oxidized to sulfuric acid, forming acid rain.
The major reactions are:
Fig. 2. Annual publications on smog in the last decade (data from Web of Science). SO2 þ OH. / HOSO2
Fig. 3. 10 subcontinent cities recording highest PM2.5 concentration according to 2018 data (2018b).
HOSO2 þ O2 / HO2 þ SO3 R. þ O2 / RO2
SO3 þ H2O / H2SO4 From this series of reactions, it is clear that higher concentra-
tions of VOCs may result in a lethal form of smog that affects air
In 2016, Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2016) presented an experi- quality by producing airborne particles and ground-level ozone. It
mental study to demonstrate the chemistry of London smog. It was is also clear that photochemical smog depends on primary as well
concluded that formation of classical smog was similar to oxidation as secondary pollutants.
(in clouds) of SO2 by NO2. The main requirements for classical smog Due to rapid industrialization and increasing energy and
generation are: (1) primary precursors including soot particles and transport demands worldwide, the atmospheric concentrations of
sulfur oxides, (2) secondary precursors including aerosols, (3) VOCs and other organic pollutants are increasing. Thus, photo-
inversion of radiation temperature, (4) high relative humidity, and chemical smog has become a common environmental issue in
(5) low temperature. After the first lethal London smog event, many cities of developing and developed countries worldwide,
environmental agencies and governments implemented Clean Air forcing governments to develop mitigation strategies.
Acts worldwide, such as the Act imposed by the British government
in 1956 (the UK Clean Air Act) (Longhurst et al., 2016). However, this 2.3. Polish smog
type of smog still occurs in developing countries because of their
dependence on fossil fuels and the absence of stringent clean air In Europe, between 2015 and 2016, Poland was one of the most
legislation. polluted countries in terms of air quality index. In fact, 33 cities
from Poland were in the top 50 most polluted cities of Europe
2.2. Photochemical smog (Dzikuc, 2015; Wȩdzik et al., 2017). This has posed serious threats
to European citizens, shortening their life expectancy, on average,
Photochemical or Los Angeles (LA) smog is another type of air by 9 months. Czerwinska et al. (Czerwin ska et al., 2019) identified a
pollution and is commonly observed in highly trafficked areas. The new type of smog, naming it ‘Polish smog,’ that was different in
presence of chemical species in urban air, with sunlight and other terms of chemistry from previously characterized smog types. This
specific metrological conditions, is responsible for creation of this type of smog was formed even at high atmospheric pressures and
type of smog (Rani et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2014). Mainly, photo- low temperatures, different from London smog that occurs at low
chemical smog is composed of high concentrations of various atmospheric pressures (Bell et al., 2004). The main cause of Polish
pollutants including oxides of nitrogen, ozone, carbon monoxide, smog is household boilers that release high concentrations of PM10
and aldehydes (Hu et al., 2011). During ozone formation in air, ni- and PM2.5, as well as other carcinogenic compounds such as benzo
trogen dioxide from automobiles and industrial factories is pho- [a]pyrene (Kicin ski, 2019; Kryzia and Pepłowska, 2019). The specific
tocatalyzed by solar radiation to generate nitrogen oxide and free, feature of Polish smog is that it contains high concentrations of
unpaired oxygen. This unpaired oxygen produces further ozone by PM10 under high atmospheric pressure and low temperature. Every
reacting with oxygen radicals. Under normal conditions, the cycle year, up to 48 thousand Polish people die prematurely due to Polish
continues and produces nitrogen dioxide. However, in the presence smog (Malchrowicz-Mosko et al., 2019). This type of smog is not
of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the reaction mechanism limited to Poland; its effects are being observed in other European
may lead instead to lethal photochemical smog. The chemistry of countries with metrological conditions and pollutant emissions
photochemical smog has been described as follows (Wallace and profiles similar to those of Poland (Pastuszka et al., 2010). Thus,
Hobbs, 2006): more research needs to be performed by scientists in other parts of
the world concerning this new type of smog.
(1) Decomposition of nitrogen dioxide by ultraviolet radiation In Pakistan, it is difficult to determine the exact composition of
smog, as many factors are involved. However, the chemical
NO2 þ hn / NO þ O. composition of the smog in Pakistan is similar to the other types of
smog (Tabinda et al., 2019). In the next section, we briefly discuss
potential sources of pollutants causing smog in Pakistan.
(2) Formation of ozone 3. Sources of smog in Pakistan and methods of detection
O. þ O2 / O3 Like many other developing countries, several emissions sources

(such as automobile exhaust gases, industrial sector pollutants,
disposal, use, and burning of solid waste, and agriculture activities)
detrimentally affect the air quality in Pakistan. Over the last two
(3) Recycling to nitrogen dioxide decades, the usage of motorcars, scooters, and motorcycles has
increased with the increase in population, and the more than 10
O3 þ NO / O2 þ NO2 million vehicles used by Pakistan’s population make a significant
contribution to air pollution (Maryam, 2018). From 1991 to 2012, a
remarkable increase in vehicles has been observed (450% for motor
cars, and 650% for motorcycles) in Pakistan (Maryam, 2018). Based
(4) Production of reactive VOC molecules via reaction with hy- on the assessment on the formation of air pollutants (ozone) by
droxyl radicals photochemical reactions in the Quetta region of Pakistan, it was
suggested that automobile exhaust should be a dominant driver in
RH þ OH. / R. þ H2O the process (Ali et al., 2019a).
Many industries in Pakistan, such as steel mills, power plants,
and factories are sources of air pollution due to their use of furnace
oil (a major source of sulfur). In addition to these smog sources,
(5) Formation of oxidized VOCs burning of crop waste is also a key contributor to smog formation in
various cities of Pakistan. More than 50,000 tons per day of solid all smog events occurring in Pakistan. For this purpose, many
waste is produced in Pakistan, and is often incinerated. The incin- environmental activists are working in various cities (Lahore,
eration process releases toxic gas emissions (CO, SOx, and NOx) and Islamabad, and Peshawar) in Pakistan to provide accurate data on
PM into the atmosphere (Maryam, 2018). Further, excessive smog events (Hashim, 2020). The methods of detection for various
amounts of tropospheric O3 in the presence of aldehydes and ke- primary and secondary pollutants that may cause smog are sum-
tones results in a peroxylacyl nitrate (PAN) photochemical smog marized in Table 1. This review was organized to cover mainly the
that can negatively affect human health (Usman et al., 2019). sources reported to be associated with emissions of smog or major
Additionally, civil construction sector is also a major source that smog components rather than the common sources of air pollution
results in environmental pollution. For example, emission of in general. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, all the credible
pollutant gases can occur in the production of construction mate- and relevant studies reporting statistical data on the subject of this
rials such as cement and hydrated lime (Marvila et al., 2019). review have been presented. In addition, the preventive measures
Cigarette waste has received less attention but it contains very toxic are proposed based on the demography of Pakistan, which can also
and hazardous components (e.g., Pb, Cd, As, and Cr) (Girondi et al.). be applied to the whole sub-continent.
In addition, a huge amount of food wastes is produced by restau-
rants (de Azevedo et al., 2020). Decomposition of organic materials
in the waste results in generation of biogas (e.g., large quantities of 4. Hazards of smog
methane and carbon dioxide with little amounts of hydrogen sul-
fide and ammonia). Thus, the decomposition of these organic Smog is a mixture of many pollutants, chiefly particulate matter
wastes in open air rather than at a proper place can result in suf- (mostly PM2.5), but also sulfur dioxide (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
focation and environmental pollution problems. Several methods carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ozone
have been successfully designed and applied for early detection of (O3), peroxylacyl nitrates (PAN) and aldehydes. Each component is
such pollutants. Various smog monitors, such as the AQS-1 smog harmful to humans, plants, animals, and the natural environment,
monitor (for photochemical smog), are available commercially and especially in high concentrations. Recently, Butt et al. (2018) sum-
can easily measure the severity of smog events and their corre- marized various human health effects (asthma, diabetes, headache,
sponding constituents (including ozone, PM2.5, and VOCs) and others) arising from smog events in Lahore. However, that
(Emetere, 2019). The Punjabi government has purchased 6 air study was limited to medical students. The general detrimental
quality monitors for Lahore for use during smog events, and effects of smog constituents and their acceptable concentration
increased monitoring capacity is expected soon (Zahra-Malik, limits for protection of human health are briefly described in
2017). However, this monitoring system is not sufficient to cover Table 2.
Table 1
Common monitoring methods for smog components.
Primary pollutants
Order Pollutant Monitoring Description Ref.

method
1 NOx Passive Triethanolamine (TEA)- or sodium iodide/sodium hydroxide-impregnated filter (Sluis et al., 2010; Villena et al., 2011)
Calorimetric dosimeter with impregnated paper
Integrated Saltzman impinger or bubblers with calorimetric detection using a mixture of N-
ethylenediamine dihydrochloride, sulfanilic acid, and acetic acid.
Sampling with front filter followed by TEA-impregnated cellulose-fiber filters for
ion chromatography (IC) analysis of nitrite.
Continuous Chemiluminescence
Electrochemical sensor
Photoacoustic spectroscopy
Long-path absorption photometer
2 VOC Passive Activated charcoal, tenax, or other thermally desorbed sorbent, followed by GC-MS (Ge˛ bicki and Szulczyn ski, 2019; Lan et al.,
Polyurethane foam (PUF) or XAD resins with samples extracted in organic solvents 2020)
before chemical analysis.
Integrated Canister, bag, or carbotrap sampling mainly for hydrocarbons
Filter/PUF or filter/tenax for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) mainly.
Filter impregnated with dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) or cryogenic traps for
carbonyls
Quartz-fiber filters or base-coated filters
Continuous HCs by automated GC-FID
Proton-transfer-reaction (PTR)-MS
Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry (CIMS)
Secondary pollutants
1 O3 Passive
Impregnated nitrile or nitrate followed by IC analysis (Bogue, 2008; Carmichael et al., 2003; Ferm

Treated strips that react with O3 followed by color scale comparison and Svanberg, 1998; Zi-wei et al., 2002)

Potassium iodide (KI)-impregnated filter
Integrated
Sampling with front filter followed by KI-impregnated cellulose fiber filters for
automated calorimetric analysis of KOH.
Continuous Chemiluminescence
UV absorption
2 Peroxylacyl Continuous Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry (CIMS) Eger et al. (2019)
nitrates (PAN)
3 Aldehydes Integrated Dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH)-coated substrate to form hydrazones followed by Poli et al. (2010)
HPLC analysis
Palmes-type tube coated with sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3)
Continuous Automatic GC-FID
4.1. Effects on human health Ozone, another chief component of smog, is highly reactive and
poses serious health risks. Like PM, ozone also attacks the cardio-
Smog has severe adverse effects on human health. There is ev- vascular and respiratory systems after oral and nasal absorption,
idence to support the claim for acute detrimental effects on car- with children and women being most vulnerable and susceptible
diovascular and respiratory systems (Gurmeet Singh, 2020). The (Naveed, 2016). Secondary oxidation products (such as PAN)
severity of smog hazards depends upon the quantity inhaled, the formed by reaction of ozone with components of epithelial lining
components present, and the individual characteristics (e.g., fluid (ELF) can cause cell and tissue damage (Nuvolone et al., 2018).
weight, age, and well-being) (Fuzzi et al., 2015). In the year 2005, Studies have revealed that an increment of 10 mg m3 of ozone
PM2.5 and O3, the main components of smog, resulted in the deaths increases the risk of mortality by 0.26% (Jia et al., 2011).
of nearly three million people globally due to respiratory diseases, With PM levels in Lahore nine time higher than the WHO limits,
lung cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (Lelieveld et al., 2013). The significant health effects from smog pollution are expected. Ac-
intensity of the effects on human health due to smog exposure is cording to air quality figures reported by an independent body, the
shown in Fig. 4. As the major component of smog, PM in any form is Pakistan Air Quality Initiative (PAQI), from 1 January to 31
a well-recognized cause of early mortality. However, the size of the December 2017, all the cities considered (Lahore, Peshawar,
PM is directly linked to the severity of the health issues it causes. Islamabad, and Karachi) were above the 10 mg/m3 international air
There is a considerable risk of a smaller particles penetrating quality limit recommended by WHO (with PM2.5 levels of 130, 63,
deeper into the respiratory system and settling on the respiratory 42, and 40 mg/m3, respectively) (Omar, 2018). The city of Lahore
tract, more extensively damaging the lungs and the whole respi- recorded the poorest air quality, reaching the ‘very unhealthy and
ratory system (Lo€ndahl et al., 2006). hazardous’ level 28 times in the year 2017 (see Fig. 5). Ashraf et al.
A strong link between adult diabetes and PM concentration in (2019b) analyzed the relationship between smog and ocular surface
air was also reported in a US epidemiologic study (Han, 2019). Since diseases in patients in tertiary care hospitals in November 2016.
children are less immune to infections than adults, if they experi- Samples for smog analysis were collected during and before the
ence long-term exposure to the high levels of PM present in smog, smog event (which occurred in November 2016) from three busy
they have a higher risk of respiratory infections. Several studies locations in the city of Lahore, namely Mall Road, Gulberg, and
conducted in the US (Ritz et al., 2000), China (Fleischer et al., 2014), Township. Sheikh Zaid and Mayo Hospitals were randomly chosen
Pakistan, and Canada (Brauer et al., 2008) have found that high for collection of data on ocular surface diseases from 2e5
exposure to PM2.5 in smog is one of the major causes of intrauterine November 2016 using a random clustered sampling technique. The
inflammation leading to preterm birth. Preterm birth, in the short distribution of smog pollutants at the three locations is given in
run, causes many post-natal deaths and, in the long run, signifi- Fig. 6 (as per the United States Environmental Protection Agency
cantly reduces life expectancy. Malley et al. (2017) reported the measurement protocol) (EPA, 2019). Among the smog components,
preterm birth data from 183 countries and found that up to 18% of the highest concentration was for NOx, which had a value 17 times
preterm birth cases occur due to high PM2.5 exposure. The highest higher than the corresponding value in the same month of 2015.
percentages occurred in South and East Asia, North Africa, the The other smog components also exhibited a significant increase;
Middle East and West Sub-Saharan Africa. this is likely to be further exacerbating health issues. In comparison
Table 2
Adverse effects of smog components on human health.
Order Components Permissible limits Main sources Adverse effects on human health Ref.
of smog (WHO guidelines)
1 PM2.5 Annual Power plants, forest fires, motor vehicles, PM2.5 has been identified as one of the main sources of air pollution, Kim et al.
mean ¼ 10 mgm3 airplanes, crop burning, volcanic eruptions, with wide-ranging adverse effects on human health. Although PM2.5 (2015a)
24-h dust storms. is harmful even in small amounts, prolonged exposure to high levels
mean ¼ 25 mgm3 can lead to severe cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, asthma,
arrhythmia, and damage to the central nervous system. A decrease of
10 mg m3 of PM2.5 could increase life expectancy by 0.35 years on
average.
2 Ozone 8-h Photochemical reaction of sunlight with NOx Ozone (O3) is harmful to the cardiovascular, respiratory, Salonen
mean ¼ 100 mgm3 and VOCs emitted from motor vehicles, reproduction, and central nervous systems. Common health hazards et al.
power plants, brick kilns. include shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing, nasal (2018)
hyperresponsiveness, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
asthma, malfunctioning of the immune system.
3 CO 8-h Motor vehicles, chemical processing plants, CO can be deadly in high concentrations. It hampers the ability of Flachsbart
mean ¼ 10 mgm3 volcanoes, bushfires. hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the lungs, thereby depriving vital (1999)
15-min tissues of oxygen. High exposure can prove fatal for infants, elderly
mean ¼ 100 mgm3 people, and people with anemia, cardiovascular diseases, or
respiratory problems. Headache, vomiting, dizziness, and nausea are
common effects of CO exposure. Prolonged exposure to high-level CO
may result in death.
4 NOx Annual Motor vehicles, construction equipment, NOx gases react to form acid rain, smog, PM2.5, PM10, and ozone. In Quansah
mean ¼ 40 mgm3 power plants, cement kilns, industrial high concentrations, NOx can penetrate deep into the respiratory et al.
1-h boilers. system, aggravating emphysema or bronchitis, even resulting in (2017)
mean ¼ 200 mgm3 mortality in extreme cases. NOx can also react with other chemicals
to produce toxic products such as nitrosamines and nitroarenes,
which can cause DNA mutations.
5 SOx 24-h Fossil fuel burning plants, motor vehicles, Sulfur dioxide can travel deep into the lungs through the nasal Lee et al.
mean ¼ 20 mgm3 volcanic eruptions. passage, react with water, and form sulfuric acid, which is damaging (2018)
10-min to the digestive system and is a precursor to acid rain and particulate
mean ¼ 500 mgm3 matter. Exposure to high concentrations of sulfur dioxide can
severely damage the respiratory system, even leading to death.
Fig. 4. Hierarchy of the effects of smog on health.
Fig. 5. Air quality status of four major cities of Pakistan in 2017, presented as a proportion of the number of days in that year with a certain air quality classification (Ullah and
Zeshan, 2019).
with the previous year, 2015, the AQI was six times higher. The to disease due to smog exposure (Gheorghe and Ion, 2011). The
hospital data revealed that the number of patients suffering from debilitating effects of smog on the ecosystem include biodiversity
ocular related diseases had more than doubled, from 2000 in reduction, low primary and secondary production, and decreased
2015e5000 in 2016 (Ashraf et al., 2019b). The most common resistance to disease. The inert pollutant particles cause only
detrimental effects were irritation, lid erosion, corneal diseases, dry physical damage to vegetation, whereas the toxic chemical particles
eyes, uveitis, and lacrimation (making up approximately 20, 4, 7, 12, cause both physical and chemical damage (F. L. Farmer, 1993). In
3, and 11% of cases, respectively.) fact, the penetration of harmful smog components into the soil is
more deleterious than direct deposition at the plant surface
4.2. Effect on agricultural sector (Seyyednejad et al., 2011). Surface deposition of smog pollutants
(PM deposited on leaves and other plant surfaces) curtails photo-
In addition to human health, smog has devastating effects on synthesis, inducing premature leaf fall and permanently damaging
plants and animals. Smog hinders plant and tree growth indirectly leaf tissues. Likewise, smog adversely affects the microorganisms
by blocking the rays of the sun and directly damages crops and that live on plants and trees, which may also inhibit the decom-
vegetables. Crops such as wheat, tomatoes, soybean, cotton, and position process after litter fall (Graiver et al., 2003). Studies have
peanuts were reported to suffer from infections and lose immunity revealed that dust particles from brick kilns (a key source of
human health (11 million people complained of eye irritation and

headaches) and the agricultural sector in Pakistan may translate
into an economic slowdown (Sarfraz, 2020).
The premature mortality and long-term illnesses of working
men and women resulting from smog pollution can also cause
economic losses, including reduction in family income. According
to the World Bank report in 2016, air pollution caused a 5 trillion
USD annual loss to the economy. Developing countries are most at
risk, with annual labor income losses amounting to 1% of total GDP
in South Asia (World Bank, 2016). The total welfare costs due to air
pollution may be divided into four major components: direct
market costs, indirect costs, disutility, and mortality. In 2015, the
total worldwide welfare cost due to atmospheric air pollution
amounted to 3.8 trillion USD and is expected to rise to 24e31
trillion USD by 2060 (OECD, 2016) (see Fig. 7). Since the air pollu-
tion considered in this study was primarily PM2.5 and ozone, along
Fig. 6. Concentrations of smog components measured at different monitoring stations with the other smog components, these results could in large part
in Lahore, Pakistan (Ashraf et al., 2019a). be justifiably attributed to smog. This suggests that stringent
abatement policies are urgently needed to avoid serious future
consequences.
pollution in Pakistan) can raise the alkalinity of plant leaves to as
high as pH 12, which can distort proteins and dehydrate plants in a
4.4. Effects on tourism
process known as plasmolysis (Shi et al., 2000).
Smog adversely effects Pakistan’s export of crops (cotton, wheat,
Smog affects tourism in a country by causing severe damage to
rice etc.). Recent studies on the effect of smog, particularly PM and
visitor attractions such as historical buildings and monuments
ozone, on crops in Pakistan have revealed a significant drop in
(Peng and Xiao, 2018). Moreover, many tourists, for health reasons,
yields (Khan, 2013). Wahid et al. (1995a) researched the effect of
will avoid visiting a country notorious for high air pollution. One of
smog pollutants on two cultivars of winter wheat. The findings
the main motivations for tourists to visit a country is to experience
revealed a 34.8e46.7% decrease in wheat yield, chiefly as a result of
the landscapes, rivers, mountains, and historical or state-of-the-art
ozone. In a similar study on three varieties of wheat, significant
buildings. However, smog negatively affects the tourist experience
reduction in stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, and photo-
by lowering visibility and decreasing the aesthetic beauty of the
synthetic efficiency was observed as a result of exposure to smog
scenery. The reduction in visibility caused by smog multiplies the
components, primarily ozone. Another vital crop, barley, also
risk of road accidents. For example, 10 people were killed and
experienced a substantial decrease in seed yield (13e44%) when
several were injured in November 2017, due to impaired visibility
exposed to smog components such as NOx, SOx, and ozone (Wahid,
caused by smog (Shabbir et al., 2019). Poudyal et al. (2013) used
2006). A similar study on rice by the same researchers revealed a
econometric models to determine the correlation between visibil-
37e42% reduction in the yield of two cultivars of local rice crops
ity and number of tourists and found that a 10% increase in visibility
(Wahid et al., 1995b). A study on the impact of brick kiln emissions,
could bring in an additional one million visitors to a park.
a major cause of smog formation, on wheat production in Faisala-
Pakistan is a country rich in historic locations and destinations
bad, a city in Punjab province of Pakistan, showed a loss in grain
of archaeological interest. It has a growing tourism industry and has
yield, decrease in plant height and photosynthetic activity, and the
the potential of becoming a very popular global tourist destination
presence of metal in the crops as a result of exposure to such
(Fig. 8) (Manzoor and Wei, 2018; World Asia, 2018). However,
emissions (2019b). Such a significant reduction in crop yield, for a
smog-related air pollution in the mega cities such as Lahore and
developing and agriculture-dependent country, is a matter of great
Peshawar has caused serious concern, not only to the local public,
concern. With increasing demands on agriculture due to the ever-
but also to international visitors, such as members of the Sikh
growing population, there is a need to reduce the negative effects
community, who visit their holy shrine in Katarpur (Khan, 2013;
of air pollution to optimize food production.
Khilji, 2019). Hence, to sustain a growing tourism industry in
Pakistan, it is imperative to mitigate smog-related sources of air
4.3. Effect on the economy pollution.
Air quality and the economic progress of a country are inter- 5. Smog preventive measures for Pakistan
twined. The economy thrives on healthy people, active businesses,
flourishing tourism, and increasing employment. Air pollution, For all types of smog, the precursors come primarily from
especially smog, hampers all these activities and consequently anthropogenic emissions. Thus, proper mitigation of these emis-
slows the economy. The accumulation of smog in the morning sions is required to abate smog effectively. Many strategies have
hours to the afternoon negatively affects productivity during the been developed, on a local, regional, and even international scale
working day. Recently, due to heavy smog, public and private (Shi et al., 2016). However, prevention of smog (to improve air
schools remained closed for several days in Schools in Lahore quality indices for a given area) is rarely dependent on a single
(2019). The economic corridor between China and Pakistan (62 intervention but, instead, generally depends on various abatement
billion USD investment), one of biggest economic projects in Asia, is measures working in concert. These interventions may be regula-
also facing serious challenges due to the effect of smog in dis- tory, economic, social, or technical in nature (see Fig. 9) (Shi et al.,
rupting transportation routes in the vicinity of the corridor (Kouser 2014). All the activities shown in Fig. 9 can be applied separately
and Subhan, 2020; Raja et al., 2018). It is claimed that the GDP of to mitigate smog formation and its corresponding hazards, but they
Pakistan (47.8 USD billion) will be decreased by more than 5.88% if are most effective when combined. In this section, we provide a
smog is not properly controlled. The devastating effects of smog on detailed discussion on various prospective preventive measures
Fig. 7. Predicted 2060 shares of total welfare costs due to air pollution according to contributing component across a number of countries (OECD, 2016).
Fig. 8. Number of tourists visiting Pakistan annually in the last decade (Manzoor and Wei, 2018).
(technical, basic, and administrative) for the specific case of (Shah and Arooj, 2019).
Pakistan. The increased use of private vehicles in Pakistan (Fig. 10) has
posed serious problems for air quality. Punjab province has
5.1. Technical measures approximately 19.6 million vehicles, 6.2 million of which originate
in Lahore (zahid, 2020). Two-stroke engine vehicles, such as mo-
5.1.1. Transportation torcycles, motorized rickshaws, and other three-wheel vehicles, are
Due to the rapid increase in population and growth in the a common mode of transportation in Lahore, and are among the
economy, Pakistan has seen increased use of transportation, which most polluting of all combustion engine vehicles. The huge number
has become a major driver of smog events. According to Xi et al. of private vehicles on the road produces large amounts of gaseous
(Xie et al., 2019), approximately half of all total emissions of volatile pollutant compounds, which are major precursors for production of
components that ultimately affect air quality in the respective re- smog. In this context, the use of private cars must be reduced, and
gions of world are produced by vehicles. In this respect, Pakistan is use of public transport must be encouraged e possibly through the
facing serious challenges in the transportation sector, including use of "low emissions zones" such as are found in London (2020).
requirements to upgrade the vehicle fleet to cleaner models, and a Song et al. (2016) suggested that development of a mass transit
current lack of vehicle maintenance and monitoring legislation railway system (using, for instance, high speed electric trains)
Fig. 9. Preventive measures to minimize emissions that produce smog and to reduce its detrimental effects.
in exhaust gases (Sassykova et al., 2019).

Recently, the automobile industry has promoted the hybrid
motor concept to increase the use of green energy (Prajapati et al.,
2014). Benajes et al. (2020) suggested that use of advanced com-
bustion modes with plug-in hybrid electric vehicle technology can
reduce emissions of CO2, nitrogen oxides, and soot by 12e30%.
However, the operation and manufacturing cost of the technology,
as well as the long recharging time, should be taken into consid-
eration since consumers are generally reluctant to switch their
vehicle choices until the new option becomes more user-friendly
than the existing technology (Millo et al., 2014).
5.1.2. Domestic
At the domestic level, gas-powered equipment such as heaters,
stoves, generators, pumps, compressors, high pressure washers,
floor buffers, and high-pressure drills are the main sources of car-
Fig. 10. Total number of registered vehicles in four of Pakistan’s administrative di-
visions (2018a). bon emission, especially CO (Hanzlick, 2007). The solution to this
situation is to adopt technology that is powered by electricity or
compressed air, if these are available and can be used safely (Garcia
would have a significant effect in improving air quality. Strategic et al., 2007).
policies for monitoring and controlling traffic congestion are Smog increased in Pakistan as result of rapid industrialization
another preventive factor in reducing harmful emissions and, and domestic activities. Ali et al. (2019a) illustrated use of the fuzzy
therefore, smog formation. Secondly, it is vital to strengthen the VIKOR model to mitigate the effect of toxic smog on human health
monitoring and emissions policies on new automobiles, reduce by developing an appropriate environmental policy in Pakistan. The
direct emissions of vehicles per unit distance, and promote the use results of the fuzzy VIKOR model illustrate that the effects of smog
of renewable energy vehicles and clean technologies to progres- can be minimized by reducing industrial waste and by educating
sively reduce the possibility of smog events (Xie et al., 2019). farmers and other communities on ways to lessen their emissions
In the transport sector, vehicle maintenance and inspection on a and, therefore, their contribution to smog formation. Imple-
regular basic are other positive actions that may reduce detrimental mentation of this model will help the government of Pakistan in
emissions. The condition of the engine is an important factor in making future policies. Recently, Saeed and colleagues launched a
determining the extent of air pollutant emissions from a motor project to build a 25-foot solar powered smog-cleaning tower in
vehicle. Thus, the engine should be tuned regularly, and the engine Pakistan. According to their claims, the project has the capacity to
case ventilating system, muffler, and fuel system should be provide smog-free, clean air for 90,000 residents in the vicinity
inspected on a consistent basis. The design of motors, as well as (HADID, 2020).
their operating condition, fuel type, distance travelled, and amount
of work performed are additional important factors to consider 5.1.3. Industrial
when determining how to reduce the amount of harmful pollutants As Pakistan is a developing economy, it does not always use
state-of-the-art abatement technology in its industrial processes. 2010; Tresaugue). Furthermore, pollen grains and fungal spores
The manufacture of bricks is usually achieved by chimney-based from plants are health risks for allergy-suffering or other sensitive
brick kilns fueled by wood, crop residue, and coal (Sarfraz, 2020; members of the population.
Shabbir et al., 2019). Approximately 20,000 brick kilns are opera-
tional across the country; most of the kilns are located near urban 5.2.2. Healthy practices
areas. Emissions from these facilities can cause severe environ- Since vehicular emissions are a significant source of smog,
mental problems in the cities of Pakistan (Khan et al., 2019; Mondal adopting basic smog preventive practices such as walking, biking,
et al., 2017). There is a need for the brick industry in Pakistan to and using public transport can have a significant positive outcome.
abate emissions to avoid smog events. Treatment of smoke with Another way is to move to eco-friendly consumer products, such as
wet or dry filters, use of purifiers, and use of modern artisanal brick paints, papers, plastics, and sprays that contain low levels of VOCs.
kilns are solutions to this problem. Air pollution control equipment Laumbach et al. (2015) highlighted individual efforts to reduce
(with baffle arrangements inside chimneys), along with gas bypass personal health risk caused by air pollution, such as smog events.
systems, can also help to mitigate pollution. Mechanical feeders They suggested that limiting personal exposure by staying indoors,
and cleaner technologies, such as vertical shaft kilns, can also be filtering indoor air, and limiting physical exertion can play a key
effective because they ensure the most efficient burning of coal, role in protecting personal health during winter smog. The Pro-
which lowers emissions (Skinder et al., 2014). Replacement of vincial Disaster Management Authority (PDMA) of Pakistan has
conventional fossil fuels with renewable energy resources (such as issued guidelines on avoiding outdoor activities during smog
solid waste and biomass fuels) is being considered as a viable op- events, using masks, and using and cleaning indoor air filters
tion for powering future industry in Pakistan, because it can reduce (PDMA, 2017).
the emission of methane and N2O from landfills (Herbert and
Krishnan, 2016).
Anthropogenic activities are another source of chemical pollu- 5.3. Administrative measures
tion and can be transported long distances, affecting the global
environment (Himawan and Sari, 2018; MIRO et al., 2019). More 5.3.1. Public awareness
than 90% of all industrial emissions globally are from coal (far Public education and awareness of smog and its effects on hu-
exceeding the level of emissions from other anthropogenic sources man health and the environment are essential factors that cannot
such as mercury mining, gold smelting, nonferrous smelting, iron be neglected when addressing these problems (Ahsan et al., 2020b;
steel production, domestic wastes, and cement production) (Huang Wang et al., 2016a). Recently, Saleem et al. (2019) conducted a
et al., 2017). Emissions from industrial activities such as power public survey about smog awareness and its preventive measures in
production are generally caused by combustion of solid fuels Punjab, Pakistan. The survey of a cross section of 607 selected in-
(which are frequently a significant, yet unidentified source of the dividuals revealed that increasing public awareness (via social
precursors of smog in Pakistan and other developing countries). seminars, conferences, and community campaigns) can play a key
Therefore, use of substitute industrial fuels such as oil and gas and role in mitigating smog-related air pollution. Thus, the public
development of methods harnessing energy from renewable should be educated more widely about the hazardous effects of
sources would mitigate smog formation in Pakistan (Liu et al., smog through public information sessions and preventive mea-
2016). sures programs (Mehiriz and Gosselin, 2019). In a similar study,
Ahsan et al. (2020a) demonstrated that, for Lahore residents,
5.2. Basic measures to improve air quality sociodemographic factors (particularly education level) can play a
key role in understanding smog hazards and smog mitigation
5.2.1. Increasing plantation area policies. Information sources such as online media content and
Currently, Lahore city faces its most severe air pollution prob- mobile apps should be used to warn the public about the severity of
lems between November to February each year, when a blanket of air pollution, allowing them to mitigate short term health effects by
toxic haze covers the entire city, as well as some districts of staying indoors and not exerting themselves (Li and Tilt, 2019).
Pakistan Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) (Jahan et al., 2019). Several
researchers have stressed the significance of plantation area to 5.3.2. Social & behavioral changes
control environmental pollution such as smog (Saxena, 2014; Zona Along with public awareness and engagement, trust in the in-
et al., 2014). In this respect, governments globally have initiated formation provided is also important. For example in 2013e2014,
new smog control policies through creation of woodlands in and China launched a nationwide program providing real-time air
around major industrial cities to create a green barrier between quality assessment to the public (Barwick et al., 2019). This program
industrial and urban locations. The Pakistani government has also resulted in household behavioral changes, increased online
launched the Billion Tree Tsunami Afforestation Project to searches for pollution-related topics, adjustments in day-to-day
encourage planation (Kamal et al., 2019). consumption patterns that reduced exposure to pollution, and
Plantation and forest growth help to control the microclimate, higher willingness to pay for housing in less polluted areas. As a
protect inhabitants from heatwaves, and add oxygen to the atmo- consequence of both short- and long-term behavioral changes, the
sphere. Leung et al. (2011) reported that shade can reduce the program resulted in reduced mortality due to air pollution by
extreme smog concentration by 5%, which is equivalent to reducing nearly 7%. Estimates suggest annual benefits amounting to 18
the smog precursor NOx by 175 tons/day (25 times more than the 4 billion USD from the program, a figure at least one order of
tons/day improvement gained through reducing power plant magnitude larger than the combined costs of the program and
emissions). According to Professor Barry Lefer at University of associated avoidance behaviors (Ito and Zhang, 2020). Thus,
Houston, increasing plantation area is a good idea, but there is "no improved public awareness and associated promotion of social and
assurance that the plants are cleaning up emissions where we need behavioral changes are recommended to help mitigate smog epi-
the reductions. The timing and location of the plantation really sodes and their effects in Pakistan. Considering the preventive
matters" because some plant types discharge biogenic volatile measures discussed in this section, we have proposed short- and
organic compounds, potentially increasing ozone and particulate long-term policy instruments (Fig. 11) that may help regulatory
matter to worsen air quality (Florence, 2004; Kegge and Pierik, bodies in Pakistan mitigate smog problems.
Fig. 11. Proposed short- and long-term policies to mitigate smog pollution in Pakistan.
6. Conclusion Declaration of competing interest
Globally, many big cities such as Beijing, Delhi, Lahore, Mexico The authors declare that they have no known competing
City, Los Angeles, and Tehran are negatively affected by smog. De- financial interests or personal relationships that could have
pendency on fossil fuels to support fast growing urbanization and appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
industrialization contributes significantly to smog events in
Pakistan. Vehicular emissions, along with burning of crop and solid Acknowledgements
waste, are considered the major sources of smog in Pakistan. Smog
has harmful effects not only on human health, but also on animals, KHK acknowledges the support made by a grant from the Na-
tourism, and other parts of the economy. Lahore, the second biggest tional Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry
city in Pakistan, is one of the worst affected by winter smog events. of Science ICT and Future Planning (Grant No:
In this study, we presented the sources of smog events, their haz- 2016R1E1A1A01940995).
ards, and possible preventive measures to help abate smog in
Pakistan. Note that there are not many specific studies highlighting
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Raza 2021

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Journal of Cleaner Production 279 (2021) 123676

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

A review on the deteriorating situation of smog and its preventive

1. Introduction Lahore, the provincial capital. Lahore has a 4% annual economic

Fig. 1. Schematic of smog formation in Pakistan.

2.1. Classical smog (London smog)

Classical, or London, smog is a lethal form of environmental

HOSO2 þ O2 / HO2 þ SO3 R. þ O2 / RO2

(2) Formation of ozone 3. Sources of smog in Pakistan and methods of detection

O. þ O2 / O3 Like many other developing countries, several emissions sources

Order Pollutant Monitoring Description Ref.

Fig. 4. Hierarchy of the effects of smog on health.

human health (11 million people complained of eye irritation and

in exhaust gases (Sassykova et al., 2019).

6. Conclusion Declaration of competing interest

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