Guide to Protection

of Reinforcing Steel
in Concrete against
Corrosion
Reported by ACI Committee 222
 First Printing
April 2019
ISBN: 978-1-64195-057-2

Guide to Protection of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete against Corrosion

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Farmington Hills, MI 48331
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 David Trejo, Chair O. Burkan Isgor, Secretary

Neal S. Berke Ceki Halmen David W. Whitmore

Michael C. Brown Carolyn M. Hansson Charles K. Nmai John B. Wojakowski
David Darwin Mohammad S. Khan Ruben M. Salas Consulting Members
Marwan A. Daye Tracy D. Marcotte Arpad Savoly Richard O. Lewis
Stephen D. Disch Robert Moser David G. Tepke Andrea J. Schokker
Hamid Farzam Mohamad Nagi Richard E. Weyers

This guide reviews the most recent developments of metal corro-

corro 3.3—Reinforcing bar, p. 9
3.4—Concrete environment, p. 11
are devoted to corrosion of metals in concrete, protective measures

Keywords: allowable chloride; carbonation; chloride; chloride threshold; 4.1—Introduction, p. 13

corrosion; corrosion-resistant reinforcement; durability; prestressed 4.2—Design approaches and choices, p. 13
concrete; reinforced concrete; reinforcing steels. 4.3—Methods of excluding external sources of chloride
from concrete, p. 19
4.4—Corrosion control methods, p. 22
4.5—Summary, p. 24

1.1—Introduction, p. 2
1.2—Scope, p. 3

2.1—Notation, p. 3 5.1—Introduction, p. 24
5.2—Condition evaluation of reinforced concrete struc-
tures, p. 26
5.3—Corrosion evaluation methods, p. 26
5.4—Concrete evaluation test methods, p. 35
3.1—Introduction, p. 3
3.2—Principles of corrosion, p. 3
6.1—Introduction, p. 36
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are 6.2—Applicability, p. 36
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and 6.3—Remedies and their limitations, p. 37
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use 6.4—Summary, p. 40

and limitations of its content and recommendations and who

will accept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and Authored references, p. 42
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ACI 222R-19 supersedes ACI 222R-01 and was adopted and published April 2019.
Copyright © 2019, American Concrete Institute.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
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by the Architect/Engineer. reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
 is not as common in North America as that for corrosion
induced by chlorides. Chlorides are common in nature and
very small amounts are generally present in the constituents
The corrosion of metals in concrete can be a serious of concrete. Chlorides can also be intentionally added into
problem because of its widespread occurrence in certain the concrete, most often as a constituent of accelerating
types of structures and the high cost of repairing such struc- admixtures. In addition, dissolved chlorides can penetrate
tures. This holds true especially for reinforcing steel. Some hardened concrete in structures exposed to marine environ-
ments, salt-laden soils, or deicing or anti-icing salts.
corrosion were associated with marine structures and chem- The rate of corrosion of steel reinforcement embedded in
ical manufacturing plants (Tremper et al. 1958; Evans 1960;
Biczók 1964). Later, numerous reports of its occurrence of reinforcement in concrete is an electrochemical process
in bridge decks, parking structures, and other structures that generally depends on the presence of oxygen and
exposed to chlorides emphasized the problem (Crumpton
and Pattengill 1969; Fruggiero 1972; Stratfull 1973; Litvan corrosive ions, such as chloride, is vulnerable to corrosion,
and Bickley 1987). Extensive research on factors contrib- especially when subjected to cycles of wetting and drying
uting to steel corrosion has increased understanding of the that is often prevalent in highway bridges and parking struc-
mechanisms and causes of corrosion, especially concerning tures exposed to deicing or anti-icing salts, and in structures
the role of chlorides. It is anticipated that application of the
rate and level of corrosion are:
in new reinforced concrete structures and improved methods (a) Heterogeneity in the concrete and reinforcing steel
of repairing corrosion-induced damage in existing structures. (b) pH of concrete pore water
For these improvements to occur, the research information (c) Carbonation of concrete cover
should be disseminated to those responsible for the design, (d) Cracks in the concrete
construction, and maintenance of concrete structures. (e) Stray currents
The high-alkaline environment of concrete results in the (f) Time of wetness

that generally protects it from extensive corrosion. There

There- (h) The presence of other corrosive ions
Design features and construction practices also play an
concern in most concrete elements or structures. Corrosion important role in the corrosion of embedded steel. Concrete
of steel, however, can become a problem if: mixture proportions, thickness of concrete cover over the
a) The concrete does not resist the ingress of corrosion- reinforcing steel, crack-control measures, and implementa
implementa-
inducing substances -
b) The structure is not properly designed for the service tion are some of the factors that help control the onset and
environment rate of corrosion.
c) The environment is not as anticipated Deterioration of concrete due to corrosion of the rein
rein-
d) The structure exhibits changes during the service life of forcing steel results because the solid products of corro-
the structure sion (rust) occupy a greater volume than the original steel
Corrosion of steel reinforcement is the primary subject and exert expansive stresses on the surrounding concrete.
of this guide. Although several types of metals can corrode The outward manifestations of the rusting include staining,
under certain conditions when embedded in concrete, the cracking, and spalling of the concrete (Torres-Acosta and
corrosion of steel reinforcement is the most common and of Sagüés 2004). Concurrently, the cross-sectional area of the
greatest concern. reinforcing steel is reduced. With time, structural distress
Exposure of reinforced concrete to chlorides is the may occur either because of loss of bond between the rein-
major cause of premature corrosion of steel reinforcement, forcing steel and concrete due to cracking, delamination,
although corrosion can also occur in some circumstances in and spalling, or because of the reduced steel cross-sectional
-
of other substances such as other halides, chlorate, and tures containing high-strength prestressing steel because a
hypochlorite can result in corrosion ( ; ACI small amount of metal loss could trigger a failure (Pillai et
515.2R). Carbonation of concrete or other exposure condi- al. 2010a,b).
tions that reduce the concrete’s alkalinity can lead to corro- The National Research Council (2011) reported that one
sion of the embedded steel reinforcement. Carbonation challenge facing the United States is the development of a
damage can be extensive in structures with low cover and is -
at times repaired without consideration of the mechanism of tant material. Structures are now being constructed with
deterioration. As the concrete infrastructure ages, systematic alternative forms of reinforcement such as stainless steels
carbonation is likely to become a more apparent and wider (McDonald et al. 1995; Bower et al. 2000; Wenzlick 2007)
problem, particularly in locations away from salt ingress Thippeswamy
(Sagüés et al. 1997a). Widespread deterioration and consid- et al. 1998; Trejo et al. 2006; Benmokrane et al. 2007; ACI
eration for holistic repair for carbonation-induced corrosion 440R). In addition, practice and research indicate the need
for quality concrete, careful design, good construction prac- E, mA
tices, and reasonable limits on the amount of chlorides in
the concrete mixture constituents. Measures that are being
taken and further investigated include the use of corrosion Please refer to the latest version of “ACI Concrete Termi-
inhibitors, protective coatings on reinforcing steel, concrete
coatings, cathodic protection, chloride extraction, and real-
kalization. Although these measures have been successful
in general, problems resulting from corrosion of embedded
reinforcing steel and other metals have not been eliminated.
Thus, research into new measures to mitigate corrosion of
reinforcing steel in concrete are vital. This chapter describes the thermodynamics and kinetics of
the corrosion of steel reinforcement embedded in concrete.
Subsequent sections explain the initiation of active corro-
sion by chlorides, carbonation of the concrete cover, and the
of reinforcing steel in concrete, measures for protecting rate-controlling factors for corrosion after it has been initi-
embedded reinforcing steel in new construction, techniques
for detecting corrosion in in-service structures, and remedial concrete environments on corrosion of steel in concrete are
procedures. Consideration of these factors and application of discussed.
the discussed measures, techniques, and procedures should
assist in reducing the occurrence of corrosion and result, in
most instances, in the satisfactory performance of reinforced 3.2.1 The corrosion process—The corrosion of steel rein-
and prestressed concrete structural members. forcement in concrete is an electrochemical process that

steel-concrete interface. In the absence of an external elec

elec-
trical source, the electron transfer takes place between two
half-cell reactions—one capable of producing electrons and
A = area of reinforcing steel polarized, in.2 (cm2) one capable of consuming electrons. The anodic half-cell
Aw = atomic mass, lb/mol (kg/mol) reaction involves the oxidation or dissolution of iron, namely
a = constant
++
B = proportionality constant, mV/mA + 2e– (3.2.1a)
b = Tafel slope, V/decade
c = mass of cement, lb (kg) Under normal atmospheric exposure conditions, the Fe++
cm = mass of cementitious materials, lb (kg) ions then react further with oxygen and water to form oxides
dc = depth of carbonation, in. (mm) or hydroxides, and the most likely cathodic half-cell reaction
Da,28 is oxygen reduction
ft2/s (m2/s)
DOPC 2H2O + O2 + 4e– –
(3.2.1b)
2 2
portland cement concrete, ft /s (m /s)
DSF When oxygen is not available, the cathodic half-cell reac-
containing silica fume, ft2/s (m2/s) tion can take place in the form of hydrogen evolution via
E = applied potential, V
Ecorr = corrosion potential, V 2H+ + 2e– 2 (3.2.1c)
F = Faraday’s constant, 96,500 coulombs/mol
i = current density, mA/ft2 2
) When the two reactions occur at widely separated loca-
icorr = corrosion current density, mA/ft2 2
) tions, they are termed a macrocell (Fig. 3.2.1a). When they
k = carbonation rate constant, in./yr (mm/yr0.5)
0.5
occur close together or essentially at the same location, they
M = mass of dissolved metal, lb (kg) are termed a microcell (Fig. 3.2.1b).
n = number of equivalents
RP = polarization resistance, ohm-ft2 (ohm-cm2) depends on the availability of oxygen and on the pH of the
Rs = concrete resistance, ohm cement paste pore solution near the steel reinforcement. This
t = time, seconds is shown by the Pourbaix (E-pH) diagram (Pourbaix 1974),
t = time, years illustrated in Fig. 3.2.1c, which delineates the thermody-
w = mass of water, lb (kg) namic areas of stability for each of the iron oxide types as a
a = anodic Tafel constant, V/decade function of electrochemical potential and pH of the environ-
c = cathodic Tafel constant, V/decade ment. The electrochemical potential is a measure of the ease
of electron charge transfer between a metal and its environ-
E = voltage change resulting from the applied current, ment; in this case, between the steel reinforcement and the
mV cement paste pore solution. It is a property of the steel rein-
forcement-concrete interface and not of the steel reinforce-
reinforce
ment itself. It is not possible to determine the absolute value
of the potential and, therefore, it is necessary to measure the Fe + OH- + H2 2–
+ H2 (3.2.1d)

and a reference electrode. This might be a standard hydrogen where iron dissolves as HFeO2– (refer to Pourbaix diagram
electrode (SHE), a saturated calomel electrode (SCE), a Cu/ in Fig. 3.2.1d) (Townsend 19701970). This condition is highly
CuSO4 electrode (CSE), or an Ag/AgCl electrode (SSCE). unlikely to exist in a reinforced concrete structure.
The value of the potential in a freely corroding system is Corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete can be caused
commonly known as the corrosion potential, the open circuit by stray current corrosion or other environmental factors in
potential, the free potential, or the half-cell potential. For the addition to chemicals (Gummow and Meyers 1986; Berto-
reaction shown in Eq. (3.2.1b) to occur, the potential should lini at al. 2007). Stray current is received by the reinforcing
be more negative than that indicated by the upper dashed steel in concrete or any metal electrically connected to the
line, whereas the reaction shown in Eq. (3.2.1c) can only embedded steel and discharged elsewhere on its way to the
proceed at potentials more negative than the lower dashed source. Reinforcing steel corrodes at the point of current
line. In general, if all other factors are kept constant, when discharge. The most common sources of stray currents for
more oxygen is available, the electrochemical potential will reinforced concrete structures include DC-powered electric
be more positive (anodic). railways and electroplating plants. This type of corrosion
For sound concrete, the pH of the pore solution is equal most commonly occurs in structural elements in contact with
or greater than 13.0 and the half-cell potential more posi- the earth.
tive than –200 mV (CSE). Within this range, in the absence 3.2.2
of any other factors, the iron oxides—Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 or relatively thick and inhibit active corrosion by providing
hydroxides of these compounds—will form as solid phases
and may develop as a protective (passive) layer on the steel elements (Fe and O2). Alternatively, and more commonly, it
reinforcement. If the pH of the pore solution is reduced, for may be thin, often a few monolayers thick. In this case, the
example, by carbonation or by pozzolanic reactions, the oxides simply occupy the reactive atom sites on the metal
system may be shifted to an area on the Pourbaix diagram in surface and prevent the metal atoms at these locations from
which these oxides do not form a protective layer and active
dissolution is possible. Corrosion could theoretically be
induced in very high pH environments at high temperature steel reinforcement in concrete, the passive corrosion rate
if the potential of the steel is held near –1.0 V (SHE), as per is typically ~4 × 10–5
the following reaction
at least three orders of magnitude higher than this (Hansson
 (3.2.3a)

By dividing the mass of metal dissolved, M

M, by the metal’s
density and the corroding area of the steel reinforcement,
the mass can be converted to an average thickness of the
dissolved or oxidized layer.
For iron (or steel):

0.09 mA/ft2 (1 mA/m2) = 0.046 mils/year (1.16 µm/year)

(3.2.3b)
1984).
). The product FeOOH is considered to be the passive
The current density cannot be determined directly. This
is because the requirement of a charge balance means that
solutions presents a bilayer structure (Sánchez-Moreno et al. the rates of production and consumption of electrons by the
2009; Ghods et al. 2011a, 2012; Gunay et al. 2013) with an anodic and cathodic half-cell reactions, respectively, are
inner Fe2+ rich oxy-hydroxide (1 to 3 nm) and an outer Fe3+ always equal and, therefore, no net current can be measured.
Consequently, to determine the corrosion current density, the
in the range of 3 to 15 nm (Rossi et al. 2007; Ghods et al. system should be displaced from equilibrium by applying
2011a, 2012; Gunay et al. 2013; Yu et al. 2015). Ghods et an external potential and measuring the resultant net current
al. (2011a; 2012) and Gunay et al. (2013) reported that the (potentiostatic measurements). Alternatively, a known
current can be applied and the resulting shift in electro-
relatively porous and unprotective. chemical potential can be measured (galvanostatic measure-
3.2.3 Kinetics of corrosion—All metals, except very E and
noble metals such as gold and platinum, are thermodynami- the original corrosion potential Ecorr is termed the polariza-
cally unstable in normal atmospheric conditions and will
eventually revert to their oxides or other compounds, as In the absence of passivity, but assuming the continued
indicated for iron in the E-pH (Pourbaix) diagram in Fig. availability of oxygen and water, the net current would
3.2.1c. Therefore, the information of importance to the engi- increase with anodic polarization, as shown by the upper
neer who would use a metal is not whether the metal will curve in Fig. 3.2.3a and cathodic polarization would result
corrode, but how fast the corrosion will occur. The Pourbaix in the lower curve. Note that the cathodic polarization curve
diagram only provides thermodynamic information on the current values are the absolute value of the actual current
stability of iron and its oxides, but it does not provide any
information about corrosion kinetics. The corrosion rate can
be determined as a corrosion current by measuring the rate the current density as follows (Burstein 2005)
at which electrons are removed from the iron in the anodic
reactions described previously. The corrosion current can be a + blog(i) (3.2.3c)
converted to a rate of loss of metal from the surface of the
steel using Faraday’s law
 2H2 2 + 4H+ + 4e– (3.2.3d)

adding a second anodic reaction to that of the passive corro-

sion of iron. A third reaction would involve the oxidation of
ferrous ions (Fe2+) to ferric ions (Fe3+), which is an anodic
reaction.
3.2.4 —Active corrosion of
steel reinforcement in concrete is typically preceded by the

over large surfaces of the steel due to general changes in the

thermodynamic conditions or locally due to chemical attack

usually a result of a decrease in pH to a level at which the

by attack by aggressive ions such as chlorides but could also

result from cracking in the concrete cover.
3.2.4.1 —The most
common cause of initiation of corrosion of steel reinforce-
ment in concrete is the presence of chlorides. The source
For metals in concrete, González et al. (1985) recommend
of chlorides may be marine environments, deicing and anti-
Burstein (2005).
icing salts, industrial brines, contamination, or chloride-
A value of the corrosion current density icorr (the current
containing admixtures.
the linear portions of the anodic and cathodic polarization
-
curves to Ecorr, as shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 3.2.3a.
culties in examining the process on an atomic scale in the
For steel reinforcement in concrete, however, the chemchem-
extremely thin passive layers. Early research ((Venu et al.
1965; Hausmann 1967
1965 1967; Gouda 1970)
1970 indicated that in the
reduces the anodic current density by several orders of
magnitude, as shown in Fig. 3.2.3b. The transition from the
at localized weak spots, creating ionic defects and allowing
active corrosion part of the polarization curve to the passive
easy ionic transport. In the case of submonolayer passivity,
region occurs because of the formation of a passive metal
the chlorides may compete with the hydroxyl ions for
locations of high activity on the metal surface, preventing
and mill scale on the steel reinforcement can limit the oxygen
these reactive sites from becoming passivated ((Rosenberg
access for the cathodic reaction and can result in a decrease
et al. 1989). More recent studies indicate that changes in
in the cathodic current, also illustrated in Fig. 3.2.3b. These
surface and local critical chemical conditions enable charge
exchange pathways that eliminate the blocking ability of the
also limit the accuracy by which the actual corrosion rate
Díez-Pérez
can be determined because the linear part of each curve no
et al. 2006; Marcus et al. 2008; Ghods et al. 2011a, 2012;
longer exists. This lack of accuracy is irrelevant, however,
Gunay et al. 2013). Ghods et al. (2011a, 2012) and Gunay
because a precise knowledge of the passive corrosion rate is
et al. (2013) have shown that chlorides cause the decrease
of no practical interest. Polarization resistance (also known
of the relative amount of Fe+2 oxides with respect to Fe+3
as linear polarization) (Andrade and Gonzalez 1978) and
oxides, eventually causing depassivation of the steel surface.
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) (Mansfeld
The net result is that active corrosion can occur at these
1981; Ghods et al. 2010) measurements can be used to
locations and, once started, it proceeds autocatalytically, that
determine the passive corrosion current densities where they
is, in a self-feeding manner. The chlorides and ferrous ions
-
anodic site. When the complex reaches a region of high pH,
ties have been documented by Al-Tayyib and Khan (1988)
it decomposes, precipitating an insoluble iron hydroxide and
and Martínez and Andrade (2011).
liberating the chloride to remove more iron from the steel
As illustrated in Fig. 3.2.3b, the value of the net anodic
reinforcement. Moreover, because the region of local break-
current density is approximately constant over a wide range
of potential values but increases at potentials away from
attracted to that surface of the steel than to the surrounding
Ecorr. This increase, called transpassive dissolution, can
cathodic areas and so the local concentration of chlorides
increases. Because of this process, the solid corrosion prod-
also be due to the potential being above that indicated by the
ucts may be formed within the concrete cover, rather than
upper dashed line in Fig. 3.2.1c. At these potentials, O2 can
at the steel reinforcement-concrete interface (Marcotte and
be evolved at atmospheric pressures by the reverse of the
Hansson 1998; ).
reaction shown in Eq. (3.2.1b) or by the hydrolysis of water
 The initial precipitated hydroxide has a low state of oxida-
tion and tends to react further with oxygen to form higher
oxides. Evidence for this process can be observed when
concrete with active corrosion is broken open. A light green
semisolid intermediate reaction product (likely 3Fe(OH)2 ·
Fe(OH)2Cl · nH2O) is often found near the steel reinforce-
ment that, upon exposure to air, turns brown/black (likely
a combination of Fe(OH)3 and Fe3O4), and subsequently
rust colored (likely a combination of Fe(OH)3 · 3H2O,
2O3) (Herholdt et al. 1985;

volume than the steel from which they were formed, as indi-
cated in Fig. 3.2.4.1. In practice, the corrosion products have
been found to have volumes of 2 to 3.5 times that of the steel
from which they were formed (Marcotte and Hansson 1998).
Consequently, the increases in volume as the corrosion reac-
tions proceed leads to internal stresses within the concrete

concrete cover. A second factor in the corrosion process

presence of cracks can enhance the ingress of chlorides,
decrease the initiation time for corrosion, localize the corro-
of the spalling is the increased acidity in the region of the
sion attack to the intersection of the crack with the steel rein-
anodic sites that can lead to local dissolution of the cement
forcement, and reduce (but not eliminate) the advantages of
paste (Bertolini et al. 1996).
concrete (Weiermair et al. 1996
1996; Schiessl and Raupach 1997;
3.2.4.1.1
Thuresson et al. 1997; Marcotte and Hansson 1998 1998; Gérard
—Using calcium chloride (CaCl2) as a set accelerator
and Marchand 2000
2000;; Gagne et al. 2001
2001; ;
for concrete is the most common source of intentionally
Marcotte and Hansson 20032003; Okulaja and Hansson 2003).
added chlorides. Because chlorides promote reinforcement
3.2.4.1.3 Chloride binding and threshold values values—Not
corrosion, the use of chloride-containing admixtures for
all chlorides in the concrete contribute to the corrosion of
reinforced concrete is strongly discouraged, and for many
the steel reinforcement. Some of the chlorides react chemi
chemi-
applications, it is not permitted ((ACI
ACI 318-14).). When chlo-
chlo
cally with cement components, such as the calcium alumi alumi-
rides are added to concrete during mixing, intentionally or
otherwise, rapid corrosion can occur.
removed from the pore solution. As the concrete carbonates,
however, the chlorides can be released and become involved
subsequent corrosion rates. First, the chlorides increase the
in the corrosion process. Research indicates that some chlo
chlo-
ionic concentration of the pore solution and its electrical
rides also become physically trapped either by adsorption
conductivity (Enevoldsen et al. 1994). These factors lead to
or in unconnected pores (Midgley and Illston 1984; Zhang
an increase in the corrosion rate. Second, chloride-bearing
and Gjørv 2005). The fraction of total chlorides available
salts can alter the pH of the concrete pore solution; sodium
chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl) increase the
on steel is a function of numerous parameters, including the
pH whereas CaCl2, in high concentrations, reduces the pH
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and tetracalcium aluminofer-
(Browne 1980
rite (C4AF) contents (Tritthart 1989a), pH (Tritthart 1989b;
the chloride threshold value for corrosion (Tritthart 1989b).
Byfors 1986), and w/cm (Tritthart 1989a,b; Byfors 1986).
3.2.4.1.2 Transport of chlorides from the environment into
Higher pH values require more chlorides to initiate corro-
mature concrete—Transport of chlorides into concrete can
occur in sound concrete and proceed through the capillary
3.2.4.1.3,
pore structure of the cement-paste phase. Therefore, cracks
quality of the concrete cover on the critical chloride threshold
in the concrete are not a prerequisite for transporting chlo-
(CEB 2000). The threshold value of 0.4 percent Cl– by mass
rides to the steel reinforcement. The rate of transport depends
of cement proposed by CEB (2000) (approximately 2.4 lb/
strongly on many factors, including the water-cementitious
yd3 [1.4 kg/m3] of concrete), however, is higher than the acid-
materials ratio (w/cm), type of cement, presence of supple-
soluble chloride threshold value typically used in the United
-
States, which is 1.0 to 1.5 lb/yd3 (0.6 to 0.9 kg/m3) of concrete.
ciated with the chloride, temperature, and concrete maturity
Moreover, research has indicated a wide range of values for
(Goto and Roy 1981; Page et al. 1981, 1986; Hansson 1984;
chloride threshold (Hansson and Sørensen 1990; Glass and
Midgley and Illston 1984; Schonlin and Hilsdorf 1988; Mehta
Buenfeld 1997; Alonso et al. 2000; Trejo and Pillai 2003;
1980, 1989; ; Li et al. 1999; Nokken and
Poupard et al. 2004; Angst et al. 2009).
Hooton 2006; ).
It has been well documented that initiation of steel rein-
Although cracks are not necessary for the ingress of chlo-
forcement corrosion is not only dependent on the chlo-
rides, reinforced concrete generally contains cracks. The
ride concentration, but also on the OH– concentration and, possible to approximate the increase in the depth of carbon
carbon-
–
/OH–) ation, dc, in proportion to the square root of time, t (years),
(Venu et al. 1965; Hausmann 1967
1967; Gouda 1970;
1970 Thangavel as (Currie
Currie 1986
1986)
and Rengaswamy 1998; Alonso et al. 20002000; Li and Sagüés
2001). Angst et al. (2009) provide an overview of Cl–/OH– dc = kt 0.5 (3.2.4.2a)
values published in the literature and reported Cl–/OH–
values for corrosion activation ranging from 0.01 to 6.0 for Fortunately, carbonation rates in sound concrete with low
steel embedded in cementitious materials. CEB-FIP (1992) w/cm values are generally low. However, concrete in or near
reported the maximum Cl–/OH– value that can be tolerated industrial areas may experience higher carbonation rates
due to increased CO2 concentrations in these environments.
12.6 and 0.30 at a pH of 13.3. Care should be taken when Under natural conditions, the atmospheric concentration of
considering appropriate chloride values for the use in predic- CO2 is 0.03 percent. In cities, this is typically increased to
tive models or estimation of life expectancy of concrete 10 times that value and in industrial sites, it can be as high as
structures. Higher values, such as that provided by CEB-FIB 100 times naturally occurring levels (EPA 2016).
- The ingress of gases is higher at low relative humidities,
tural lives than use of the lower values typically adopted in but the reaction between the gas and the cement paste takes
North America. place in solution and is higher at high humidities. Therefore,
3.2.4.2 —Carbon- the most aggressive environment for concrete neutralization
ation is the general term given to the neutralization of is that of alternate wet and dry cycles and high tempera-
concrete by reaction between the alkaline components of the tures (Pfeifer and Scali 1981). Under constant conditions,
cement paste and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. an ambient relative humidity of approximately 60 percent
has been the most favorable for carbonation (Tuutti 1982;
of carbonation is a decrease in pH of the pore solution when Houst and Wittmann 2002). Three other major factors that
the pH level decreases to a level as low as 8.5, at which level
corrosion are: thin concrete cover, the presence of cracks
proceeds in concrete as a front, beyond which the concrete (Beeby 1978a,b, 1983), and high porosity associated with a
- low cement factor and high w/cm.
ation front reaches the steel reinforcement, general depas- 3.2.4.3 —
sivation over large areas or over the entire steel surface can Research by Tuutti (1982) has shown that chloride content
occur and general corrosion can be initiated (Roberts 1981; at the carbonation front reaches higher levels than in uncar-
Papadakis et al. 1991; Saetta and Vitaliani 2004; Isgor and bonated concrete and can be higher than levels measured
Razaqpur 2004). The depth of carbonation can be predicted just below the concrete surface. This increases the risk of
using numerical techniques (Papadakis et al. 1991; Saetta corrosion initiation when the carbonation front reaches
and Vitaliani 2004; Isgor and Razaqpur 2004), but it is also the steel reinforcement. The decrease in pH of the carbon-
ated concrete also increases the risk of corrosion because salt water being transported by capillary action upward
the concentration of chlorides necessary to initiate corro- through the concrete cover and evaporation of water from
sion—the threshold value—decreases with decreasing pH the surface, leaving behind the salts.
(Papadakis 2000; Puatatsananon and Saouma 2005). This is
because the chloroaluminates break down, freeing the bound
chlorides as the pH drops. 3.3.1 —Conventional steel reinforcement
3.2.5 Corrosion rates after initiation—Depassivation, is typically melted from scrap products; cast into billets;
stored; reheated; rolled to size; and then cooled, stored, and
active corrosion to occur. The presence of moisture and distributed. Conventional bars are manufactured in accor-
dance with ASTM A615/A615M or ASTM A706/A706M
rate. Corrosion can occur in wet, de-aerated concrete with -
hydrogen evolution as the cathodic reaction, but the rates erties (tensile characteristics and bending). ASTM A615/
of corrosion are much lower than in chloride-contaminated
aerated concrete (Hansson 1986). (40, 60, 75, and 80 ksi) and limits the phosphorus to 0.06
Chlorides are directly responsible for initiating corro-
sion, but they appear to play only an indirect role in deter- 520 MPa (60 and 80 ksi) and also places limits on the carbon
mining the rate of corrosion after initiation. The primary (maximum 0.30 percent), manganese (maximum 1.50
rate-controlling factors are the availability of oxygen, the percent), phosphorous (maximum 0.035 percent), sulfur
electrical resistivity, moisture content, pH, and tempera- (maximum 0.045 percent), and silicon (maximum 0.50
percent). Although ASTM A615/A615M does not prohibit
pH; electrical conductivity; porosity; and, because salts are
hygroscopic, the moisture content. Similarly, carbonation

corrosion. After corrosion initiation, corrosion rates may addition to the maximum carbon equivalent of 0.55 percent,
also be reduced by using corrosion inhibitors (3.4.5). enhance weldability of this product. In nonaggressive envi
envi-
Drying of hardened concrete requires transport of water ronments, products meeting both ASTM A706/A706M and
vapor to the concrete surface and subsequent evaporation. ASTM A615/A615M can provide long-term performance. In
Wetting dry concrete, on the other hand, occurs by capil-
capil aggressive environments where corrosion could be an issue,
lary suction and is, therefore, considerably faster than the coated or corrosion-resistant reinforcement may be required.
drying process (Volkwein
Volkwein 1993
1993; Baroghel-Bouny 2007).
2007 Alternatives to uncoated conventional steel reinforcement
Consequently, concrete rarely dries out completely except are epoxy-coated reinforcement, galvanized steel reinforce
reinforce-
for a thin layer at the surface (Hu
Hu and Stroeven 2003
2003; Jiang ment, corrosion-resistant reinforcement, or stainless steel
et al. 2006). Below this surface layer, there will usually be reinforcement. More information on steel reinforcement can
be found in ACI 439.4R
439.4R.
3.3.2 —Epoxy-coated
steel reinforcement has been widely used in many jurisdic-
of magnitude slower than that of gaseous oxygen (Gjorv tions in aggressive environments for decades and has gener-
et al. 1976; Kobayashi and Shuttoh 1991; Sercombe et al. ally been successful in delaying corrosion due to the ingress
2007 of chlorides (Kilareski 1977; McDonald 2010). ASTM
will be the rate-controlling process in concrete at normal A775/A775M and ASTM A934/A934M are standard speci-
relative humidity levels. Laboratory studies suggest there
is a threshold value within concrete, in the range of 70 to testing of epoxy-coated reinforcement. In addition, ASTM
85 percent relative humidity, below which active corrosion A1055/A1055M prescribes requirements for a relatively
cannot take place (Enevoldsen et al. 1994). Similarly, a high new product for deformed and plain steel reinforcing bars.
electrical resistivity can inhibit the passage of the corrosion These bars have a dual zinc alloy and epoxy coating.
current through the concrete. This is particularly important The widespread use has been based on a many laboratory
Bentur et al. 1997; Sagüés and Zayed 1989;
separation between the anodic and cathodic reaction sites. Zayed and Sagüés 1990; McDonald et al. 1995; Manning
Fully submerged concrete structures tend to be protected 1996; Weyers et al. 1998; Samples and Ramirez 1999;
from higher corrosion rates by lack of oxygen. Therefore, Lee and Krauss 2004; Saeed et al. 2004; Al-Amoudi et al.
despite being contaminated by high concentrations of chlo- 2004; Cui et al. 2007; Pincheira et al. 2008; Lau and Sagüés
rides, structures continuously submerged below sea water 2009; Lawler et al. 2011). To provide long-term corrosion
resistance of epoxy-coated steel reinforcement, the coating
structure in the splash zone, however, experiences particu- should be:
larly aggressive conditions. It is generally water-saturated, a) Relatively free of coating breaks and defects
b) Maintain high electrical resistance
close to the exposed parts of the structure that macrocells
can easily be established. High salt levels are the result of d) Resist undercutting
e) Resist the movement of ions, oxygen, and water in concrete for over 50 years. This reinforcement type has
These issues are addressed by ASTM A775/A755M, been reported to be particularly appropriate for protecting
which has the following requirements: concrete subjected to carbonation because zinc remains
a) The coating thickness should be 7 to 12 mils (175 to 300 passivated to much lower levels of pH than conventional
µm) for bar sizes No. 3 to 5 (No. 10 to 16) and 7 to 16 mils uncoated steel does (Yeomans 2004). However, zinc dissolves
(175 to 400 µm) for bar sizes No. 6 to 18 (No. 19 to 57). in a high-pH solution with the evolution of hydrogen (H2)
b) Bending of the coated bar around a standard mandrel as the cathodic reaction but develops a protective layer of
should not lead to formation of cracks. calcium hydroxyzincate after some hours (Tan and Hansson
2008). When galvanized steel reinforcing bars are used in
roughness depth of 1.5 to 4 mils (0.04 to 0.10 mm). concrete, a porous layer of concrete can form around the bar
d) The surface should be free from salt contamination prior
to coating. prevent it. A small amount of chromate salt may be added to
e) The number of pinhole defects should be no more than the fresh concrete to prevent hydrogen evolution (Yeomans
six per meter. 2004), and calcium nitrite has been used to prevent hydrogen
f) All damage should be repaired prior to placement into evolution of galvanized precast concrete forms (Berke et al.
concrete. 1990; Yeomans 2004).
Similar requirements are presented in ASTM A934/ Zinc-coated or galvanized welded wire reinforcement
A934M. Since 1991, an improvement in the quality of meeting the requirements of ASTM A1060/A1060M is
epoxy-coated bars and understanding of adhesion of coat- also available. ASTM A1060/A1060M is intended to be
ings to steel have developed, primarily because of addi- applicable to cold-worked wire, drawn or rolled, plain or
deformed, coated with zinc in a continuous process or alter-
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (CRSI) began a program natively through a hot-dip process of the welded wire rein rein-
- forcement after fabrication.
ings to reinforcement (CRSI 1991). ). Other researchers have 3.3.4 Stainless steel
steel—Stainless-steel reinforcement is
demonstrated that even damaged epoxy-coated reinforce
reinforce- being used more often as a reinforcing material for struc struc-
ment has improved corrosion performance when compared tures in particularly aggressive environments ((Neuhart
with uncoated carbon steel reinforcement (McDonald
(McDonald et al. 2000; IMOA 2007
2000 2007). ASTM A955/A955M covers deformed
1995; O’Reilly et al. 2011; Lee and Krauss 2004).
2004 and plain stainless steel bars for concrete reinforcement for
applications requiring corrosion resistance or controlled
documented in structures in the Florida Keys; Virginia; and magnetic permeability and requires demonstration of a
Ontario, Canada (Manning 1996; Pyc et al. 2000;
2000 Pianca et minimum level of corrosion resistance. AASHTO MP 18M/
al. 2005; Weyers et al. 2006; Sprinkel at al. 2010
2010). Some MP 18 also prescribes requirements for uncoated concrete
researchers reported that the primary causes of corrosion steel reinforcement where corrosion-resistant performance
were inattention to preparation of the bars before coating is needed.
and debonding of the coating before placement in the struc
struc- Stainless reinforcing steels were initially used in the 1930s
tures. In addition, Hansson et al. (2000) reported that some -
jurisdictions have observed failures of epoxy-coated rein- lation, the Progresso Pier, Yucatan, Mexico (constructed 1937-
forcement and have stopped specifying the coated steel 1941), has been the subject of ongoing research (Madrid et al.
because: 1) there is no guarantee that the reinforcement 2007). Several researchers reported that stainless steels exhibit
will be placed with the coating in pristine condition; and 2) higher corrosion resistance than conventional uncoated steel
epoxy will absorb moisture from the concrete over time and reinforcement (McDonald et al. 1995; Neuhart 2000; Trejo
could become debonded from the steel, allowing corrosion and Pillai 2004; Bautista et al. 2006; Hartt et al. 2007, 2009;
to take place. IMOA 2007; ). Higher corrosion resistance
Epoxy-coated welded wire reinforcement is also avail- can result in longer service lives.
able, meeting ASTM A884/A884M. Protective epoxy coat- In some applications, stainless steels have been used in
- combination with other types of reinforcement as a cost-
ibility (Type I and Type II) and two thicknesses after curing
as Class A or Class B. Type I coatings meet ASTM A775/ These designs typically use stainless steel for the outer layers
A775M and Type II coatings meet ASTM A934/A934M. of a structure that are expected to eventually have chloride
Class A materials have a minimum thickness of 175 microm- exposure in combination with carbon steel for inner parts
eters (7 mils) while Class B coatings have a minimum thick- that are not likely to be exposed to chlorides. Researchers
ness of 450 micrometers (18 mil) for use in mechanically have reported that the use of stainless steel in combination
stabilized earth applications. ASTM A884/A884M speci- with carbon steel does not increase the risk of corrosion of
passive carbon steel (Bertolini et al. 2002, 2013; Knudsen et
for wire and welded wire reinforcement intended for use in al. 1999; Knudsen and Skovsgaard 2001; Pérez-Quiroz et al.
concrete and masonry. 2008; ).
3.3.3 — ASTM A941 reports that stainless steel is a steel that
Zinc–coated (galvanized) steel reinforcement has been used contains a minimum of 10.5 percent chromium and a
maximum carbon content of 1.2 percent. The stainless steels ASTM A1035/A1035M
used for reinforcement meeting the ASTM A955/A955M carbon chromium steel reinforcement. Several researchers
corrosion requirements have higher chromium contents, report that low-carbon chromium steel reinforcement
generally 16 percent or greater. Nickel, molybdenum, and exhibits higher resistance to corrosion than conventional
nitrogen, typically used in lower percentages than chro- uncoated steel reinforcement (Trejo and Pillai 2004; Hartt
mium, are other alloying elements that increase corrosion et al. 2007, 2009; Darwin et al. 2009). Higher resistance to
resistance. In general, stainless steels are grouped by their corrosion can result in longer service lives.
metallurgical microstructure (ferritic, austenitic, martensitic,
and duplex [austenic and ferritic]). For aggressive concrete
environments, molybdenum and nitrogen, in addition to Concrete is the primary barrier against external aggressive
agents. Good concrete cover limits the ingress of aggressive
corrosion resistance. chemicals and provides a medium with high electrical resis-
When referring to steel reinforcement for concrete, it has tivity. In this section, main parameters of the concrete envi-
been common to classify stainless steels by the numbering
system originally developed by the American Iron and Steel 3.4.1 —The composition and
Institute (AISI): 300 series steels are austenitic and 2000 availability of the pore solution, rather than the concrete
itself, are the controlling factors of active corrosion of
(UNS) designations provide an internationally recognized steel reinforcement. Therefore, those components of the
- concrete that determine the pH of the pore solution, the
less steel reinforcement types include the austenitic steels total porosity, and the pore-size distribution are of impor-
304LN (UNS S30453), 316LN (UNS S31653), and XM-28 tance for the corrosion process.
(UNS S24100); and the duplexes 2304 (UNS S32304), and When portland cement hydrates, the calcium silicates react
2205 (UNS S32205), although other alloys are available. to form calcium silicate hydrates and calcium hydroxide
Letters following the ANSI grade number refer to the limi
limi- (Ca(OH)2). The Ca(OH)2 -
tation or presence of other elements (for example, L indi
indi- tion, maintaining the pH level at approximately 12.6. The pH
cates low-carbon and N indicates the addition of nitrogen). is generally higher than this value (typically 13.5) because
Series 300 austenitic stainless steels are non-ferromagnetic, of the presence of potassium and sodium hydroxides (KOH
relatively ductile, and contain chromium and nickel as the and NaOH), which are considerably more soluble than
primary alloys. Chromium provides corrosion resistance Ca(OH)2. KOH and NaOH are present in limited quanti quanti-
and nickel acts to stabilize the austenite phase. Some alloys ties, however, and any carbonation or pozzolanic reaction
also include molybdenum for enhanced corrosion resistance. rapidly reduces the pH to that of the saturated Ca(OH)2 solu-
Duplex stainless steels contain chromium as the primary tion. Thus, concerning corrosion, the higher the total alkali
content of the cement, the better the corrosion protection.
produce a discontinuous ferrite phase within a continuous However, increasing the alkalis can result in other deterio
deterio-
austenite phase in roughly equal proportions. This creates ration—reactive aggregates in the presence of alkalis can
lead to expansive and destructive alkali-aggregate reactions.
individual phases. Duplex steels are generally much stronger During the initiation and propagation stages of corrosion,
than austenitic steels with similar pitting resistance. It should concrete cover acts as a barrier against the transport of chlo-
- rides, carbon dioxide, oxygen, moisture, and other aggres-
sive agents. The importance of concrete cover depth and
resistance of these can vary (McDonald et al. 1995; Sykes quality on the corrosion process has been reported (Alonso
1995; Hansson et al. 2000; García-Alonso et al. 2007; et al. 1988; Smith and Virmani 2000; Russell 2004; Zhang
Yamaji et al. 2004; Trejo and Pillai 2004; Islam et al. 2013; and Lounis 2009). If the concrete cover is cracked, a faster
Van Niejenhuis et al. 2016). path for transport of these agents to the steel reinforcement
Stainless steel welded wire reinforcement is also avail- is provided (Marcotte and Hansson 2003; Fanous et al. 2000;
able, meeting ASTM A1022/A1022A Bertolini et al. 2013; Poursaee and Hansson 2008; Pacheco
covers stainless steel wire and welded wire reinforcement and Polder 2010
from hot-rolled stainless steel rod to be used as concrete of the amounts and types of cementitious materials, as well
reinforcement with corrosion-resistant and magnetic perme- as necessary construction practices and precaution for the
ability properties. The material may be cold-worked, drawn particular application should be considered. Cracking has
or rolled, and plain or deformed. been reported to be particularly pronounced in materials that
3.3.5 Other corrosion-resistant steel
steel—Although there rapidly gain strength (Krauss and Rogalla 1996).
For a given w/cm
being corrosion-resistant, for the purposes of this document pozzolanic components determine the porosity and pore-size
a corrosion resistant steel will be one that exhibits better distribution (Hansson and Sørensen 1987; Chindaprasirt et
corrosion resistance than conventional uncoated steel rein- al. 2004). Generally, supplementary cementitious materials
forcement (ASTM A615/A615M; A706/A706M) and resists
corrosion in the environment in which it will be exposed. porosity and decrease the transport rate of aggressive chemi-
cals into the concrete toward the steel reinforcement (Scali Free moisture on aggregate will contribute to the water
et al. 1987; Ampadu et al. 1999; Bermúdez and Alaejos
2010). Concretes containing these supplementary materials w/cm if it is not accounted for by adjusting the batch water
exhibit enhanced resistance to penetration of chlorides from accordingly. The porosity of the paste surrounding the
the environment (Hooton 2000; Bouzoubaâ et al. 2000; aggregate is usually higher than that of the paste, resulting in
Thomas et al. 2008). If too much pozzolan is used, however, a weaker transition zone at the interface of the aggregate and
all of the Ca(OH)2 may be used in the pozzolanic reaction, hardened paste (Bentz et al. 1996; Delagrave et al. 1997b;
Asbridge et al. 2001; Yang and Su 2002; Zheng et al. 2009;
drop to levels at which the steel reinforcement is no longer Angst et al. 2017). Therefore, if the size of the aggregate is
passivated (Wiens et al. 1995; Fraaij and Bijen 2004). nearly equivalent to the concrete cover over the reinforce-
Traditionally, the binding capacity of cement for chlorides ment, the ability of the chlorides to reach the reinforcement
has been considered to be directly related to the C3A content is enhanced. If reactive aggregates are used and alkalis are
of the cement. The chlorides can react to form insoluble present in the binder, alkali-silica reactions may take place.
chloroaluminates, which removes them from the pore solu- This can damage the concrete cover and potentially accel-
tion. There is a limit to the binding capacity of these alumi- erate the corrosion process in certain environments.
nate phases, however, and equilibrium is always established 3.4.4 Curing conditions—Increased curing times and
between the bound and the free chlorides, so that even with longer times before being exposed to aggressive media
high C3A contents, there will always be some free chlorides can result in better resistance to penetration by chlorides or
in solution. CO2 (Fattuhi 1988; Bentur and Jaegermann 1991; Mangat
Evidence shows that a reaction with C3A is only one of and Limbachiya 1999). This is particularly important for

solution. In ordinary portland cement, there is no direct ash, in which the pozzolanic reaction is much slower than
relationship between the concentration of bound chlorides
and the C3A content. Thus, the total aluminate phases are ash concrete usually exhibits lower resistance to penetra
penetra-
considered to be involved in the binding ((Rasheeduzzafar tion of chlorides than an ordinary portland cement concrete,
and Al-Saadoun 1993; Delagrave et al. 1997a
1997a; Zibara et al.
2008). Mehta (1977) reported a qualitative relationship with superior properties ((Feldman 1981
1981; Marsh et al. 1985;
both the (C3A + C4AF) content and pH of the pore solution. Alhoizaimy et al. 1996
1996).
3.4.5 Corrosion inhibitors
inhibitors—A corrosion inhibitor for
chloride binding for concretes containing supplementary metal in concrete is a substance that reduces the corrosion
cementitious materials (Ozyildirim
Ozyildirim 1987),
1987), but it has been of the metal without reducing the concentration of the corro
corro-
well established that supplementary cementitious materials
(ISO 8044)) of a corrosion inhibitor and is used to distin
distin-
corrosion, primarily by reducing the transport rate of chlorides guish between a corrosion inhibitor and other additions
into the concrete (Li et al. 1999; Zhang et al. 1999; Thomas to concrete that improve corrosion resistance by reducing
et al. 1999; Papadakis 2000; Obla et al. 2003). Some adsorp- chloride ingress into concrete. Corrosion inhibitors are not
tion of chlorides on the walls of the pores, or in the interlayer a substitute for sound concrete. They can work either as
spaces, and some trapping in unconnected pores may account anodic or cathodic inhibitors, or both, or as oxygen scav-
for the higher chloride binding in blended cements with very
Sellevold et al. 1985).
Research indicates that supplementary cementitious in the corrosion rate and an increase the chloride-induced
-
ation (Papadakis et al. 1992; Thomas and Matthews 1993; an anodic inhibitor is used. Adding an anodic inhibitor
Malhotra et al. 2000; Sisomphon and Franke 2007). It promotes the formation of limonite, a hydrous gamma ferric
-
lanic reaction can allow the neutralization of the cement pH levels. Adding a cathodic inhibitor or oxygen scavenger
paste by atmospheric gases to proceed at a higher rate than -
in ordinary portland cement concretes. tion as shown in Eq. (3.2.1a).
3.4.2 w/cm —The Numerous chemical admixtures, both organic and inor-
porosity and the rate of penetration of deleterious mate-
rials are directly related to the w/cm. In general, a reduced corrosion in concrete (Berke and El-Jazairi 1990; Nmai et
w/cm results in improved corrosion resistance, provided the al. 1992; Pyc et al. 1999; Bolzoni et al. 2006). Among the
inorganic corrosion inhibitors are potassium dichromate,
not result in increased cracking (Krauss and Rogalla 1996; stannous chloride, sodium molydbate, zinc and lead chro-
Schmitt and Darwin 1999; Darwin et al. 2004). mates, calcium hypophosphite, sodium nitrite, and calcium
3.4.3 Aggregate—Unless it is porous, contaminated by nitrite. Sodium nitrite has been investigated and used with
- Corbo and Farzam 1989;
ence on the corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete. Gu et al. 1997). Calcium nitrite is the most widely used inor-
ganic corrosion inhibitor in concrete (Hope and Ip 1989;
Ramasubramanian et al. 2001; Bola and Newtson 2005;
Ann et al. 2006), and it has the advantage of not having the

susceptibility to alkali-silica reaction. Organic inhibitors

investigated have included sodium benzoate, ethyl aniline,
morpholine, amines, and mercaptobenzothiazole (Sagoe-
Crentsil et al. 1993; Hansson et al. 1998; Monticelli et al.
2000; Saraswathy et al. 2001; Trabanelli et al. 2005).

plastic and hardened concrete characteristics. Before using

-
stood and, where necessary, appropriate steps should be
taken in consultation with the inhibitor manufacturer to
overcome or minimize detrimental interactions. Because
corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are water-soluble, there is
concern that leaching from the concrete can occur, particu-
-
tion of the inhibitor at the level of the reinforcement. When
used in sound concrete with w/cm values less than or equal ture will be exposed and the potential local environmental

Berke et al. 1994). corrosion activity. Knowing the environmental conditions

of the reinforcement will assist in ensuring long-term and

durable performance.
4.2.1 Consideration of environmental conditions
conditions—The
rate at which a structure is damaged by corrosion is depen
depen-
Corrosion in reinforced concrete structures can result in dent on the global and local environments in which the struc
struc-
and often requires extensive ture is constructed. Chapter 3 provided information on the
repairs or replacement. Generally, these actions are expen-
expen
sive and, therefore, it is prudent to take economically justi
justi- in concrete. For an actively corroding structure, tempera
tempera-
-
during the anticipated life of the structure. ments in which chlorides are present and CO2 levels are high
Measures to protect reinforcing steel against corrosion in will require corrosion prevention strategies during design.
new structures include: Sohanghpurwala (2006)
a) Design approaches and choices United States based on climatic conditions and the use of
b) Methods of excluding external sources of chloride from -
concrete
c) Corrosion control methods—This chapter addresses and cautioned the reader on using these zones for design
each measure with the objective of assisting the reader in purposes. The designer should assess exposure conditions
producing a durable and corrosion-resistant reinforced using generally available resources, but also exercise judg-
concrete structure. ment regarding local environments and standards of practice.
ACI 365.1R describes approaches to modeling the design
service life and can assist in setting owner expectations.
Every design process begins with setting expectations and In addition to global environmental conditions, local envi-
performance criteria with the owner and stakeholders. As a
design approach, corrosion resistance and economy over a steel reinforcement (Lindvall 2000). For example, in concrete
ACI 562; ACI that is continuously submerged, the rate of corrosion is often
365.1R), is most easily implemented when it is set as a goal Gjorv et al. 1976;
in the early developmental stage of a project. Design consid- Kobayashi and Shuttoh 1991; Hussain et al. 2012; Guo et al.
erations that can enhance the corrosion resistance of rein- 2015). Alternatively, splash zones or concrete embedded in
forced concrete structures include achieving the minimum
concrete cover prescribed by ACI 318, selecting the rein- concentrations of chlorides can accumulate, which can lead
forcement type, developing requirements for the detailing of to high rates of corrosion (Hansson et al. 2006). Thus, it is
the structure, and achieving proper drainage of the structure.
It is critical that the designer know and understand the impact
of the overall environmental conditions in which the struc- design service life for the entire structure.
 4.2.2 Consideration of structural design parameters— Therefore, when chlorides penetrate the concrete, some of
The detailing of a reinforced concrete structure is critical the reinforcing steel can be in contact with chloride-contam-
to its durability characteristics and service life. Adequate inated concrete while other reinforcing steel is in relatively
drainage and a method of removing drainage water from the -
structure are particularly important. Pockets that hold water tions within the concrete can create corrosion cells that can
or even horizontal surfaces that allow water to stand can lead create a large driving potential and a large cathode-to-anode
to increased absorption of water containing aggressive ions ratio that accelerates the rate of corrosion.
(Hartt et al. 2004). Similarly, even vertical surfaces that stay 4.2.3 Consideration of constituent materials—Chlorides
damp for long periods may be subjected to a greater ingress
of water and chlorides. For reinforced concrete structural in concrete. Chlorides can be naturally present in constit-
members exposed to chlorides and subjected to intermittent uent materials used to make concrete or from external
wetting, the degree of protection against corrosion is deter-
mined primarily by the depth of concrete cover, the presence limits of admixed chloride in concrete for new construc-
and width of cracks, and the transport rate of aggressive ions tion. However, there is debate as to what limits should be
through the concrete (ACI 201.2R; Liu and Weyers 1998; Trejo and Weyers 2013). There is a wide range
Weyers 1998; Trejo and Reinschmidt 2007; Williamson et of allowable admixed chloride limits, depending on struc-
al. 2009; Hussain et al. 2012). Estimates of the increase in ture type and structure exposure. A limit of no chlorides in
corrosion protection provided by an increase in concrete concrete is unrealistic because trace amounts of chlorides
cover depth can be determined through the interrelationship are naturally present in many concrete-making materials. In
some cases, for example, when producing concrete under
and Reinschmidt (2007) showed that a 50 percent increase cold-weather conditions, producers of chloride-bearing
in cover depth can lead to an almost 200 percent increase in aggregates and some admixture companies would prefer
higher and fewer restrictive limits. The risk of corrosion,
it can also lead to larger crack widths, increasing the risk of however, increases as the chloride content increases. When
corrosion as discussed in ACI 224R. Therefore, selecting a the chloride content exceeds a certain value, termed the crit
crit-
ical chloride threshold, corrosion can occur if oxygen and
costs during construction is important. moisture exist to support the corrosion reactions. It is impos
impos-
- sible to establish a single chloride content below which the
risk of corrosion is negligible for all mixture constituents,
performance of a structure. Reinforcement size and spacing systems, and exposure conditions. In practice, the allowable
directly impact the clear spacing between the reinforcing
bars. This clear spacing dictates the maximum-size aggre
aggre- than the chloride concentration required to initiate corrosion
gate that can be used in the structure, and the aggregate size if water and oxygen are available.
Because the allowable admixed chloride content is depen
depen-
(ITZ), particularly its size, and the tortuosity of the ionic dent on the critical chloride threshold, some background
- information on critical chloride threshold is provided herein.
port rate in concrete (Zheng and Zhou 2007). In addition, the
time to cracking and spalling after the initiation of corrosion chloride threshold level required to initiate corrosion of steel
is a function of the concrete cover, bar diameter, the rein- reinforcement in concrete (Lewis 1962; Gouda 1970; Strat-
forcement spacing, and the concrete strength (Kulicki et al. full et al. 1975; Arup 1982; Hope and Ip 1987; Hansson and
1990; El Maaddawy and Soudki 2007; Jang and Oh 2010; Sørensen 1990; Schiessl and Raupach 1997; Hussain et al.
Guzmán et al. 2011; Mullard and Stewart 2011). 1995; Thomas 1996; Glass and Buenfeld 1997; Breit 1998;
When chlorides are transported into hardened concrete, Alonso et al. 2000; Trejo and Pillai 2003, 2004; Trejo and
highly variable chloride concentrations can exist around the Monteiro 2005; Ann and Song 2007; Darwin et al. 2009;
Ghods et al. 2010). Early research by Stratfull et al. (1975)
the concentration of chlorides on the concrete surface, local indicated that the critical threshold value for steel reinforce-
ment embedded in concrete ranged from 0.2 to 1.4 percent
pieces (Hartt and Nam 2008), and variations in the depth of of total chlorides by mass of binder. Research at the Federal
concrete cover to the reinforcing steel, including the spacing Highway Administration (FHWA) laboratories (Clear 1976)
between the top and bottom mats. These factors can promote showed that hardened concrete subjected to external chlo-
rides had a corrosion threshold of 0.20 percent by mass of
in the environment surrounding the steel reinforcement. cement (acid-soluble chlorides). A later study by Pfeifer
Furthermore, most reinforced concrete structural members et al. (1987) reported the threshold to be 0.21 percent by
mass of cement. These corrosion threshold values were also
usually connected electrically. Constructors commonly posi-
tion and secure the reinforcing steel with bent bars, chairs, several in California (Stratfull et al. 1975) and New York
tie wires, or a combination of these, which permit metal- (Chamberlin et al. 1977
common value of 1 lb Cl–/yd3 (0.59 kg Cl–/m3) of concrete
used by many state highway agencies for predicting service amount of chloride that forms calcium chloroaluminates
life of reinforced concrete structures. Reported values in the is a function of the C3A content of the cement (Roberts
1962; Rasheeduzzafar et al. 1991; Sakr 2005). As a result of
This can be attributed to the lack of a standard test for critical binding, several researchers have reported elevated critical
- chloride threshold concentrations for admixed chlorides
tion for corrosion activation, lack of one standard chloride (Locke and Siman 1980; Browne 1980; Liu and Weyers
test method, and other factors. 1998). Given the high solubility of chloride in water-based
Alonso et al. (2000) and Angst et al. (2009) performed solutions, however, these bound chlorides may reenter the
concrete pore solution over time, thereby increasing the
available chlorides for corrosion (Azad and Isgor 2016). For
- example, bound chloride will be released during carbonation
ride threshold value: of the concrete creating a wave of increased chloride in front
a) Steel-concrete interface of the carbonation front ( ). The resulting
b) pH of the pore solution decrease in pH and increase in chloride can initiate corrosion
c) Electrochemical potential of the embedded metal at very low chloride concentrations. Therefore, care should
d) Surface condition of the embedded metal be taken when considering these elevated threshold values
e) Binder type because the studies on the critical chloride threshold of steel
f) Moisture content of concrete reinforcement embedded in concrete with admixed chlorides
g) Oxygen availability were relatively short-term studies. The potential for later-age
h) Water-binder ratio
i) Electrical resistivity of concrete life was not assessed.
j) Degree of hydration of the cementitious material -
k) Chemical composition of the embedded metal ence the critical chloride threshold and corrosion perfor
perfor-
l) Temperature mance of a reinforced concrete system. Mammoliti et al.
m) Source of chlorides (premixed or penetrated) (1996), Pillai and Trejo (2005)
(2005), Ghods et al. (2011b), Rossi
n) Type of cation accompanying chloride and Elsener (2012)
(2012), and Isgor et al. (2013) all showed
o) Presence of other species
Other relevant factors, such as consolidation of concrete, chloride threshold, corrosion activity, and performance.
irregularities on steel surface, reinforcement alloy compo-
compo For example, Ghods et al. (2011b) and Isgor et al. (2013)
sition, presence of admixtures (especially corrosion inhibi-
inhibi reported that when millscale on steel reinforcement was
removed by turning and polishing, the chloride thresholds
value of the critical chloride threshold. Alonso et al. (2000) increased by as much as an order of magnitude.
reported in the authors’ experiments that the percent of In addition to the wide range of critical chloride threshold
total (acid-soluble) chlorides by mass of cement required to values for conventional steel reinforcement, research
initiate corrosion ranged from 1.24 to 3.08 percent. has also focused on determining the threshold value for
The Angst et al. (2009) review indicated that the litera- prestressing strands. Early research by Pfeifer et al. (1987)
ture reported values from near zero to 2.5 percent by mass reported that for an unstressed prestressing strand, the chlo-
of binder. This review also reported that mortar exhibited ride threshold was 1.2 percent by mass of cement, nearly six
less scatter and lower upper limit values than concrete and times that of conventional reinforcing steel. When stressed,
that the test method for determining chloride threshold was the authors reported that the strand was more susceptible
a critical parameter. The authors also reported the following: to corrosion but was still reported to be more resistant than
a) There is a need for a practice-related test method mild conventional reinforcement. The authors concluded
b) The test method should use ribbed reinforcement in the that commercially available strand wires were coated with
as-received condition zinc phosphate, calcium stearate, and other lubricants before
c) The reinforcement should be embedded in mortar or drawing and these coatings may have provided corrosion
concrete protection to the tested strands. More recent research indi-
d) Chlorides should be introduced by capillary suction and cates that the threshold level of prestressing is much lower
than the values reported for conventional reinforcement,
e) Corrosion activation (depassivation) should be detected ranging from 0.006 to 1.2 percent acid-soluble chlorides
by potential measurements, linear polarization, or electro- by mass of cement (Fernandez et al. 2013; Azuma et al.
chemical impedance spectroscopy 2007; Trejo et al. 2009). Lee (2012) reported active corro-
The critical chloride threshold depends on whether chlo- sion of prestressing tendons in several bridges with chloride
rides are present in the mixture constituents or penetrates the concentrations less than 0.003 percent by mass of cement. It
hardened concrete from external sources. When chlorides should be noted, however, that these bridges also had other
are added to the concrete, some will chemically combine defects, including grout bleed voids, that could have exacer-
with the hydrating cement paste, predominantly the alumi- bated the observed corrosion of the tendons. Note that these
nate phase (Enevoldsen et al. 1994). Chlorides can also be are threshold levels and not necessarily limits on allowable
combined or bound when penetrating the concrete. The chlorides in the cementitious mixture. Allowable limits
should be much lower than the critical chloride threshold concrete containing these aggregates, it is recommended that
limit. ACI 318, AASHTO (2014), and PTI M55.1-12 limit the paste (cementitious materials, water, and admixtures) be
the acid soluble chlorides in grout to 0.08 percent by mass assessed independently for chloride concentration following
of cement. either the water- or acid-soluble testing and the aggregates
Corrosion of prestressing steel is generally a greater be assessed independently following ASTM C1524. The
concern than corrosion of nonprestressed reinforcement chlorides from the water, cement, supplementary cementi-
because of the possibility that corrosion may result in a local- tious materials, admixtures, and any other constituent
ized reduction in cross section and failure of the prestressing materials (using ASTM C1152/C1152M or ASTM C1218/
steel. The high stresses in the prestressing steel also render C1218M) and the chlorides from the aggregates (using the
it more vulnerable to stress-corrosion cracking and, where Soxhlet method from ASTM C1524) should be summed to
the loading is cyclic, to corrosion fatigue. Also, prestressed determine if the chlorides are lower than the required allow-
structures can be less redundant than conventionally rein- able limits.
forced concrete structures. Li et al. (2011) reported that
higher stresses in prestressing steel results in increased chloride, but there are exceptions. Aggregates from southern
corrosion activity and that pitting corrosion is the main Ontario, Canada, have been reported to have an acid-soluble
mechanism of attack on these steels. Most of the reported chloride content of more than 0.1 percent by mass, of which
examples of failure of prestressing steel ( ; less than one-third is water-soluble, even when the aggregate
Peterson 1980; Goins 2000; Harries 2009) have resulted is pulverized (Rogers and Woda 1977). Aggregates (both
from corrosion, reducing the load-carrying area of the steel
strands. Because of the potentially greater vulnerability and also contain high levels of chlorides. Some chlorides in
the consequences of corrosion of prestressing steel, chloride aggregates are not soluble when unpulverized and when the
limits for prestressed concrete are lower than those for rein
rein- aggregate is placed in water over extended periods. Rogers
forced concrete. A review of corrosion of prestressed steels
is provided in ACI 222.2R. in corrosion performance of aggregates containing bound
In determining a limit on the allowable admixed chloride chlorides and aggregates containing no chlorides when used
content of the mixture constituents, several factors should in reinforced concrete structures. The authors concluded that
the chlorides in the aggregate were bound within the aggre
aggre-
assess the chloride concentration. Chloride concentra-
concentra
would not contribute to corrosion. Although some aggreaggre-
- gates have bound chlorides that may not contribute to corro
corro-
cally used to determine the chloride content of hardened sion, some aggregates containing chlorides could release
concrete: acid-soluble (ASTM
ASTM C1152/C1152M)
C1152/C1152M and water- their chlorides, causing later corrosion. Aggregates, partic
partic-
soluble (ASTM C1218/C1218M) methods. The acid-soluble ularly those from arid areas or dredged from the sea, can
method measures chloride that is soluble in nitric acid and
can include chloride bound within the hydrated cement paste initiate early corrosion. Because of this, care should be taken
and aggregate. The water-soluble chloride content method when using aggregates containing chlorides. ASTM C1524
can be used to assess water-soluble chlorides that could be
extraction conditions. Usually, chloride testing of concrete freed from the aggregate.
free of ingressed chloride is performed to determine the Allowable admixed chloride limits in building codes vary
background chloride content, which can later be used to widely. ACI 318 allows a maximum water-soluble chloride
determine the amount of ingressed chloride content. The content by mass of cement of 0.06 percent in prestressed
acid-soluble chloride test generally results in higher chlo- concrete, 0.15 percent for reinforced concrete exposed to
ride concentrations than water-soluble chloride testing, and moisture and an external source of chlorides, 0.30 percent
the ratio between the two quantities depends on the amount for concrete exposed to chlorides from external sources,
of chlorides present and cement chemistry (Mohammed and and 1.00 percent for reinforced concrete that will be dry or
Hamada 2003). Typically, the ratio between acid-soluble and protected from moisture in service. The British Code, BS
water-soluble chloride contents decreases with increasing 8110, limits the total chloride content by mass of cement to
chloride contents. This guide assumes that, on average, the 0.1 percent for prestressed concrete, 0.2 percent for concrete
water-soluble chloride concentration determined following exposed to chloride in service, and 0.4 percent for concrete
ASTM C1218/C1218M is 20 to 25 percent lower than the that will be dry or protected from moisture in service. These
acid-soluble chloride concentration determined by ASTM values are largely based on an examination of several struc-
C1152/C1152M. tures that had a low risk of corrosion with up to 0.4 percent
ASTM C1524 provides a method to determine the water- chlorides added to the mixture ( ). The Norwe-
soluble chlorides in aggregate (that is, the Soxhlet method). gian Code, NS 3420-L, allows an acid-soluble chloride
This method cannot be used to determine the chloride content of 0.6 percent for reinforced concrete made with
concentration in grout, mortar, concrete, or other cementi- normal portland cement, but only 0.002 percent chloride
tious systems. Therefore, if aggregates contain chlorides and
concern exists regarding the chloride concentration of the
although their rationale for establishing these limits is not
well documented.
ACI publishes a wide range of allowable admixed chlo- Chloride limit for new construction (percent
ride limits in their various committee documents and these by mass of cementitious material*)
limits seem to be dependent on structure type and exposure Test method
conditions. No documents address the allowable chloride
Acid-soluble Water-soluble
limits for corrosion-resistant reinforcing steels. The allow-
able admixed chloride limits in Table 4.2.3 for concrete used ASTM C1152/ ASTM C1218/
Category C1152M C1218M
in new construction, expressed as a percentage by mass
of cementitious materials (with limits), are recommended Prestressed concrete 0.08 0.06
to minimize the risk of chloride-induced corrosion. These Reinforced concrete in
0.20 0.15
values are the consensus of the committee. wet conditions
Concrete materials that meet the requirements given Reinforced concrete in
0.30 0.25
in either of the relevant columns in Table 4.2.3 should be dry conditions†
acceptable. If the concrete materials do not meet the rele- *
Portland-cement-based systems only. Total cementitious material includes portland
cement and SCM; however, for determining allowable admixed chloride level, the
vant limits given in the table, alternate materials should SCM content cannot exceed the portland cement content.
be used. The committee emphasizes that these are recom- †
Typically interior concrete protected from moisture, high humidity, or both.
mended limits for new construction and not threshold values
for corrosion initiation. These allowable admixed chloride For prestressed and reinforced concrete exposed to chlo-
limits should result in low risk of corrosion. However, there rides while in service, the lowest possible chloride levels
should be maintained in the concrete mixture to maximize
will not have an associated level of risk of initiating corro
corro- the service life of the concrete. Consequently, chlorides
sion of reinforcing steel. should not be intentionally added to the concrete mixture or
Note that the limits published in Table 4.2.3 are based its constituent materials even if the chloride content of the
on cementitious materials. ACI 318 bases chloride limits materials is less than the stated allowable limits. In many
on portland cement content. The reader is encouraged to exposure conditions, such as highway and parking struc struc-
review the papers in Tepke et al. (2016)
(2016): Chloride Thresh
Thresh- tures, marine environments, and industrial plants where
olds and Limits for New Construction.
Construction. The SP provides chlorides are present, additional protection against corrosion
information that indicates that the addition of SCMs, up to of embedded reinforcing steel may be necessary.
about 50% replacement (AzadAzad and Isgor 2016),
2016), can provide Because moisture content and oxygen concentration
similar resistance to chloride-induced corrosion; therefore, around reinforcement are critical for the corrosion process,
the limits in Table 4.2.3 are based on cementitious materials there are some exposure conditions where corrosion will not
content, and not just portland cement content.
The maximum chloride limits recommended in Table 4.2.3 exceed recommended values. For example, as mentioned in
ACI 4.2.1, reinforced concrete continuously submerged in deep
318. As noted previously, ACI Committee 222 has taken a seawater rarely exhibits corrosion-induced distress because
more conservative approach than most other ACI commit- low oxygen levels slow the corrosion rate. If a portion of
tees because of the serious consequences of corrosion, the a reinforced concrete member is above the water level and
- a portion below water level, the portion above can exhibit

of a structure. Even so, the literature indicates that corro- formation of an oxygen-concentration cell. Similarly, where
sion can occur at these limits and even below these limits. concrete is continuously dry, there is little risk of corrosion
Potentially, some or all the bound chlorides in concrete, from chloride in the hardened concrete because transport
such as those combined with C3A, may become unbound or of ions necessary to sustain corrosion is limited by the lack
free at later ages. This is due to reactions with carbonates or of moisture. Interior locations that are wetted occasionally,
sulfates that displace or release the chloride in the insoluble such as kitchens, bathrooms, and laundry rooms; buildings
compound of the concrete and free it into the pore solu- constructed with pumped lightweight concrete that is subse-
tion during the corrosion process. Trejo and Weyers (2013) quently sealed before the concrete dries (for example, with
recommended basing chloride limits on exposure class (C0, vinyl tiles); and internal locations with high humidity can be
C1, and C2 as in ACI 318), importance of structure, and on susceptible to corrosion damage. Note that the designer has
reinforcement type (conventional or prestressed). Structures little control over the change in use or the service environ-
of high importance would require lower chloride concentra- ment of a building, but the chloride content of the concrete
tions, structures exposed to moisture and chlorides would
require lower chloride limits, and materials for prestressed
or post-tensioned concrete would require the lowest limits. can be misleading. Stratfull (1984) reported case studies of
Limits should also consider steel reinforcement type approximately 20 bridge decks containing 2 percent calcium
(for example, conventional reinforcement, stainless steel chloride built by the California Department of Transporta-
reinforcement). tion (DOT). The bridges were located in an arid area where
the annual rainfall was approximately 5 in. (125 mm),
most of which fell during a short period. Within 5 years of
construction, many of the bridge decks were showing signs
of corrosion-induced spalling and most were removed from
service within 10 years. For these reasons, a conservative
approach to allowable chloride limits is needed.
4.2.4 —Where
concrete will be exposed to chlorides, the concrete should
be made with the lowest w/cm (a design parameter) consis-
tent with achieving adequate consolidation and curing
(construction variables) and limiting cracking due to
restrained shrinkage (Schmitt and Darwin 1999; Darwin et
al. 2004, 2010; Lindquist et al. 2006). Although a low w/c
(or w/cm) can reduce the chloride transport rate, cracking due w/c
to restrained shrinkage of concrete, such as occurs on bridge
decks, is exacerbated by the increased concrete strength and
lower tensile creep that result from a lower w/cm (Schmitt
and Darwin 1999; Darwin et al. 2004, 2010). The cracks
that form, typically directly over transverse reinforcing bars,
result in greatly increased chloride contents at the level of
the bar when the bridge deck is exposed to chloride-bearing
deicing chemicals (Lindquist et al. 2006).
w/cm on time-to-corrosion initiation has
been well documented in the literature (Jaegermann 1990 1990;
; Frederiksen et al. 1997
1997; Sharp and
Mokarem 2014). Bentz and Thomas (2014) reported that
Da,28 in m2/s) is a
function of w/c as follows

Da,28 = 10(–12.06+2.40·
(–12.06+2.40·w//c)
(4.2.4a)

Page et al. (1986) w/c

/ and cover
depth on chloride penetration, and these results are shown
in Fig. 4.2.4a. The authors also reported on the degree of
consolidation versus rate of ingress of chloride—these
results are shown in Fig. 4.2.4b. Concrete with a w/c of 0.40

than concretes with w/c values of 0.50 and 0.60. However, a

low w/c -
port rates. As shown in Fig. 4.2.4b, concrete with a w/c of
0.32 with poor consolidation is less resistant to chloride
penetration than well-consolidated concrete with a w/c of
w/c and depth of concrete w/c and depth of concrete cover on
cover is shown in Fig. 4.2.4c, which illustrates the number of
daily applications of salt before the chloride content reached
a presumed critical value of 0.20 percent by mass of cement DSF = DOPCe–0.165×SF (4.2.4b)
(acid-soluble) at the various depths. Thus, 1.5 in. (40 mm)
of 0.40 w/c where DSF
reinforcing steel against corrosion for 800 salt applications. with silica fume replacement, and DOPC -
Equivalent protection was provided by 2.75 in. (70 mm) of
concrete cover with a w/c of 0.50, or 3.5 in. (90 mm) of 0.60 ordinary portland cement (OPC) concrete. This leads to a
w/c concrete. Strategies to reduce cracking, larger concrete
cover, or the provision of additional corrosion protection percent of an OPC concrete for a concrete with 5 percent
treatments may be required in some environments. mass replacement of cement with silica fume. Thomas and
Bentz et al. (2000) - Bamforth (1999)

replacement as concrete when compared to the OPC mixtures, and used a

 steel with widths less than approximately 0.012 in. (0.3 mm)

steel. This implies that allowable cracks greater than 0.012

-
mately 43 and 21 percent when compared to that of the 100 the CEB-FIP (1992) code reported that although there were
percent OPC concrete at 10 years, respectively, and approxi- issues with the relationship between crack width and corro-
mately 37 and 16 percent, respectively, at 25 years. sion, a maximum crack width of 0.012 in. (0.3 mm) was
In addition to w/c, w/cm, and the use of supplementary satisfactory for long-term durability. Later, Darwin et al.
cementitious materials, Kirkpatrick et al. (2002a,b) reported (1985) and Oesterle (1997) reported that crack width cannot
that in bridge decks, a reduction in w/cm from 0.47 to 0.45 be correlated with the corrosion rate and resulting damage.
was predicted to result in a service life increase from 34 to
47 years. The service life with a w/cm of 0.45 using either the amount of corrosion of cracked and uncracked concrete
specimen after exposure. The literature (Atimay and
2002a,b). In addition to w/c and w/cm, chemical admixtures Ferguson 1974; CEB-FIB 1992; Darwin et al. 1985; Oesterle
have been shown to increase the critical chloride threshold
and reduce the transport rate of chlorides in concrete (Aldred of crack width on corrosion activity. Several researchers
1988; Nmai et al. 1992; Goodwin et al. 2000; Trépanier et have found that crack widths less than 0.012 in. (0.3 mm)
al. 2001; Ormellese et al. 2006; McCarter et al. 2006; Mano-
haran et al. 2009). reinforcement and larger crack opening could negatively
Numerous corrosion inhibitors are available and the
- structure. Larger cracks and longitudinal cracks can nega-

time to corrosion of a reinforced concrete structure. The concrete structures and actions should be taken to prevent,
minimize, or seal these cracks.
Darwin et al. (2004) and Lindquist et al. (2006) hypoth-
esized that cracks in the concrete cover could accelerate the
the workability, placeability, and durability of a concrete corrosion, but crack width is not related to corrosion activity.
mixture. As shown in Fig. 4.2.4b, workability can be a crit-
crit Darwin et al. (2004) reported that crack density—that is,
the summation of crack length on the concrete surface in
4.2.5 Consideration of construction practices—Although
practices—Although
the crack width. However, a study conducted by Vidal et
long-term performance of reinforced concrete structures, al. (2007)
- corrosion activity. The authors reported that crack widths
tion practices on time to corrosion. It is well known that if
- process. Other researchers found that the reaction product
cant reduction in time to corrosion could occur (Vu et al. of the corrosion process can slow the ingress of water and
2005; Oh and Jang 2003; Oh et al. 2009; Williamson et al. chlorides, resulting in reduced corrosion rates (Jacobsen
2009; Hussain et al. 2012; Mullard and Stewart 2011; Yu et al. 1996; Li 2000). However, Jacobsen et al. (1998) and
et al. 2015). Placing tolerances for reinforcing steel, the Sahmaran and Yaman (2008) reported that the size of the
method of construction, and the level of inspection should
activity. Cracks resulting from plastic shrinkage, settle-
achieved. The minimum depth of cover should be incorpo- ment, or an overload condition can cause concern. Cracks
rated with expected construction tolerances (accounting for that follow the line of a reinforcing steel (often referred to
typical construction variance) to achieve a rational depth of as longitudinal cracking), such as settlement cracks, have
Weed 1974; Tikalsky et al. 2005). been reported to be more damaging because the exposure
The role of cracks perpendicular to reinforcing steel on and resulting corroded length of the reinforcement is greater
the corrosion of reinforcing steel has been controversial (Poursaee and Hansson 2008).
and the evolution of the thinking on the impact of cracks
has changed. In earlier studies, Tremper (1947), Martin and
Schiessel (1969), and Raphael and Shalon (1971) reported
that there is no relationship between crack width and corro- 4.3.1 Waterproof membranes—Waterproof membranes
sion. However, ACI 224.1R reported that the role of cracks are used to minimize the ingress of moisture and chloride
perpendicular to reinforcing steel on corrosion is a func- into concrete, as discussed in detail by ACI 515.2R. These
tion of concrete quality, cover, and crack size. In 1971, ACI membranes are generally in the form of preformed membrane
318 systems, constructed-in-place, or liquid-applied systems
and 0.013 in. (0.41 and 0.33 mm) for interior and exterior (Kepler et al. 2000; Russell 2012). Built-up membranes that
exposure conditions, respectively. Atimay and Ferguson became popular in 1960s are not widely used in current prac-
(1974) tice (Manning 1995). Preformed membrane systems, which
are most often used in the United States, include sheets that within the slab during service, consideration may be required
are bonded to the concrete surface using pressure-sensitive for breathability of the membrane or use of vapor suppres-
abrasives or heat. Liquid-applied systems include the appli- sion systems to mitigate moisture-related coating failures.
cation of the membrane in the form of hot or cold liquids Field performance of waterproof membranes depends not
and may include a layer of reinforcing fabric. Hot-applied
rubberized asphalt has been the most widely used liquid on the workmanship, weather conditions during installation,
membrane in North America (Russell 2012). design details, and the service environment. The preformed
Waterproof membrane systems may also include other sheets are formed under factory conditions but are often
components. Primers are applied to the concrete surface to
increase the bond between the membrane and the concrete. adhesives, and are highly vulnerable to the quality of the
Membranes are sometimes covered with a protective overlay, workmanship at critical locations in the installation, such
as in the case of concrete bridge decks, and a tack coat is as at slab penetrations and expansion joints. Although it is
used between the membrane and the protective overlay to
increase the bond between the two materials (Russell 2012). the liquid-applied systems, these systems are easier to apply
In Europe, ventilating layers, made up of either a thin lift and tend to be less expensive (Kepler et al. 2000). Although
of sand asphalt or a perforated sheet made of felt or other earlier studies have indicated that waterproof membranes
nonwoven fabric, are sometimes used to dissipate vapor may be able to provide up to 50 years of service before rein-
pressures and reduce consequent blistering. However, most forcement corrosion becomes a problem (Frascoia 1984),
agencies in North America do not recommend ventilating typical service lives in North America vary between 10 to
layers because they reduce the bond of the membrane to the 30 years (Manning 1995; Wojakowski and Hossain 1995; Xi
deck (Manning 1995; Kepler et al. 2000). et al. 2004; Russell 2004, 2012; Hearn and Xi 2007; Liang
The overall performance of a waterproof membrane et al. 2010
2010).
system depends on the performance and compatibility of its An NCHRP survey of state highway agencies in the
United States and provincial ministries of transportation in

methods involving these systems. For example, the perfor

perfor- used in new bridge decks, but defects and failures are more
mance of a membrane system can be evaluated by measuring likely to occur when membranes are used on existing bridge
its resistance to a hydrostatic head over a preformed concrete decks than on new bridge decks (Russell 2012). In this
crack in accordance with ASTM D5385/D5385M or by survey, 34 state agencies reported the installation of water
water-
detecting water penetration through the membrane using proof membranes on concrete bridge decks from 1994 to
electrical resistance measurements as per ASTM D3633/ 2012. During this period, three agencies discontinued their
D3633M use, four specify them only for new bridge decks, 11 specify
ASTM them on existing bridge decks, and 16 continue to use them
D4787 both for existing and new bridge decks.
in concrete bridge decks is standardized in ASTM D4071 The main reason of reported defects and failures in the
and D6153, which cover both preformed and liquid-applied NCHRP study (Russell 2012) was the lack of adhesion
between the membrane and the concrete surface and between
addressed as part of Section 21 of the AASHTO LFRD the membrane and the overlay. Moisture penetration through
- the membrane due to unknown reasons was also reported.
Membrane blistering, punctures, and voids under the
some states impose additional requirements (Russell 2012). membrane were reported as additional causes of membrane
As described by Sohanghpurwala (2006), the ideal water- failures; however, the incidence of these defects has been
-
a) Be easy to install rials and application protocols (Manning 1995). For example,
b) Have good bond to the substrate and the protective overlay membranes can be installed without blistering when proper
(where used) curing procedures are followed. Blistering is caused by the
c) Be compatible with all the system components, including expansion of entrapped gases, solvents, or moisture in the
the substrate, prime coat, adhesives, and overlay (where concrete after application of the membrane. Once cured, the
used) -
d) Maintain impermeability to chloride and moisture under cient to resist blister formation. To ensure good adhesion,
service conditions, especially temperature extremes, crack the concrete surface should be carefully prepared; dried; and
movements, aging, and superimposed loads free from curing membranes, laitance, and contaminants
e) Be safe to apply and have low volatile emissions such as oil drippings (Weyers et al. 1993).
Additionally, the system should be abrasion-resistant, 4.3.2 —Polymer concrete over-
have good frictional characteristics for slip resistance where lays consist of aggregate in a monomer or polymer binder.
The binders that are commonly used are epoxies, polyester-
exposed to sunlight, and should be easy to repair. Depending styrenes, methacrylates, and epoxy-urethanes (Fowler and
on time of application and expected moisture conditions Whitney 2011). Polymer concretes are rapid-setting, can be
 was measured by quantifying the percent of the deck area
are highly abrasion-resistant, and are resistant to water and that was damaged by delamination or spalling. It was shown
chloride penetration. However, because they are relatively that the performance of the overlays was less dependent on
- the type of overlay than on the methods used to prepare the
ally restricted to the rehabilitation of concrete bridge decks deck. Overlays performed best when concrete was removed
(Sprinkel 2003). Polymer overlays can be placed either by from areas that had showed high probability of corrosion
spreading the resin over the concrete deck and broadcasting with half-cell potential measurements rather than only from
the aggregate into the resin, or by premixing all the constitu- damaged areas, when concrete was removed to below the
ents and placing the polymer concrete with a screed (Fowler reinforcement, and when the exposed surface was sand-
and Whitney 2011). Although thicker applications have been blasted. Chamberlin and Weyers (1994) estimated that when
reported, they are generally used as thin overlays that are less these procedures are followed, low-slump dense concrete
than 1 in. (25 mm) thick (Kepler et al. 2000). Carter (1993) overlays have service life potentials of 30 to 50 years,
reported that polymer concrete overlays that are less than assuming that the end of service life occurs when 40 percent
0.40 in. (10 mm) thick may be economically competitive of the total deck area is damaged.
with other repair materials. The use of thin polymer over- 4.3.4 —Silica
lays tripled from 1990 to 1999 and more than quadrupled
from 1999 to 2008 (Fowler and Whitney 2011). As these are and large surface area. In concrete, the silica fume reacts
- with excess calcium hydroxide to form calcium silicate
facturer’s data guides should always be followed where they hydrate binder, which results in the material being stronger
and more resistant to chloride transport. Due to the small size
of silica fume relative to cement and other SCMs, improved
can make some resins incompatible with concrete decks; particle packing can be obtained, resulting in a denser and
therefore, careful selection of the polymer binder and aggre-
aggre less permeable microstructure. As a result, silica fume can
gate gradation is necessary. Most monomers do not perform reduce the ingress of chlorides into concrete exposed to
well if they are applied on a substrate with high moisture chloride-containing solutions (Kepler et al. 2000; Bentz et
content and if the temperature is low; therefore, the substrate al. 2000; Ramezanianpour et al. 2015
2015). Silica fume concrete
should be dry and at a temperature higher than 40°F (4°C). overlays can be used to mitigate corrosion challenges in
Improper mixing of the components of the polymer has been reinforced concrete structures, particularly bridge decks.

substrate and aggregates should be dry so as not to inhibit the applications and studies.
polymerization (Sherman
Sherman et al. 1993
1993; Harper 2007;; Kepler Silica fume concrete overlays were placed on bridge decks
et al. 2000). When constructed properly on new decks, thin in Virginia as part of two separate studies to evaluate the
polymer overlays can provide a service life of 10 to 25 years, characteristics of silica fume concrete as thin overlays for
Weyers et al. 1993; corrosion protection and to determine the minimum amount
Carter 1993; Fowler and Whitney 2011). of silica fume needed to reduce the transport rate of chlorides
4.3.3 —Portland cement to low levels (Ozyildirim 1992; Sprinkel 2000). Ozyildirim
concrete overlays consist of low-slump (dense) concrete and (1992) investigated two concrete types with 7 and 10 percent
reduce chloride and moisture ingress into the underlying silica fume cement replacement and concluded that silica
concrete (Sherman et al. 1993). These overlays have high
cement contents (typically over 800 lb/yd3 [470 kg/m3]) and for bridge decks to reduce chloride ingress, but that plastic
low w/c (as low as 0.30) (Kepler et al. 2000). Due to their shrinkage was a concern and proper placing and curing
procedures needed to be followed. Whiting et al. (2000)
to place, expensive, and prone to surface cracking. Some of
these problems can be mitigated with the use of high-range in their study investigating cracking tendency and drying
water-reducing admixtures, but overworking or the addition shrinkage of silica fume concrete overlays for bridge deck
applications. It was reported that silica fume concrete over-
the overlay. Proper curing is important to prevent cracking lays need to include a provision for 7-day continuous moist
(Babaei and Hawkins 1990). curing to prevent premature cracking. Sprinkel (2000), who
investigated six bridge decks with 7 percent silica fume over-
the early 1960s in Iowa and Kansas and their applications lays, reported that these overlays should continue to be used
expanded quickly in other states. In 1999, over 44,600 yd3 as deck protective systems, and even when cracks might
(37,300 m2 form due to short curing times, they cause minor reductions
low-slump dense overlay in Iowa lasted for 23 years before in the life of the deck.
it was replaced; overlays that were cast later had service Despite the potential of silica fume concrete as an overlay
lives over 25 years (Kepler et al. 2000). material, testing by Wee et al. (1999) showed that the pene-
In 1991, 153 bridge decks with low-slump dense concrete
overlays were evaluated for a strategic highway research only slightly less than the penetration into high-quality ordi-
project (Weyers et al. 1993). Performance of the overlays nary concrete. Miller and Darwin (2000) and Lindquist et
al. (2005) also reported that the use of silica fume in bridge evaluated and has been reported to reduce the frequency of
deck overlays do not provide advantages over conventional corrosion-induced cracking compared with uncoated carbon
concrete overlays; therefore, the extra cost and construction steel in test slabs, but did not prevent corrosion (McDonald
et al. 1998; Darwin et al. 2002).
Available stainless steel reinforcement includes 304LN,
- 316LN, 2101, 2205, 2304, and others (McDonald et al.
tional concrete; low-slump, high-density overlays; and silica 1998; Pedeferri et al. 1998). Trejo and Pillai (2004) reported
fume overlays (Lindquist et al. 2005; Browning and Darwin critical chloride threshold values of 0.82, 1.23, and 1.91
2007). percent by mass of cement for 304, ASTM A1035/A1035M,
4.3.5 —LMC and 316LN steel reinforcing bars, respectively. Darwin et al.
consists of a conventional portland cement concrete supple- (2009) reported a critical chloride threshold of 1.06 percent
mented by a polymeric latex emulsion, mostly in the form of by mass of cement (0.17 percent by mass of concrete) for
styrene-butadiene latex. Typically, 10 to 15 percent of water reinforcement meeting ASTM A1035/A1035M and a lower-
is replaced with latex, which provides additional binding bound value of 3.2 percent by mass of cement (0.51 percent
while the water in the emulsion hydrates the cement. As a by mass of concrete) for 316LN stainless steel. Hartt et al.
result, low-w/c concretes with high resistance to chloride (2009) reported a critical chloride threshold value of 1.44
ingress are achievable. Because LMC overlays are gener- percent by mass of cement for reinforcement meeting ASTM
ally easier to apply than low-slump dense concrete overlays, A1035/A1035M and higher values for 316, 304, and 2304
despite their higher cost, they are widely used in the United (specimens with these reinforcement types did not initiate
States. In Virginia, LMC overlays consistently outperformed during the research program). ACI 365.1R recommends a
conventional and low-slump dense concrete overlays chloride limit range of 0.2 to 0.5 percent by mass of concrete
(Sprinkel 1992, 2000). ). LMC overlays can be expected to last for 304 reinforcement and 0.5 to 0.8 percent by mass of
up to 25 years, after which they usually need to be replaced concrete for 316 reinforcement for probabilistic corrosion
due to rutting and general wear (Babaei
Babaei and Hawkins 1990
1990). models.
Hot-weather conditions can cause rapid drying of LMC, 4.4.2 —
FRP used as concrete reinforcement include both carbon
concrete, latex can reduce bleeding and promote plastic FRP (CFRP), glass FRP (GFRP), and more recently, basalt
shrinkage cracking; night placement of LMC overlays helps Hassan et al. 2000
2000; Bradberry 2000
2000). A variety of resin
reduce these problems. Refer to ACI 548.3R and 548.4 for types and sizings are used in the manufacture of FRP rein rein-
additional information about LMC and its applications.

may be epoxy, vinyl ester, or blends (Bradberry 2000). Fiber

To prevent corrosion of the reinforcing steel in a corrosive sizing is typically used to improve the interface between
environment, either the reinforcement should be made of a
corrosion-resistant material or the reinforcing steel should
be protected from contact with oxygen, moisture, and chlo- -
rides (or other aggressive ions). Corrosion of the reinforce- erties of FRP reinforcement in concrete.
ment may also be mitigated by using corrosion inhibitors or The primary value of FRP reinforcement is its electro-
applying cathodic protection. The selection of a corrosion- chemical inertness and resistance to classical corrosion in
resistant material should be based on the environmental chloride-contaminated concrete. However, the designer
exposure condition using a service life model. For additional should consider the long-term residual strength of FRP rein-
information on service life modeling and method analysis, forcement. Although GFRP reinforcing bars do not exhibit
refer to ACI 365.1R. classical corrosion, researchers (Tannous and Saadatmanesh
4.4.1 Corrosion-resistant steels—Chapter 3 provided a 1999; Micelli and Nanni 2004; Trejo et al. 2005; Mukherjee
review of available reinforcement for concrete. In addition and Arwikar 2005; Debaiky et al. 2006; Gardoni et al. 2012)
to conventional reinforcement, a wide variety of corrosion-
resistant steels are available for use as concrete reinforce- tensile capacity of GFRP reinforcement when exposed to
ment. These types of reinforcement include solid low-alloy aggressive solutions and exposure conditions (for example,
steel reinforcement as well as solid and clad stainless steel high pH, salt water, high temperature, freezing-and-thawing
cycles, and wet/dry cycles). Based on many accelerated
of knowledge on the corrosion performance of these solid exposure tests, models have been developed to predict the
reinforcing steels embedded in cementitious materials, and long-term performance of these GFRP reinforcing bars.
corrosion resistance has been reported to be better than Trejo et al. (2005) performed tests on the residual tensile
conventional reinforcement (Gu et al. 1996; Clemeña 2003; strength of GFRP bars embedded in concrete and reported
Clemeña and Vermani 2004; Trejo and Pillai 2003, 2004; that the tensile capacity could drop below the design
Phares et al. 2006; García-Alonso et al. 2007; Scully and capacity after just 7 years. Kim et al. (2012) reported that
Hurley 2007; ; Serdar et al. 2013; Van the probability of failure of the decks containing both No. 4
Niejenhuis et al. 2016). Clad reinforcement has also been (12 mm diameter) and No. 6 (19 mm diameter) GFRP bars is
higher than the failure probability generally accepted in the Other examples of corrosion damage of structures built with
AASHTO load and resistance factor rating (LRFD) speci- ECR were reported with service life corrosion protection
periods of less than bare reinforcing to 7 years more than
reduction in capacity (Bradberry 2000). Care should be used bare reinforcing (Smith et al. 1993; Clear 1998).
when selecting FRP reinforcement for concrete, especially One research program initiated in the 1980s was conducted
when considering GFRP. to better understand the cases of poor performance of epoxy-
4.4.3 Metallic reinforcement coatings—Metallic coatings coated reinforcing steel (Pfeifer et al. 1992). This program
involved testing of bent coated reinforcing steel from seven
-
tive corrosion potential (less noble) than steel, such as zinc of the systems exhibited poor performance whereas two of
the systems exhibited good performance. It was concluded
coating is damaged, a galvanic couple is formed in which that the performance was directly based on the application of
the coating is the anode. Noble coatings, such as copper the coatings and manufacturing procedures. Critical perfor-
and nickel, can protect the steel as long as the coating is
unbroken because any exposed steel is anodic to the coating. the need for a low number of holiday and maintenance of
Even where steel is not exposed, corrosion of the coating minimum damage throughout construction, as well as the
may occur in concrete through a mechanism similar to the need for improved steel surface roughness and steel clean-
corrosion of uncoated steel. liness prior to coating. In 1991, the Concrete Reinforcing
Nickel (Tripler et al. 1966; Baker et al. 1977), cadmium
(Bird and Strauss 1967), and zinc (Tripler et al. 1966; program to address these issues. In general, the industry has
Cornet et al. 1968; Cook and Radtke 1977; Darwin et al.
2009)) have all been shown to be capable of delaying, and in and future performance may be improved.
some cases preventing, the corrosion of reinforcing steel in
concrete, but only zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars life extension of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel. Studies
are commonly available.
Results of the performance of galvanized reinforcing bars lower design lives than those estimated from research in
the 2000s. Field studies from 1997 to 2000 estimated the
performance (Cornet
Cornet and Bresler 1966;
1966 Gowripalan and increase in corrosion period of ECR compared with carbon
Mohamed 1998; Bellezze et al. 20062006;; Darwin et al. 2009), in steel at only 1 to 7 years ((Weyers et al. 1997
1997; Clear 1998;
others, exhibiting relatively similar performance as conven-
conven Covino et al. 2000
2000; Brown and Weyers 2003
2003). McDonald et
tional reinforcement ( ; Bautista and Gonzalez al. (1998) estimated from laboratory studies that the corro
corro-
1996; Andrade and Alonso 2004), ), and sometimes giving sion life extension was approximately 24 years.
mixed results (Hill et al. 1976). Zinc will corrode in concrete In 2010, Sagüés et al. researched the performance of
(Baker et al. 1977; Pourbaix 1974) and pitting can occur the nearly 300 structures containing epoxy-coated bars in
under conditions of nonuniform exposure in the presence Florida. The work grouped the performance of the structures
of high chloride concentrations (Unz 1978; Andrade and
Alonso 2004). Field studies of embedded galvanized bars in
service for many years in a marine environment or exposed showed distress after 30 years of service. The majority of
to deicing salts have also shown mixed results (Cook and bridges (290) were predicted to provide 100-year design
Radtke 1977; Bhuyan and Tracy 1984; Phares et al. 2014). lives with minimal damage.
In general, it appears that there can be a modest increase in In a study for FHWA involving multiple types of epoxy-
service life in severe chloride environments (Clear 1981). coated reinforcement in laboratory tests and in simulated
When galvanized reinforcing bars are used, all bars and
hardware in the exposed portions of the structure should decks in northeast Kansas, Darwin et al. (2011, 2014)
be coated with zinc to prevent galvanic coupling between observed that damaged epoxy-coated reinforcement exhib-
coated and uncoated steel (Clear 1981). ited more disbondment than the same reinforcement without
4.4.4 Organic reinforcement coatings—Epoxy-coated damage. Even when damaged, however, the various epoxy
reinforcement (ECR) is the most commonly used corro-
sion-resistant reinforcement for concrete structures. It was
introduced to protect concrete structures based on research to be several times those of uncoated reinforcement and the
conducted by the National Bureau of Science (Clifton et al.
1974) and adoption was rapid to prevent deterioration of for all systems in the study.
concrete bridge decks due to the application of deicing salts. Reducing the damage to the coating during transporta-
The early history of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel was tion and handling helps maximize the life of epoxy-coated
marred by several failures, including corrosion of coated
reinforcing steel in piers of bridges in the Florida Keys methods, rough installation, impact from hand tools, and
(Sagüés et al. 2010). This corrosion led to many research contact with unprotected immersion vibrators. ACI 301 and
programs questioning the value of the epoxy-coating system. ASTM D3963/D3963M require padded bundling bands and
nonmetallic slings to reduce damage during transportation,
handling, and storage at the job site. Coated tie wires, coated The latest version of such inhibitors is referred to as amine
wire, or precast concrete block bar supports are also required carboxylates. For more information on chemical admixtures,
to minimize damage to the bar coating during placing. All refer to ACI 212.3R.
visible coating damage should be repaired, and if the total 4.4.6 Cathodic protection
amount of damaged coating exceeds the limit in project used on reinforced concrete bridges in the 1970s (Strat-
- full 1974). Cathodic protection systems, both galvanic and
ceptable and be replaced. impressed current, have been used to extend the service
While there remains some controversy regarding life life of reinforced concrete structures, but Sohanghpurwala
prediction of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel, during the past (2009) reported that the use of impressed current cathodic
40 years several studies have shown that ECR can provide protection was declining. Sohanghpurwala (2009) reported
increased service life (McDonald et al. 1998; Sagüés et al. that the primary disadvantages of impressed current cathodic
2010; Darwin et al. 2011, 2014). protection systems are initial costs, required monitoring,
The condition of the epoxy coating is critical to the perfor- and required maintenance, but noted that galvanic systems
mance, and while several studies have shown good perfor- are becoming more attractive and more widely used than
mance, several agencies are still concerned about the use of impressed current systems. Section 6.3.3 provides descrip-
ECR in aggressive environments. tion of cathodic protection systems.
4.4.5 Chemical inhibitors—Corrosion inhibitors are The cathodic current density necessary to maintain a
admixtures that either extend the time to corrosion initia- passive layer on the reinforcing steel before the reinforced
tion, reduce the corrosion rate of embedded metal, or both, concrete is contaminated with chlorides is relatively low.
in concrete containing chlorides in excess of the accepted Typical operating current densities range from 0.02 to 0.2
corrosion threshold value for the metal in untreated concrete. mA/ft2 (0.2 to 2.0 mA/m2) for cathodic protection of new
The mechanism of inhibition is complex, and no general reinforced concrete structures, compared with 0.2 to 2 mA/
theory is applicable to all situations. ft2 (2 to 20 mA/m2) for existing salt-contaminated structures
(Daily and Kendall 1998). Cathodic protection can be used
various chemicals as corrosion inhibitors for reinforcing steel by itself or in conjunction with other methods of corrosion
in concrete (Verbeck 1975; Rosenberg et al. 1977;1977 Tomo-
Tomo control.
sawa et al. 1990; Nmai et al. 1992
1992; Al-Qadi et al. 1992;
1992 Nmai
and Krauss 1994; Mäder 1995; Gu et al. 19971997; Trépanier et
al. 2001; Ann et al. 2006; Ormellese et al. 2006;
2006 Halmen Corrosion in reinforced concrete structures can result in
and Trejo 2012; O’Reilly et al. 2013
2013).
). The compound groups -
that have been investigated included primarily chromates, tures is expensive and it is imperative that designers take

amines. Some of these chemicals have been reported to be

and designers should consider when designing new struc struc-
laboratory tests. Some inhibitors that appear to be chemi- tures. Although the chapter covers a wide range of topics,
every situation that could lead to early corrosion has not been
properties of the concrete (O’Reilly et al. 2013). All inhibi- addressed. When questions arise regarding corrosion dura-
tors should be tested in concrete before use. bility of new structures, the engineer, designer, or both, is
Corrosion-inhibiting properties of an anodic admixture encouraged to consult an expert in corrosion and durability.
should be tested in accordance with ASTM C1582/C1582M,
which references ASTM G109, that takes at least 1 year
but often longer (Halmen and Trejo 2012). Some corrosion
inhibitors may not show the initiation of corrosion within

C1582M. Cathodic or mixed corrosion-inhibiting admix-

tures may be tested by the method described in O’Reilly et
This chapter focuses on technologies and instrumenta-
both corrosion threshold and corrosion rate. When appli- tion used for conducting condition evaluations of reinforced
cable, ASTM G180, which is performed in cementitious concrete structures to identify corrosive environments and
slurries, could be used to evaluate corrosion-inhibiting prop- active areas of corrosion.
erties of admixtures in an expedited way. Corrosion-induced damage in reinforced concrete struc-
- tures such as bridges, parking garages, and buildings, and the
itor (Tomosawa et al. 1990; Berke and Weil 1992; Berke et related cost for maintaining such structures in a serviceable
al. 1994; Montes et al. 2005; Halmen and Trejo 2012) and condition, is a major concern for the owners of these struc-
tures. There are many examples of severe corrosion-induced
amine derivatives have been used commercially as corrosion damage of reinforced concrete structures. In extreme cases,
inhibitors in the United States since the mid-1980s and have corrosion-induced damage has led to structural failures in
the form of partial or total collapse. NACE IMPACT (2016) h) Drainage details
reported that the total annual estimated direct cost of corro- i) Maintenance and repair history
sion in the United States is approximately 3.4 percent of the j) Presence of any corrosion-protection systems
nation’s gross domestic product (GDP), and reinforcement k) Time since previous survey
corrosion in concrete shares a large portion of this cost. The The second step entails engineering analysis of the obtained
corrosion problem, which is primarily caused by chloride
intrusion into concrete, is particularly acute in snowbelt areas followed by the third step in the process, which is to conduct
where deicing salts are used and in coastal marine environ- a thorough condition survey of the structure. The condition
ments. Detecting corrosion in its early stages and developing
repair, rehabilitation, and long-term protection strategies to tests to quantify the deterioration of the subject structure and
extend the service life of structures are challenging tasks. as-built conditions. This step should be balanced by funds
available versus data needed for assessment. More time
corrosion status of structures and to facilitate implementa- spent during evaluation can improve the knowledge base
tion of appropriate and timely remedial measures while allo-
further evaluation until the repair construction phase runs

remedial measure for deteriorated structural concrete in a evaluation phase or anticipated in the repair design phase.
corrosive environment is a formidable task. The alternatives -
span the extremes of inaction to complete replacement of the ratory test results and facilitates the next step in the process,
structure, but most often, some type of corrosion prevention which is the development of a deterioration model. Dete-
or rehabilitation measure is deemed appropriate. In any case rioration models are a set of mathematical relationships
between corrosion condition data and remaining service life,
be made. Historically, this process has been arduous, with future condition of the structure, or estimated future damage.
no standards or guidelines available to assist in the analysis, Several models have been proposed that predict remaining
but a step-by-step process has evolved for selecting a tech
tech- Purvis
- et al. 1994; Sagüés et al. 1998a
1998a,b; Gulikers and Raupach
ture in a corrosive environment. This methodology has been 2006; Isgor and Razaqpur 2006a
2006 2006a,b; Samson and Marchand
successfully applied to bridge structures and can be applied 2007; Pour-Ghaz et al. 2009
2009; Ehlen et al. 2009). Some of
to any reinforced concrete structure in a corrosive environ-
environ these models predict the initiation stage of corrosion of rein
rein-
ment (Scannell et al. 1999).
). The methodology includes the forcement by simulating the transport of ionic species in
following steps: concrete (Samson
(Samson and Marchand 2007 2007; Ehlen et al. 2009),
a) Obtain information on the structure and its environment whereas others predict the propagation stage ((Sagüés et al.
1998a,b; Gulikers and Raupach 2006 2006; Isgor and Razaqpur
a scope of work 2006a,b;
,b; Pour-Ghaz et al. 2009
2009). For any of these models to
c) Conduct a thorough condition evaluation of the structure -
d) Analyze the condition evaluation data
e) Develop a deterioration model for the subject structure also provides information on the optimal time to repair or
f) Identify rehabilitation options that are viable for that rehabilitate a given structure, and can assist in managing
particular structure the overall cost to achieve the desired service life. Refer to
g) Perform life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) ACI 365.1R for information on the service life prediction of
- concrete structures.
tating the structure The condition survey data, the output from the deterio-
ration model, and the amount of corrosion-induced damage
structural drawings (including shop drawings and subse- that can exist on a particular structure before it should be
repaired are used in identifying rehabilitation options that
condition surveys, and available information on the environ- are viable for that particular structure. In this step, a number
mental conditions at the site. Acquired information should
include the following: viability and desired service life of the structure.
a) Location, size, type, and age of the structure The second-to-last step in the methodology is the LCCA,
b) Any unusual design or as-built features which compares and evaluates the total cost of competing
c) Environmental conditions, such as temperature, relative rehabilitation options to satisfy similar functions based on
humidity, and precipitation and their variations the anticipated life of the rehabilitated structure (Purvis et
d) Exposure conditions—for example, pollutants, acids, al. 1994; Daigle and Lounis 2006). The value of a partic-
marine or deicing and anti-icing applications ular rehabilitation option includes not only its initial cost,
e) Reinforcing steel details but also the cost of using that option for the desired period.
f) Construction history To perform the LCCA, estimates of the initial cost, mainte-
g) Type of steel reinforcement (uncoated, epoxy-coated, nance cost, service life for each rehabilitation strategy being
galvanized, and prestressing steel) considered, and the cost of lost revenue during repairs are
needed. Finally, based on the LCCA results, the most cost- methods, particularly those that directly measure corrosion,
are not directly applicable to post-tensioned structures for
noted that the LCCA can include a multi-step approach of reasons that are discussed in 5.3.2.
5.3.1 Nonprestressed reinforced concrete structures—The
-
sive environments and active corrosion in structures with
nonprestressed reinforcement are discussed in the following
Since the late 1960s, techniques and procedures have been sections.
developed to facilitate a proper condition assessment of rein- 5.3.1.1 Visual inspection—A visual inspection or condi-
forced concrete structures. Judicious use of these techniques
and proper data interpretation are required before arriving at assessing the extent of corrosion-induced damage and the
a conclusion and implementing corrective action. general condition of the concrete. A visual survey includes
Several nondestructive test (NDT) methods are avail- documentation of cracks, spalls, rust stains, popouts, scaling,
able for assessing, either indirectly or directly, the corrosion construction joints, coatings, and other visual evidences of
activity of reinforcing steel in concrete or future propen- concrete deterioration. Naturally, not all this visual evidence
sity for corrosion. Other test methods are also available for will be a result of corrosion. The size and visual condition
assessing the condition of the concrete. A typical condition of any previous patch repairs should be also documented. In
survey, therefore, involves two interrelated aspects: corro- addition, the condition of any existing corrosion-protection
sion of the reinforcing steel and concrete evaluation. ACI systems or materials and drainage conditions—in particular,
228.2R provides details on the underlying principles of most evidence of poor drainage—should be recorded.
of the NDT methods discussed in this chapter. The visual survey information is recorded on a drawing of
The objective of the condition survey is to determine the the structure. A visual inspection is a vital part of the evalu
evalu-
cause and extent of the reinforcing steel corrosion and what ation because the use of subsequent test procedures depends
can be expected in the future with regard to continued deteri
deteri- on the visual assessment of the structure. The inspection
should follow an orderly progression over the structure so
structure, some or all the procedures listed in the following that no sections of the structure are overlooked. For more
are used in the condition survey. information on conducting visual inspections of reinforced
Methods for evaluating the corrosion of reinforcing steel concrete structures, refer to ACI 201.1R
201.1R.
include: 5.3.1.2 —Delamination of the
a) Visual inspection (5.3.1.1) concrete is one of the most important forms of deterioration
b) Delamination survey (5.3.1.2) induced by corrosion of reinforcing steel. A delamination
c) Concrete cover measurements (5.3.1.3) is a separation of concrete planes, generally parallel to the
d) Chloride content analyses (5.3.1.4) reinforcement, resulting from the expansive forces of corro
corro-
e) Depth-of-carbonation testing (5.3.1.5) sion products. Depending on the ratio of concrete cover to
f) Electrical continuity testing (5.3.1.6) bar spacing, the fracture planes will form either V-shaped
g) Concrete moisture and resistivity measurements (5.3.1.7) trenches, corner cracks, or a delamination at the level of the
h) Corrosion potential mapping (5.3.1.8) reinforcing steel parallel to the concrete surface. The extent
i) Corrosion rate measurements (5.3.1.9) of delaminations increases with time due to continuation of
j) Determination of cross section loss by removing concrete the corrosion process, cycles of freezing and thawing, impact
to access the reinforcing steel (5.3.1.10)
Moisture, resistivity, corrosion rate, and potential mapping delamination will result in a spall. The extent of concrete
provide instantaneous results that will vary according to
climatic conditions. (refer to ACI 364.1R), rehabilitation, and long-term protec-
Concrete evaluation test methods: tion strategies. More information on repair techniques can
a) Visual inspection (5.4.1) be found in ACI 546R and ICRI 310.1R.
b) Core extraction and compressive strength testing (on Several techniques, based on mechanical, electromag-
cores or in place) (5.4.2) netic, or thermal principles, are available to detect delami-
c) Chemical testing for chloride content and estimation of nations. Sounding techniques, such as striking the concrete
with a chain, rod, or hammer, use low-frequency sound
d) Rapid chloride permeability testing (5.4.4) waves discernible to the human ear, whereas impact-echo,
e) Petrographic analysis (5.4.5) impulse response, and pulse velocity use high-frequency
Various methods that can be used for conducting a condi- stress waves. Short-pulse, ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
tion assessment of concrete structures and these are summa- is an electromagnetic energy-based system and infrared
rized by Poston et al. (1995) and ACI 228.2R. (IR) thermography is a thermal energy-based system. Khan
(2003) summarized various conventional and emerging
NDT methods.
Corrosion evaluation methods in this section are primarily The most commonly used and least expensive method
for reinforced and pretensioned concrete structures. Some for determining the existence and extent of delaminations
is sounding with a chain, hammer, or steel rod. Depending on contrast in material emissivity that results in thermal
on the orientation and accessibility of the concrete surface,
the concrete is struck with a hammer or rod, or a chain is 5.3.1.2.1 —The use of GPR as a nonintru-
dragged across the surface. Concrete with no delaminations sive method of detecting deterioration in concrete bridge
produces a sharp, ringing sound. Delaminated areas emit a Cantor and Kneeter 1977),
dull, hollow sound. ASTM D4580/D4580M describes this and additional research resulted in improvements in the
test method. For large horizontal areas, such as highway accuracy of the technique (Alongi et al. 1982; Cantor and
bridge decks, a chain is dragged along the concrete surface Kneeter 1982; Clemeña 1980; Laurens et al. 2005; Dérobert
to locate delaminations. The edges of delaminations are then et al. 2008). GPR technology was studied in depth under the

the bottom surfaces of slabs or other overhead areas are (SHRP) and is considered a viable technique for detecting
tested with a hammer or steel rod. Delaminated areas are deterioration in reinforced concrete (Alongi et al. 1992).
outlined on the concrete surface and subsequently trans- Based on the SHRP research, AASHTO developed a provi-
ferred to survey drawings with reference to the survey grid sional standard for evaluating asphalt-covered bridge decks
coordinates. Delaminated areas are often approximated as using GPR (AASHTO TP 36). The use of GPR to detect
rectangles to minimize the number of sawcuts during prepa- delaminations is also described in ASTM D6087.
GPR is analogous to the impact-echo or pulse-echo
methods used for delamination detection, except that
GPR uses electromagnetic waves instead of stress waves.
it is to detect it. In addition, the sounding technique depends
on operator judgment and is prone to operator errors. Oper- -
ator fatigue and high background noise levels can also reduce tric or conductive characteristics are analyzed to detect
the accuracy and speed of the survey. The use of automated delaminations.
sounding techniques and software to reduce operational A short-pulse GPR typically emits precisely timed,
errors has been very limited (ACI ACI 201.1R
201.1R). very short pulses of low-power, radio-frequency energy.
Other mechanical energy-based devices, such as pulse Each pulse lasts approximately 1 nanosecond and occurs
velocity, impact-echo, and impulse response methods, have at a rate greater than 1 MHz (typically 500 MHz to 3000
been used for detecting delaminations, but have not gained MHz, depending on the depth range of the measurement).
widespread use because they need experienced operators. The transmitted pulse is radiated down toward the concrete
In addition, these techniques are point-by-point techniques surface by an antenna. As the transmitted pulse encounters

The ultrasonic pulse velocity method is a proven technique

portion propagates through the underlying medium. The
well as determining concrete properties, such as the modulus
of elasticity and density (ASTM C597). ). This technique has receiver, and processes them for display and analysis.
been demonstrated to accurately detect delaminations if GPR can be used on bare and asphalt-covered concrete
through-transmission of the ultrasonic pulse is possible. to identify areas that are obviously or likely deteriorated.
Many tests are required, however, because measurements Depending on the concrete quality, moisture content, and
thickness of the asphalt overlay, GPR will either directly
The impact-echo technique can detect internal concrete identify delaminations or detect moisture and chlorides
defects, such as voids, cracks, or delaminations in concrete in cracks. In dry, low-permeability concrete (a low-loss
structures (Henriksen 1995; Sansalone and Carino 1989). In
this method, a broadband displacement transducer measures with accuracy. Accuracy can be further reduced if either
surface displacements resulting from the propagation of the concrete cover, the asphalt overlay thickness, or both, is
small. GPR is more accurate in detecting delaminations that
Alongi et al. 1992).
locate internal defects in the concrete. Interpreting impact- ACI 228.2R
echo data requires expert knowledge and experience. Addi- moisture and chlorides on the attenuation of GPR readings.
tionally, many tests are required because measurements Advances in computer hardware and software have had
a tremendous impact on GPR technology. Non-contact
or air-horn antennae have been optimized for use in rapid
to determine the thickness of in-place concrete slabs (ASTM scanning. Data acquisition, processing, and interpretation
C1383).
Commercial GPR and IR thermography are additional knowledge, however, is still needed. GPR vehicles with
systems for detecting delamination. Short-pulse GPR is a multiple radar antennas have been developed. GPR surveys
can be conducted at highway speeds, but for accurate results,
between propagation depth through solid, nonmetallic mate- surveys are best carried out at speeds of 15 to 20 mph (24 to
rials, and resolution in the concrete. IR thermography relies 32 kph). Additionally, GPR surveys using air-horn antennae
 and deviations from original contract documents, particu-
advantageous for application on bridge structures. larly the project or as-built drawings for the reinforcement.
5.3.1.2.2 —IR thermography was initially devel-
oped as a pavement inspection tool in the late 1970s and -
early 1980s (Holt and Manning 1978). The IR technique ence of steel, to locate reinforcement and determine the
can be used to identify delaminations in reinforced concrete thickness of concrete cover. The accuracy of a covermeter
varies, but generally, it is very accurate. A few coverme-
between delaminated and sound reinforced concrete under ters can estimate the size of reinforcement within two bar
certain environmental conditions (Benz and Ulrikson 1990). sizes, and some can store measurements and transmit them
Use of IR thermography as a viable nondestructive tech- to a computer. Cover measurements have less error when the
nique for detecting delaminations in concrete bridge decks structure is lightly reinforced. For accurate cover measure-
was initiated in the 1980s and was applied successfully to ments, prior knowledge of the size of the reinforcing steel
some bridge structures (Love 1986; Manning and Holt 1982; is necessary. Commercially available covermeters are
Winters and Frascoia 1988; Sirieix et al. 2007; Kurita et al. compact, with single-element, hand-held probes, and are
2009). ASTM D4788 is a test method for detecting delami- useful for locating and determining the concrete cover over
nations in bridge decks using IR thermography. individual reinforcing bars. Obtaining cover measurements
Anomalies in the emission of thermal radiation (surface over large areas of a structure, however, is time-consuming
radiance) from a concrete surface are picked up in IR ther- and tedious.
mography and analyzed to detect delaminations. A delami- Single-point covermeters can be used to develop depth-of-
nation is marked by a separation of concrete planes. These cover maps in the same way as half-cell potential maps are
produced. The covermeter is used to determine the depth of
cover at individual grid points on the structure. These read
read-
ings are then recorded on a standard data form with refer
refer-
temperature gradients within the concrete and thermal radia
radia- ence to the grid coordinates. Results can then be entered
tion, particularly during cool-down and warm-up of the manually into a computer or transmitted directly to generate
structure. With proper calibration, the thermal radiation can concrete cover maps. There is no standard test procedure for
be converted to temperature, and variations in the surface conducting cover measurements. For additional information
temperatures detected by IR on the basis for identifying on covermeters, refer to ACI 228.2R
228.2R.
probable delaminations. However, several handicaps exist. 5.3.1.4 -
—Chlorides are a major contrib
contrib-
shining directly on some sections of the structure and not uting factor in the corrosion of steel in concrete, provided
on others and various other adverse climatic conditions.
-
cult, and accuracy is reduced. Usually the early morning is determinations are discussed in 5.3.1.4.1 through 5.3.1.4.3.
an ideal time to detect thermal gradients. Because IR can 5.3.1.4.1 Chloride sampling
sampling—The chloride content
in concrete is determined through analysis of powdered
outlines of a human hand placed on the concrete for 1 minute concrete samples. Samples can be collected on site at
can be detected. Such sensitivity makes interpretation of data -
even more complicated and prone to error. Limitations of forcing steel using a grinder or hammer drill (AASHTO T
the IR technique have also been researched and documented 260). Care should be exercised to avoid contamination of the
(Khan et al. 1998; Sirieix et al. 2007). samples. Alternatively, cores can be collected and powdered
5.3.1.3 Concrete cover measurements—The thickness of
- The latter method provides better control on sample depths
ence on the time to corrosion initiation of the reinforcing and greatly reduces the risk of contamination.
steel. A shallow concrete cover allows easier ingress of 5.3.1.4.2 —Usually,
deleterious substances, which leads to more rapid corrosion the chloride content of concrete is measured in the laboratory
of the reinforcing steel and subsequent deterioration of the using wet chemical analysis—for example, AASHTO T 260,
structure if other environmental conditions are conducive. ASTM C1152/C1152M, and ASTM C1218/C1218M. Sepa-
Locating reinforcing steel is also essential in conducting rate procedures are available for determining water-soluble
corrosion condition surveys. The location of the reinforcing and acid-soluble chloride content and free and bulk chlo-
steel and the thickness of concrete cover can be determined ASTM C1556). Determination
nondestructively using a covermeter, pachometer, or rein- of chloride concentration in hardened concrete most often
forcing steel locator. Alternatively, GPR can be used to involves acid-soluble chloride content analysis, which is
locate reinforcing steel, and small-diameter holes can be achieved through the standardized acid extraction test given
drilled to expose reinforcing steel for direct measurement in AASHTO T 260 and ASTM C1152/C1152M. Acid chloride
of concrete cover. Concrete cover information is valuable content analysis in concrete is typically performed because
in assessing the corrosion susceptibility of reinforcing steel bound chlorides in the concrete can become unbound due to
chemical reactions within the concrete over a period of time
(Sopler 1973). For example, relatively insoluble chloroalu- 5.3.1.6 —This test is
minate, which is formed when chlorides are present in fresh performed to determine if various embedded metallic
concrete, may convert with time and exposure to sulfoalu- elements are in electrical contact with each other. The test
minate and carboaluminate, releasing free chlorides (Erlin has three purposes:
and Hime 1985). Because the acid extraction test is easier 1. Results of this test are needed before conducting corrosion
to reproduce and less time-consuming than water-soluble potential surveys (corrosion potential mapping) and rate of
chloride analysis procedures, it has become more accepted corrosion tests on the reinforcing steel.
(Gaynor 1985; ; Angst et al. 2009). 2. Direct contact between reinforcing steel and other metals
Chloride content results are reported in percent chloride by can lead to accelerated corrosion of the steel if the steel
mass of concrete, parts per million (ppm) chloride, percent is more anodic with respect to the metal; for example,
chloride by mass of cement, or pounds of chloride per cubic aluminum.
yard (kilograms per cubic meter) of concrete. The results can 3. The state of electrical continuity of all embedded metals
be easily converted from one unit to another using appro- should be known when considering electrochemical options
priate conversion factors (refer to Gaynor [1985] and Scan- for protection against corrosion.
nell et al. [1994a,b]). The corrosion potential survey is particularly sensitive to
5.3.1.4.3 —Although labo- continuity because all the reinforcing steel within a given
ratory testing is most accurate, it is also time-consuming, potential survey area should be electrically continuous
often taking several days before results are available. As if data are to be collected in a grid pattern. If the ground
connection is made to a reinforcing bar or other metallic
allow rapid determination of chloride levels to be made element that is electrically isolated from the reinforcing steel
in the survey area, the readings will essentially be remote
are available. Because these commercial kits do not follow corrosion-potential measurements of the isolated ground and
existing standards, however, some precautions need to be will be meaningless. The same is true for rate-of-corrosion
taken. Jackson et al. (1995) evaluated the accuracy of the testing. If reinforcing steel within a survey area is electri
electri-
two chloride test kits against the AASHTO T 260 laboratory cally discontinuous, separate ground connections should be
method. The primary conclusion was that both test kits corre
corre- made to each reinforcing bar where corrosion measurements
late well with (but did not precisely match) the AASHTO will be made.
method at chloride concentrations between approximately Uncoated wire reinforcement supports, direct contact
0.40 and 13.70 lb/yd3 (0.20 and 8.10 kg/m3) (0.010 and at crossings, and uncoated wire ties normally provide
0.350 percent by mass of concrete); the two kits gave results good electrical continuity throughout reinforced concrete
that represented approximately 57 to 62 percent of the members. Electrical continuity, however, should always be
-
sion joints, between scuppers and reinforcing steel, and
likely necessary to obtain comparable results to standardized between railings and reinforcing steel is suspect and requires
laboratory test methods. Although a simple multiplicative
factor could be used, further research is needed. location for testing if it is electrically continuous to the rein-
5.3.1.5 Depth of carbonation testing testing—Carbonation forcing steel being tested. During the survey planning stage,
testing can be performed on-site or at a later time using proposed potential grid map locations should be laid out to
core samples that have been carefully preserved or during avoid spanning obvious discontinuities.
petrographic analysis. Carbonation depth is measured by Theoretically, when epoxy-coated reinforcing bars are
exposing a fresh concrete surface and applying a solution used, every bar should be electrically isolated or electrically
of phenolphthalein in ethanol. Phenolphthalein is a color- discontinuous. Testing on structures with epoxy-coated rein-
less pH indicator that turns magenta or pink at or above a forcing bars, however, has shown that the degree of electrical
pH of approximately 9. Therefore, when applied to a freshly continuity can range from none to complete, depending on
exposed concrete surface, the solution will indicate areas the structure. Therefore, before conducting electrical tests
of reduced alkalinity. The magenta areas indicate uncar- on epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, each bar should be tested
bonated concrete. The colorless areas indicate carbonated for electrical continuity. Results of electrochemical tests on
concrete. Because of the presence of porous aggregates, epoxy-coated reinforcement should be analyzed with care
voids, and cracks, the carbonation front only approximates because of the dielectric nature of the epoxy (ASTM C876).
a line parallel to the concrete surface. RILEM CPC-18 is a Reinforcing steel should be exposed so that electrical
common test used to assess carbonation depth. The depth- contact to individual bars can be made. If the reinforcing
of-carbonation test is most important for older reinforced bars are not exposed, a pachometer (or other appropriate
concrete structures. If carbonation is a contributing factor to equipment) should be used to locate them (5.3.1.3). Once
the deterioration of a given structure and it is not accounted located, the reinforcing bars can be exposed by coring or
for, one can expect future premature damage after repairs rotary hammer. There are several test methods for checking
are completed. Steel reinforcement in a carbonation zone is electrical continuity:
susceptible to corrosion. a) DC resistance—The resistance between two metallic
elements is measured with a high-impedance multimeter
with lead polarity: normal and reversed. Resistance values active corrosion. Conversely, high concrete resistivity
greater than 1 ohm indicate discontinuity. implies a high electrolyte resistance, which limits the rate of
corrosion over larger areas as maximum permitted distance
two metallic elements is measured with a high-impedance -
cant corrosion is not likely when the resistivity exceeds ~200
discontinuity. to ~4800 ohm-in. (~500 to ~12,000 ohm-cm) (Marcotte and
c) AC resistance—The AC resistance between two metallic Hansson 2003). If cracks are present in the cover of such
elements is measured with an AC bridge null resistance high-resistivity concretes, however, highly localized corro-
meter. AC resistance values greater than 1 ohm indicate
discontinuity. the resistivity exceeds ~3400 to ~4800 ohm-in. (~8500 to
d) Half-cell potentials—The potential of several metallic ~12,000 ohm-cm) (Hope et al. 1985).
elements to be tested is measured against a reference cell -
- tion of the Wenner four-electrode technique commonly used
tial measurements greater than 3 mV indicate electrical for measuring soil resistivity (ASTM G57
discontinuity. procedure involves installing four equally spaced probes in
None of these methods ensures continuity. Each test a straight line on the concrete to be tested. The probe spacing
is equal to the depth to which measurement of the average
- resistivity is desired. The average resistivity is a function
of the voltage drop between the center pair of probes with
however, will provide some indication of discontinuity. The
resistivity of concrete is correlated to bulk resistivity, which
most commonly used for electrical continuity testing. No are typically obtained from cylindrical specimens, through
consensus standard is available for these test methods. geometric conversion factors that are provided by the manu manu-
5.3.1.7 — facturers of Wenner probes ((Ghosh and Tran 2015). Unlike
resistivity measurements in soil, particular care has to be
on many deterioration processes, including corrosion of taken during measurements in concrete to overcome the
reinforcement, alkali-silica reaction, freezing and thawing, high contact resistance between the probes and the concrete
and sulfate attack. The resistivity of the concrete, which is surface. This is achieved by using a conductive interface,
a function of the moisture and electrolyte content, has an such as a sponge or wooden plug, at the probe tips and by
important bearing on the rate of corrosion of embedded grinding the concrete surface before taking measurements
reinforcing steel. Consequently, it is sometimes desirable to at each location. It should be noted that moisture content
measure concrete moisture content and resistivity. It is not
common practice, however, to determine these parameters. Although the degree of saturation and temperature can be
ASTM F2170 describes a standard procedure for measuring controlled in tests on specimens in the laboratory, they are
relative humidity in concrete slabs with in place probes. -
ASTM WK37880 describes the test method for measuring tivity measurements conducted near reinforcement or above
the surface resistivity of hardened concrete using the Wenner discontinuities in concrete (for example, discrete cracks,
four-electrode method. joints, and delaminated zones) can produce erroneous
One method of determining the moisture content of measurements; therefore, these tests should be conducted
concrete is to measure the relative humidity in the concrete. away from reinforcement and discontinuities in concrete.
- Less expensive and less accurate two-probe systems
dence of electrical resistivity of certain materials on the rela- are available. In these systems, the electrical resistance of
tive humidity of the surrounding environment. To measure concrete is measured using two electrodes from the surface
humidity, a probe is sealed in a hole in the concrete. A of concrete. The applied current and the potential response
portable meter is then used to measure the relative humidity between the two electrodes are determined and the resistance
inside the hole. This method can monitor relative humidity of concrete is calculated using the Ohm’s Law (Gowers and
changes over time and provide insight into moisture cycling Millard 1999; Polder 2001).
in a reinforced concrete structural member. Another approach for measuring resistivity is the disk
A relationship between electrical resistivity of concrete method, which involves the use of a single electrode on
and rate of corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel is widely the concrete surface that is connected to the reinforcing
acknowledged. Studies have been conducted to directly steel within the concrete. The advantage of this technique
relate concrete resistivity with corrosion rate of reinforcing is that only the resistivity of the concrete cover is measured
steel (Alonso et al. 1988; Flis et al. 1992; Fraczek 1987; if the contact resistance between the disk electrode and the
Hope et al. 1986 concrete can be eliminated ( ).
showed that there is a direct correlation between concrete Table 5.3.1.7 provides guidelines for interpreting resis-
resistivity and rate of corrosion of reinforcing steel. Condi- tivity measurements from the Wenner four-probe system
tions such as high pore-water content and the presence of when referring to corroding reinforcing steel embedded in
electrolyte salts that lead to low resistivity usually favor concrete ( ). Concrete resistivity is a useful
 a function of cover thickness and concrete resistivity, and
Corrosion rate increases with both.
Very low (cannot distinguish
One of the most important applications of the corrosion-
>100 potential survey is to develop a history of the reinforced
between active and passive steel)
concrete structure. For example, if corrosion-potential
20 to 100 Low
surveys are conducted at regular intervals of time, trends
10 to 20 Low to moderate -
5 to 10 High forcing steel corrosion activity in undamaged concrete is
Less than 5 Very high increasing with time or if the total area of reinforcing steel
showing active potentials is increasing. Such information
can be valuable in making decisions regarding mainte-
complementary measurement for identifying problem areas
nance or repair. Corrosion potential mapping has been used
extensively to determine the probability and extent of active
the data should be considered along with other measure-
ments ( ; Ghods et al. 2007).
structures and laboratory specimens (Arup 1985; Clemeña
5.3.1.8 Corrosion-potential mapping
mapping—Corrosion is an
et al. 1992; Bazzoni and Lazzari 1994; Islam 1995; Elsener
electrochemical process and potential (voltage) is one of the
2002; Bertolini et al. 2013; Bohni 2005).
parameters that can indicate the state of the process. Corro-
5.3.1.8.1 Procedure and instrumentation for corrosion
sion-potential measurements provide an indication of the
potential measurement
measurement—The voltage reading between a
state of active corrosion. They do not assess the rate of corro-
standard portable half-cell placed on the surface of the
sion, but rather the probability that corrosion is occurring.
concrete and the reinforcing steel bar located below the
The corrosion rate is a function of many parameters, such
surface is compared with values that have been empirically
as temperature, equilibrium potential, concrete resistivity,
developed to indicate relative probabilities of corrosion
activity. A portable copper-copper sulfate (CSE) half-cell
oxygen to cathodic sites. ASTM C876 provides a standard
test method for conducting corrosion potential surveys on
is attached to the tip of the electrode to reduce the electrical
uncoated reinforcing steel embedded in concrete.
resistance between the concrete surface and the electrode.
Caution should be exercised in interpreting corrosion-
A wetting solution is used for moistening the sponge. Other
-
reference half-cells, such as silver-silver chloride (Ag-AgCl)
tials and lead to inaccurate assessment of the corrosion status
or calomel (Hg-Hg2Cl2) can also be used. The CSE is popular
of the embedded reinforcing steel. These factors include
because it is rugged and stable. Copper is easily maintained
(Elsener 2002; Bertolini et al. 2013; Bohni 2005):
at a standard potential over a wide range of conditions if it
a) Carbonated concrete
is submerged in an electrolyte saturated with copper sulfate
b) Fully water-saturated concrete
crystals.
c) Electrical discontinuity of the reinforcing steel grid
A prerequisite for corrosion-potential surveys is to estab-
d) Presence of stray currents
lish that the reinforcing steel in the structural member is
e) Presence of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel
electrically continuous. If the underlying reinforcing steel is
f) Presence of galvanized reinforcing steel
not electrically continuous, each area to be surveyed should
g) Presence of other embedded metals
have a unique ground point. If electrical continuity exists, a
h) Availability of oxygen
common ground point can be used for several survey areas.
The ground point can be established by exposing an area on
j) Human error during testing (for example, not properly
the reinforcing steel and drilling a hole in the bar. A self-
wetting the concrete surface or carrying out the test too
tapping screw is then driven into the hole and the test lead
quickly before the potentials reach equilibrium)
wire is clamped to the screw head. With this method, less
In addition, corrosion potentials vary with environmental
concrete is removed and a good connection is achieved.
conditions, test location, the presence of moisture, and
Corrosion potentials can be measured manually with any
temperature. Cold winter temperatures will result in more
high-quality 3-1/2 digit, high-impedance (10 megaohms or
cathodic (negative) potentials than in hot, summer tempera-
greater) voltmeter, or with data loggers. Corrosion poten-
tures. Corrosion-potential measurements should not be taken
tial surveys should be performed on a regular interval grid.
in areas with delaminated concrete.
Depending on the size of the structure and the grid interval,
Corrosion-potential measurement is also a function of the
the quantity of data collected can vary from a few to several
type of corrosion process. In the case of uniform corrosion,
thousand numbers. Large areas are usually mapped with an
the potential readings at the surface of concrete are generally
electrode spacing of 2 to 5 ft (0.6 to 1.5 m), whereas small
close to the potential at the interface of steel and concrete
areas are usually mapped with a spacing of 6 in. to 1 ft (0.15
(Sagüés et al. 1997b; Pour-Ghaz et al. 2009); however, in the
to 0.30 m).
case of nonuniform (pitting) corrosion, the measured poten-
and electronic technology have enhanced data collection
and processing. Several commercial instruments that record the corrosion may be high, but such corrosion may proceed
and store multiple readings are available. These units are uniformly at slow rates. In fact, accurate detection of local-
equipped with a data logger to collect data in real time and ized corrosion may not be feasible with corrosion potential
store them for later processing. Data stored in the data logger mapping unless supplementary information is available.
are transferred to a computer for manipulation and creating Mathematical and numerical models have been developed
equipotential maps. to relate potential readings on the surface of concrete to the
Some systems use multicell arrays so that more than one rate of probable localized reinforcement corrosion through
potential reading can be recorded simultaneously. These units concrete resistivity, cover thickness, and temperature (Ghods
et al. 2009).
Another type of potential measurement device consists of 5.3.1.9 Corrosion rate measurements—Rate-of-corrosion
wheel electrodes. One or more miniature reference elec- tests provide information on the rate at which reinforcing
trodes are installed along the periphery of the wheels. Poten- steel is being oxidized. The higher the rate, the sooner
tials are recorded in a data logger as the wheels are rolled concrete cracking and spalling will appear. Therefore, this
along the surface of the concrete. Some degree of familiarity information can be useful in estimating the time to additional
and experience is required to use the computerized equip-
ment. Several systems for mapping corrosion potential have corrosion-protection systems.
been evaluated competitively (Sohanghpurwala et al. 1994). Corrosion rate measurement techniques are based on the
5.3.1.8.2 Corrosion potential data interpretation—The assumption that there is a linear relationship between a small
corrosion potential of reinforcing steel indicates whether or E < 20 mV) and the corresponding current
not the steel is likely to be actively corroding in the area ) around the corrosion potential such that
of measure at the time the measurement is obtained. The
following guidelines are given in a nonmandatory appendix Rp E (5.3.1.9a)
of ASTM C876 for interpreting corrosion-potential data of
uncoated reinforcing steel in concrete. where Rp is called the polarization resistance.
a) If potentials over an area are more positive than –0.20 V Once Rp is determined, the corrosion current corr can be
CSE, there is a greater than 90 percent probability that no calculated using the Stern-Geary equation ((Stern and Geary
reinforcing steel corrosion is occurring in that area at the 1957; Stern 1958
1957 1958)
time of measurement.
b) If potentials over an area are in the range of –0.20 to –0.35 corr = B/R
/Rp (5.3.1.9b)
V CSE, corrosion activity of the reinforcing steel in that area
is uncertain. B is often assumed to be a constant that depends on the
c) If potentials over an area are more negative than –0.35 V anodic and cathodic Tafel slopes
CSE, there is a greater than 90 percent probability that rein-
forcing steel corrosion is occurring in that area at the time of B a c a c) (5.3.1.9c)
measurement.
These guidelines should be used only for uncoated conven- a c are the anodic and cathodic Tafel constants,
tional reinforcing steel embedded in concrete; data interpre- respectively. The corrosion rate can be calculated in terms of
tation guidelines have not been developed for epoxy-coated, corrosion current density by dividing the corrosion current by
galvanized, or stainless steel reinforcement and prestressing the polarized area of the reinforcement. If uniform corrosion
steel. is assumed at a constant rate, corrosion rate of steel can be
converted to the rate of thickness loss or corrosion penetra-
in an area of a particular reinforced concrete member are tion. The corrosion rate of existing reinforced concrete struc-
better indicators of the level of corrosion activity than the tures, however, is seldom uniform or constant; therefore,
absolute potential values. For example, a 5 ft (1.5 m) square calculating thickness losses with time can be misleading.
section of slab with potentials that vary 100 mV is more The use of an anodic Tafel slope of 150 mV/decade and a
active than a similar section with a 30 mV variation. The cathodic Tafel slope of 250 mV/decade has been suggested
chloride level at the surface of the reinforcing steel and other for reinforced concrete by Clear (1989). Al-Tayyib and
factors such as temperature should also be considered when Khan (1988) found that these Tafel slopes depend on the
evaluating corrosion potential readings. ASTM C876 stipu- active and passive corrosion states of the reinforcing steel
lates a temperature correction if the temperature during the
use B-values of 26 mV for active steel and 52 mV for passive
steel. Critiques of these assumptions for conventional rein-
When the average potential at the surface of concrete is forcement can be found in the literature (Gepraegs and
relatively high—that is, more positive—the probability of Hansson 2004; Elsener 2005; Garcés et al. 2005; Nygaard et
corrosion is low, as per ASTM C876. The rate of such corro- al. 2005, 2009; Ghods et al. 2008).
sion, however, if it occurs in the form of localized corrosion, Corrosion rate can be monitored with electrochemical
can be high. On the other hand, if the average potential at techniques. Several options are available and can be broadly
the surface of concrete is more negative, the probability of
extrapolation (E-log I), and linear polarization resistance
(LPR) are examples of steady-state techniques. Potential
step, small-amplitude cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical

transient methods (Flis et al. 1992). In the context of rein-

forcing steel in concrete, Tafel extrapolation, LPR, AC
impedance, and electrochemical noise techniques have been
used for corrosion rate measurements. There is no standard
procedure for rate-of-corrosion measurements. LPR is the

impedance technique is considered one of the most accurate

methods of corrosion rate measurement of steel in concrete;

The LPR technique provides a simple method for deter-

mining instantaneous corrosion rates. It has been used in
electrochemical laboratories for decades for measuring
corrosion rates of metals in aqueous environments. The
three-electrode LPR technique is based on the assumption
that small changes in the potential of a freely corroding
metal—that is, a metal at a potential close to its corrosion
potential—have a linear relationship with applied current.
The linear relationship can be captured using either poten
poten-
tiostatic sweep or galvanostatic sweep. In the potentiostatic testing and knowledge of the implications of the test results.
sweep, the voltage is increased with a constant sweep rate, Several attempts have been made to correlate corrosion
and the response current is recorded. In the galvanostatic rate to the remaining service life of structures or time to
sweep, the current is increased with a constant sweep rate, damage. Based on experience, one manufacturer of a corrocorro-
and the response potential is recorded. The ratio of the sion-rate device provides guidelines for interpreting the data
change in potential to the change in current gives the polar-
polar in terms of time to damage. Others attempt to mathemati
mathemati-
ization resistance Rp. cally model remaining life based on corrosion rate informa
informa-
AC impedance methods record the impedance response tion (Gepraegs
Gepraegs and Hansson 2004
2004; Elsener 2005; Garcés et
- al. 2005; Nygaard et al. 2005
2005, 2009; Ghods et al. 2008).
Jones 1996). The real (Z Z - 5.3.1.9.1 —Due to the
nents of the impedance are plotted. Such a plot, as shown in natural heterogeneous nature of concrete, environmental
Fig. 5.3.1.9, should be a semicircle with polarization resis- variables such as temperature and humidity, and the inability
tance Rp as its diameter. The high-frequency intercept on the
real axis is the solution (concrete) resistance R , whereas reinforcing steel, corrosion-rate measurements have inherent
the low-frequency intercept (approaching DC signals) on error. Moreover, a nondestructive assessment of the actual
the real axis is the total impedance of the system, Rp + R . area that is corroding cannot be made. Critical reviews about
Therefore, subtracting the high-frequency intercept from the the inherent problems of these techniques have been given by
low-frequency intercept results in Rp, the polarization resis- many researchers (Hansson 1984; Wojtas 2004; Elsener 2005;
tance that then can be used in corrosion rate calculations. Gulikers and Raupach 2006; Poursaee and Hansson 2008).
In practice, the plot of the real and imaginary compo-
nents of impedance deviates greatly from the semicircular in corrosion rates (several orders of magnitude) between
passive and active reinforcing steel, the measurement errors
frequency scan is simply too time-consuming and equip-
ment is overly expensive and bulky. Because only the very engineering point of view (Andrade and Gonzalez 1978).
low- and very high-frequency response data are needed
to derive Rp, some devices scan only these two regions to steel tested. Knowing the steel area is important because the
measure this parameter, thereby reducing the time required
to conduct the test. For every system under measurement, per unit area of steel (for example, mA/ft2 2
]). The
magnitude of the corrosion current measured is a direct indi-
cation of how fast corrosion is occurring on the steel surface.
fundamental characteristics of that particular system, and a High currents indicate a high corrosion rate and low currents
indicate a low corrosion rate.
equipment manufacturers have introduced portable equip- Rate of corrosion measurements are usually conducted

not been able to reduce the time required to conduct the test corrosion-potential survey. The rate of corrosion measure-
over the entire frequency range. In addition, interpretation ment is a point-in-time indicator. Temperature and concrete
moisture content may change in a matter of days or even All test methods used for corrosion assessment of reinforced
hours and result in corresponding changes in the corrosion concrete structures containing nonprestressed reinforce-
rate. Therefore, predicting future corrosion activity should ment can be used for pretensioned prestressed steel. On
include evaluation of dynamic environmental factors. The post-tensioned structures, some of the test methods, such
most active corrosion or highest corrosion rates may not as corrosion potential and corrosion rate, may be applicable
only in localized areas such as in the anchorage zones (Wang
intermittent monitoring over a period of time gives a more et al. 2005). Although corrosion potential and corrosion rate
accurate appraisal. readings may indicate corrosion of a metallic sheath (duct)
Flis et al. (1992) -
nonprestressed reinforcement is occurring simultaneously. It
a) Proper electrical contact between the probe and the is not possible to detect corrosion of the prestressing steel
concrete using corrosion potential or corrosion-rate measurements when
b) Symmetrical positioning of the probe over the reinforcing the sheath shields the steel. The only method of determining
steel corrosion of a post-tensioned tendon at a particular location
c) Presence of a stable open-circuit (corrosion) potential is to remove the concrete around the tendon and observe the
prestressing steel locally. This, however, must be done care-
polarized area fully, as restraint can be released. Note that removing concrete
e) Measurements that are carried out over the active parts of and assessing corrosion in one location does not provide any
macrocells information regarding corrosion at other locations along the
5.3.1.9.2 Rate-of-corrosion equipment and data interpre- tendon. Concrete repairs must be performed.
tation—Typical rate-of-corrosion equipment consists of a Continuous acoustic monitoring (CAM) is a nondestruc-
measuring device and a suitable probe. Most commercial tive technique used for detecting and monitoring damage in
instruments use the potentiostatic LPR technique; however, unbonded prestressed structures ((Elliot 1996) and in grouted
some also incorporate the galvanostatic pulse technique. systems. When installed in a prestressed structure, the CAM
These devices mostly use microprocessor control and are system uses an array of sensors (one every 1000 ft2 [93 m2]
fully automated, but manually operated instruments also in a typical building) to record acoustic signals of tendon
exist. The automated devices use the guard-ring concept to element failures. Proprietary software is used to analyze the
measure the rate of corrosion (Feliu
Feliu et al. 1990).
1990). Measure-
Measure
ments made using the guard ring have been reported to
be more accurate by up to two orders of magnitude where
corrosion rates are low (Flis
Flis et al. 1992 - structures. Knowing the location and rate of prestressing
tiveness of guard rings in containing the polarizing current is steel failures after installation makes it possible to manage
a subject of debate (Poursaee and Hansson 2008). a known or suspected corrosion condition in a structure.
Data interpretation guidelines range from projecting However, the technique does not record any damage that has
actual time to damage to representing corrosion rate in occurred before the installation of the system.
terms of a passive condition—low, moderate, or high corro- 5.3.2.1 Pretensioned structures—Corrosion assessment
sion, depending on the magnitude of the corrosion-current techniques used for reinforced concrete can be applied to
density. Interpreting rate-of-corrosion data in terms of a pretensioned concrete as well, but some tests should be
passive, active, or partially active corrosion condition has used with caution. For pretensioned concrete structures,
also been suggested (Cady and Gannon 1992). corrosion-potential readings are possible if corrosion of
5.3.1.10 Cross section loss of reinforcing steel bars— the prestressing steel is not masked by aggressive corro-
This test is used to quantify the amount of corrosion that sion of the reinforcing steel. Pretensioned steel should be
has occurred on reinforcing steel bars by directly measuring electrically interconnected to the reinforcing steel, but conti-
cross-sectional loss with a caliper (ACI 364.14T). To make
measurements, the reinforcing steel bar has to be exposed in members have no stirrups, such as hollow core plank, and
spalled areas or carefully excavated. Additionally, the rein- therefore, the prestressing strands are electrically isolated.
forcing steel bar should be cleaned of all corrosion prod- Additionally, the ASTM C876 guidelines for interpreting
ucts before taking measurements. This is not a standardized corrosion potential readings are not directly applicable for
test but is sometimes used to aid in determining structural prestressing steel.
integrity. 5.3.2.2 —Anchorage
5.3.2 Prestressed reinforcement
reinforcement—Identifying corrosion zones that show corrosion products and concrete distress
in a structural concrete member containing prestressing are a sign of corrosion at the anchors and possibly corrosion
of prestressing steel contiguous to the anchor in unbonded
containing nonprestressed reinforcement. Local corrosion systems. If the sheath does not exclude water, then water
of prestressed reinforcement can occur without any outward ingress from the anchorage often results in corrosion of
signs of concrete damage. Stress-corrosion cracking and prestressing steel. Local removal of concrete from the
intergranular corrosion due to hydrogen embrittlement can anchorage area to observe prestressing steel corrosion is a
also occur without local accumulation of corrosion products. limited sampling procedure that requires extreme caution.
Another limited sampling procedure involves removing reaction or freezing-and-thawing damage. Wide variations
in compressive strength indicate local areas of deterioration.
from anchorages to observe the condition of the prestressing Concrete damaged by freezing-and-thawing action, usually
steel. This type of direct visual testing is commonly done at exhibited as horizontal cracks in the upper portion of the
tendon low points where water tends to accumulate. core, may register a high compressive strength, but still be
Unlike nonprestressed reinforcement, corrosion products of poor quality.
that form on unbonded single-strand tendons are contained
within the sheathing and usually do not cause any cracking by core number and grid location to the nearest 6 in. (150
or spalling of the concrete. However, in older systems using mm). Each core should be photographed and its condition
metallic or paper ducts, cracking along the tendon trajec- -
tory may occur because of freezing water trapped inside the cant deterioration; unusual features; and, where possible,
duct. This may indicate prestressing corrosion, particularly embedded steel reinforcement. In some cases, wetting the
if chlorides are present. Because the tendon is unbonded, the cores may improve the contrast and emphasize defects such
strand can be removed and replaced in most cases. Strand as cracks and voids. A sketch should be made to show the
removal is the only procedure that completely assesses the overall dimensions of each core, the location of any rein-
extent of corrosion along the tendon. For guidelines on -
strand removal and replacement, refer to ACI 423.4R and trate the same view of the core as in the photograph.
ACI 222.2R. ACI 423.4R also devotes a chapter to the eval- 5.4.3 —The chloride perme-
uation of corrosion damage in unbonded tendons. ability of concrete is best determined by test procedures that
5.3.2.3 Bonded post-tensioned structures—In bonded measure actual chloride ingress. The rapid chloride perme-
post-tensioned structures, the prestressing steel is encased ability test, an electrical procedure described in AASHTO T
Schupack 2004). ). Corro
Corro- 277 and ASTM C1202, has gained acceptance as a means
sion can occur if there are voids in the grout, the steel is of evaluating the ability of concrete to resist chloride pene
pene-
exposed, and water is available or becomes available. Im et tration. This accelerated laboratory test method consists of
al. (2010a) provided a method to inspect tendons in bonded monitoring the amount of electrical current passed through a
post-tensioned structures for voids and the presence of mois
mois- 2 in. (50 mm) thick slice of a 4 in. (100 mm) nominal diam
diam-
ture. The impact-echo technique has been used successfully
to detect voids in post-tensioned ducts (Ghorbanpoor
(Ghorbanpoor 1993;
1993 of 60 volts. One end of the specimen is exposed to a sodium
Jaeger et al. 1996, 1997).). This technique is limited to acces-
acces chloride solution and the other end is exposed to a sodium
sible tendons and cannot be used for interior tendons in a hydroxide solution. The total charged passed, in coulombs,
is a function of the initial conductivity of the concrete
used. Further, entrapped water can freeze and cause cracking and the change in conductivity during the test. Because
that follows the trajectory of the tendon. Steel sheath corro- concrete conductivity and chloride penetration are both
sion may also provide enough corrosion products to cause
cracking along the tendon. For further guidance on evaluevalu- the total charge passed provides a relative indication of the
ating and repairing corrosion-damaged bonded tendons, resistance to chloride penetration. Therefore, for a given
refer to Im et al. (2010a,b) and ACI 423.8R. set of concrete-making constituents, a high charge (greater
than 4000 coulombs) indicates high chloride permeability,
whereas a low charge (less than 100 coulombs) indicates
Various test methods for assessing the condition of negligible permeability.
concrete on in-service structures are listed in 5.2. Except The rapid chloride permeability test gives reasonable
for the visual inspection test procedure and nondestructive results for most concretes, but caution should be used when
testing, the other tests for conducting concrete condition applying the test to concrete with relatively large quantities
evaluations are of a destructive nature. They involve the of admixtures that contain inorganic salts such as calcium
extraction of core samples from the structure for subsequent nitrite because these salts increase the electrical conductivity
testing and analysis. of the concrete and make it appear more permeable. In addi-
5.4.1 Visual inspection—Visual inspection purposes and
procedures are the same as for the corrosion condition eval- test age. For concrete that has been in place for many years,
uation of the structure. The methodology was discussed in the test may indicate low permeability, yet chloride analyses
detail in 5.3.1.1. may show high levels of chlorides present in the structure.
5.4.2 — The rapid chloride permeability test has been reviewed and
Compressive-strength tests are usually conducted on 4 in. simpler alternatives for determining chloride permeability
(100 mm) diameter core samples in accordance with ASTM have been suggested (Arup 1985; Andrade and Sanjuan
C42/C42M or AASHTO T 24M T24. Compressive-strength 1994; Snyder et al. 2000). According to these reviews, there
testing is conducted to verify that the concrete compressive are several errors in the test:
a) The test uses the total current and not that corresponding
design and to determine if the strength has been compro-
mised due to any deterioration process such as alkali-silica
b) When integrating the total current from the beginning of workforce used to implement the repair procedure. Some of
the experiment, the procedure does not distinguish between the available options include:
a) Do nothing
c) The high voltage drop used induces heat that, in turn, b) Remove spalled and delaminated concrete and replace
with a patch or overlay;
Therefore, a migration test, such as that used in the rapid c) Remove all chloride contaminated concrete or carbonated
chloride permeability test, cannot accurately quantify the concrete and patch with an overlay
transport of chlorides, much less the porosity or permea- d) Install cathodic protection to protect the reinforcing steel
bility of the concrete specimen (Andrade and Sanjuan 1994). from further corrosion
5.4.4 —The ASTM C856 consists of e) Use electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE) to remove
microscopic examination of a freshly fractured and polished chloride from the surface of the reinforcing steel
concrete surface that is obtained from a 4 to 6 in. (100 to 150 f) Use realkalization to restore the concrete pH
mm) diameter drilled core. Collecting cores is prescribed by g) Use migrating corrosion inhibitors on the surface of
ASTM C42/C42M concrete, which are designed to penetrate to the reinforcing
the analysis. Petrographic examination is often supplemented bars to reduce the corrosion rate of the steel
with a range of other evaluation techniques, including, but After repair is completed, it is important to prevent future
deterioration to the structure. Reinforced concrete struc-
and scanning electron microscopy. tures may be protected from corrosive environments by
Information obtained during a petrographic analysis can applying a variety of barrier systems between the struc-
include the following: ture and the corrosive environment. The barrier may be a
a) Condition of material coating or membrane applied to the surface of the concrete,
b) Causes of poor quality formed as an integral part of the concrete matrix through
- polymer impregnation, or an overlay of polymer concrete,
ride-induced corrosion, carbonation, alkali-aggregate reac
reac-
tions, and freezing-and-thawing cycles slump dense concrete (LSDC), or internally sealed concrete
d) Probable future performance (Chapter
Chapter 4).
). Refer to ACI 546R for guidance on the selection
and application of materials and techniques for the repair,
f) Degree of cement hydration protection, and strengthening of concrete structures.
g) Estimation of w/cm and density The environment may be altered to reduce corrosion
h) Extent of paste carbonation either by removing detrimental conditions such as chloride,
oxygen, and moisture gradients, or by removing or neutral
neutral-
j) Evidence of sulfate and other chemical attack izing stray current sources. Corrosion can also be controlled
by modifying the electrochemical reactions at the reinforcing
steel, as done in cathodic protection, where the reinforcing
m) Estimation of air content, spacing factor, and how much steel is made a cathode with respect to an external anode or
of the air voids are entrained versus entrapped through application of corrosion inhibitors.
n) Evidence of early freezing
o) Assessment of the cause of cracking
p) Estimate of cement content Nearly all reinforced concrete structures are susceptible to
corrosion. Although bridge decks are perhaps the most visible
examples (Jones and Ellingwood 1993; Burke 1994; Weyers
1994; Williamson et al. 2008), the literature contains many
references to other types of reinforced concrete elements
This chapter discusses measures available to stop or mini- that experience corrosion of the reinforcing steel (O’Connor
mize corrosion activity on the reinforcing steel of an existing, and Kolf 1993; Khan et al. 1995; Bickley and Liscio 1997).
structurally adequate, reinforced concrete structure. Reme- These include buildings, caissons, foundations, parking
dial measures for controlling corrosion of reinforcing steel garages, piers, piles, pipes, silos, tower footings, and water
in portland cement concrete use principles directed toward: tanks. Some of these structures or elements may be buried
a) Insulating the concrete surfaces from the corrosive
environment platforms, piers and docks, waterfront structures, water and
b) Modifying the environment to make it less corrosive wastewater treatment plants, and water tanks are generally
c) Modifying the electrochemical reactions at the reinforcing exposed to aqueous environments. Bridges, parking garages,
steel and buildings are exposed to atmospheric conditions.
Several options are available for repair and rehabilitation If the reinforced concrete structure or element is buried
of deteriorated reinforced concrete structures. Choosing an or permanently underwater so that the concrete surfaces are
option depends on the observed deterioration, the environ- not accessible for treatment and it is impractical to expose
ment, the availability of repair products, and the skill of the them, surface treatments are not practical. Similarly, if the
in a large body of water, modifying the environment to make ECE is a process that involves placing an anode and elec-
it less corrosive is not practical. Therefore, not all the reme- trolyte on the concrete surface and passing a direct current
dies discussed herein are applicable to all types of reinforced (DC) between the anode and the reinforcing steel, which
concrete structures in various environments. acts as a cathode. In this electrochemical process, the chlo-
Cathodic protection has been used to prevent corrosion rides migrate toward the anode, away from the reinforcing
of reinforced concrete structures in corrosive environments. steel. An electrolyte, typically potable water or a calcium
Care should be taken when considering using impressed hydroxide solution (lime water), is circulated through the
current cathodic protection on structures containing
prestressing strands due to the risk of hydrogen embrittle- capability and is used to maintain a basic pH during the
ment. Information on hydrogen embrittlement can be found process and prevent the etching of concrete and generation
in ACI 222.2R. of gaseous chlorine. Lithium borate is an expensive electro-
lyte used only when the structure contains potentially alkali-
silica reactive aggregates. The treatment time varies from 10
6.3.1 Surface treatments, coatings and isolation reme- to 50 days, and the total charge varies from 60 to 150 A-h/ft2
—The methods used to isolate rein- (650 to 1600 A-h/m2).
forced concrete structures from corrosive environments The ECE process removes 45 to 95 percent of the chlorides
include surface coatings and membranes, polymer impreg- present in the concrete (NACE 01101:2001). The amount of
nation, overlays of polymer concrete, low-slump concrete, chlorides removed depends on several factors, including the
amount of chlorides present, its distribution in the concrete,
These barrier systems are suitable when the surfaces of and the details of the reinforcing steel. After the treatment
the concrete structure are available for treatment and they is complete, the chlorides remaining in the structure may be
reduce continued intrusion of oxygen; water; and corrosive
agents, such as chlorides, that are required to sustain the are distributed well away from the reinforcing steel, and
corrosion reactions. Barrier systems used after active corro
corro- time is required for redistribution to occur. The return to
corrosive conditions is further delayed by the buildup of
alkalinity at the surface of the reinforcing steel and develop
develop-
-
corrosion process will continue. Therefore, barrier systems ratory studies indicate that the ECE process will prevent
should be considered as only temporary remedies, and corrosion for 10 or more years if contamination with new
routine maintenance should be required. All barrier systems
will contain discontinuities such as pinholes, breaks, cracks, remained passive (noncorroded) for over 20 years. ECE is
poor seams, or other defects that will allow intrusion of particularly suited to reinforced concrete structures in which
corrosive agents in localized areas. Nevertheless, barrier
systems can reduce the rate of intrusion of corrosive agents occurred. The application of ECE is limited to structures
and retard the corrosion process. In many cases, these barrier with only nonprestressed reinforcement.
systems successfully extend the useful service life of a struc- Deep polymer impregnation (Al-Qadi et al. 1993; Gannon
ture. A national survey of bridge decks overlaid with low- et al. 1992; Cady and Weyers 1986) is another technique for
slump dense concrete (LSDC) or LMC has shown that the modifying the environment around reinforcing steel. In deep
service life is extended between 20 and 30 years (Weyers et polymer impregnation, an electrically nonconducting mate-
al. 1993; Kepler et al. 2000; Williamson 2007). rial replaces the continuous concrete pore water and stops
6.3.2 —Methods avail- corrosion. In this process, grooves 0.75 in. (19 mm) wide,
able for rendering the environment less corrosive include 1.5 in. (38 mm) deep, and 3.0 in. (75 mm) on center are cut
the removal or elimination of substances and conditions into the deck surface. The concrete is dried to a depth of 0.5

water, oxygen, and stray electrical currents. infrared heaters and allowed to cool slowly under an insu-
Improving drainage and surface-applied materials, such as lating mat to ambient temperature. The monomer (methyl
silane coatings, will reduce the penetration of water into the methacrylate) is poured into the grooves and allowed to
soak into the concrete. Heat is applied to polymerize the
stripped from the electrolyte by chemical processes that are
applicable predominantly to structures exposed in aqueous
solutions. and using a squeegee to place it into the grooves. The initial
Chlorides can be removed from the vicinity of the rein- drying of the concrete may cause extensive cracking in the
forcing steel by electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE). concrete surface. Generally, such polymer treatments are not
The ECE process was investigated in the 1970s (Slater et al. in common use.
1976; Morrison et al. 1976), but it received attention during Stray current corrosion can also be mitigated. A method
the Strategic Highway Research Program, which resulted for mitigating this type of corrosion, implemented for many
in the development of several reports and an implementa- years in the buried pipeline industry, is the installation of
tion guide (Bennett et al. 1993b; Bennett and Schue 1993). resistance bonds. In resistance bonding, the structure being
source of the stray current. In this manner, the current returns

has no loss of metal. Another method uses galvanic anodes

to drain the collected current. Collected current is passed on
to the electrolyte (groundwater) and back to its source from
the surface of the anode. The galvanic anode corrodes rather
than the reinforcing steel. The system should be properly
designed, installed, and maintained to ensure that the current
discharge electrode is the least resistive path to the source.
6.3.3
of reinforcing steel
steel—The Pourbaix diagram for iron (Fig.
3.2.1c) shows that reinforcing steel in concrete is normally
passivated due to the highly alkaline concrete environment.
The diagram shows another area wherein no steel corrosion
occurs. This area, at the lower portion of the diagram, is
labeled as immunity. In this area, the potential of the steel
is more negative than in any naturally occurring condition,
regardless of pH.
The method of providing more negative steel potentials
required for immunity is called cathodic protection. A 1988-
1989 survey indicated that more than 275 atmospherically b) Current distribution hardware (anode)
exposed bridge structures in the United States and Canada c) Conducting electrolyte (concrete)
have been installed with cathodic protection systems ((Han et d) Reinforcing steel to be protected (cathode)
al. 1989).
). The total cathodically protected concrete surface e) Complete circuit (wiring)
area was approximately 9 million ft2 (840,000 m2). Addi- f) Evaluation and control devices (probes, reference cells,
tionally, there are millions of undocumented square feet controller)
(meters) of surface area in parking garages.
When cathodically protecting a structure, a favorable protection of concrete bridge decks ((Bennett et al. 1993b;
electrochemical circuit is established by installing an anode Strategic Highway Research Program 1993
1993). Similar speci-
in contact with the electrolyte and passing a low-voltage
direct current from that anode through the electrolyte to the
reinforcing steel. This current polarizes the surface of the SHRP are included in a manual of practice for cathodic
reinforcing steel in the electro-negative direction. When protection of concrete bridges (Strategic Highway Research
Program 1993). Cathodic protection systems included in
formerly anodic and cathodic steel surfaces, and corro-
sion is arrested. This represents a balanced or equilibrium
condition. Figure 6.3.3 is a schematic representation of (Clemeña and Jackson 2000; Sohanghpurwala 2009).
a) Coke-asphalt cathodic protection system: This system
The protective electrochemical circuit can be established uses anodes of cast-iron alloy, a conductive asphaltic
in two ways. One method uses an electrode made of a metal concrete overlay, and a conventional asphaltic concrete
or alloy that is more electro-negative than the structure to wearing surface.
be protected, such as magnesium, zinc, or aluminum. This b) Slotted-cathodic protection system: This system involves
method is known as the galvanic anode method of cathodic the insertion of an anode system, such as catalyzed titanium
- ribbon mesh, into slots cut into the concrete surface. The slots
selves as they pass current to the electrolyte. An FHWA
study (Whiting et al. 1995) observed that aluminum and c) Distributed-anode cathodic protection system with
zinc anodes were the most promising galvanic anodes. concrete overlays: This system involves placing anodes on
Some anodes may not provide adequate protection where the concrete surface after repairs and cleaning, followed by
the concrete has a high resistivity. Anodes should also be encapsulation of the anodes in concrete. Encapsulation may
sized in accordance with their respective consumption rates consist of an overlay on horizontal surfaces or cast-in-place
to provide the necessary design life. shotcrete on vertical surfaces. Anodes of catalyzed titanium
Cathodic protection can also be established by inducing mesh anodes are the most common.
an electrical current from an external source. This method d) Conductive coating: This system uses platinized wire and
is termed “impressed current cathodic protection”. An conductive carbon-based paints to cover the entire surface
impressed current cathodic protection system includes the
following basic components: surfaces that are not exposed to continuous wetting during
either construction or in service.
e) Sprayed zinc: In this system, molten zinc is sprayed onto

equipment. The zinc coating can be used as a galvanic anode

or as an impressed current anode if electrically isolated from
the steel.
Whether a structure is a candidate for cathodic protection
depends on several factors. These characteristics include:
a) Delaminated areas of less than 5 percent
b) Large percentage of potentials more negative than –350
mV CSE
c) An otherwise durable concrete without materials-related
distress that impedes system function or desired service-life
extension
d) Acid-soluble chloride contents of more than 0.20 percent
by mass of cement at the level of reinforcing steel
e) Concrete cover greater than 0.5 in. (13 mm)
In addition, most of reinforcing steel in the structure
should be electrically continuous, and the structure should
be close to an electrical power source if impressed current
allowance for anticipated changes in current requirement
cathodic protection is being considered.
Various parameters should be considered when esti-
constant voltage and information on these can be found in
mating the required currents for impressed current cathodic
Bennett et al. (1993c)
(1993c). The design output voltage should
protection. These parameters include the surface area of the
take into account the voltage required to drive the cathodic
concrete to be protected, size and spacing of reinforcing
protection current from the anode to the reinforcing steel,
the voltage loss in the positive and negative DC wiring,
on the current requirement. Cathodic protection anodes are
and should include a safety factor of 100 to 200 percent to
accommodate future current demands.
in control and facilitate troubleshooting in problem areas.
Various criteria have been established to ensure adequate
Large zones can lead to problems such as undersupply or
cathodic protection of reinforcing steel. The 100 mV depo
depo-
oversupply of the current to particular areas of the struc-
struc
larization (the change in electrochemical potential when
ture. Undersupply results in lack of adequate protection and
increased risk of additional corrosion distress. Oversupply
period) criterion is most commonly used. It is based on the
theory that polarization of corroding reinforcing steel in the
and conditions, can lead to reduced life of cathodic protec-
cathodic direction will inhibit anodic (corrosion) reactions.
Polarization is usually estimated by measuring the polar-
other embedded materials, delivery of current to unintended
ization decay of the reinforcing steel that occurs after the
components, stray current corrosion of embedded metals,
hydrogen embrittlement of prestressing steels, potentially
using half-cells, are plotted against time over a minimum
unsafe conditions, or some combination of these. Each
4-hour test period. If a 100 mV or greater polarization shift

to stop corrosion.
ground. Typical zone sizes range from 5000 to 7000 ft2 (465
Another criterion is the E-Log(I) test performed by incre-
to 651 m2). On bridges, the location and frequency of the
mentally increasing the cathodic protection current and
expansion joints may determine the zone sizes.
measuring the change in potential of the reinforcing steel.
The voltage drop and current attenuation along the anode
A plot of the potential versus the logarithm of the current is
and its connecting wire in the cathodic protection system
called the E-Log(I) plot, as shown in Fig. 6.3.4. The current
should be evaluated. If the voltage drops are excessive,
required for cathodic protection is the value that occurs at the
beginning of the linear portion of the cathodic polarization
steel may result. For even current distribution to a struc-
curve. The technique often requires special power supplies
ture, the voltage drop should not exceed 300 mV from the
current feed point to the farthest point in the anode circuit.
and relatively complicated to analyze. Two criteria were
The design should therefore optimize anode system length,
developed under the Strategic Highway Research Program
anode spacing and size, and conductor size to achieve safe
(Bennett et al. 1993a; Bennett and Turk 1994)—the corro-
sion null probe and constant current; however, these are
Redundancy of current output, circuitry, and monitoring
devices (reference cells and probes) should be provided
After completing the initial inspection, the cathodic protec-
tion system should be adjusted for current requirements.
After adjustment, the system should be operated continu- guidelines have been established for the selection, design,
construction, and operation of these systems for the protec-
tion of reinforcing steel in atmospherically exposed concrete
structures.
thereafter. Records should include a permanent log of the
system output. Annual surveys should also be conducted to
verify that the cathodic protection system is meeting protec-
tion criteria. The system should be adjusted and repaired as and year of publication followed by authored documents
listed alphabetically.
6.3.4 Corrosion inhibitors—Corrosion inhibitors are
chemical substances that decrease the corrosion rate when

changing the concentration of any other corrosion agent AASHTO MP 18M/MP 18-15 (2015)—Standard Speci-
(ISO 8044). These materials act on the steel surface, either
electro-chemically (anodic, cathodic, mixed-inhibitor) or Plain Alloy, Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
chemically (chemical barrier) to inhibit chloride-induced and Dowels
corrosion above the accepted chloride corrosion threshold AASHTO T 24M/T 24-15 (2015)—Standard Method of
level. Inorganic chemical compounds that protect steel Test for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed
against chloride attack in a basic pH concrete environment Beams of Concrete
include borates, chromates, molybdates, nitrites, and phos- AASHTO T 260-97(2016)—Standard Method of Test
phates. Calcium nitrite is the most researched and most for Sampling and Testing for Chloride Ion in Concrete and
widely used inorganic inhibitor (Ngala et al. 2002; Ormel
Ormel- Concrete Raw Materials
lese et al. 2006).
). Organic compounds used in admixtures AASHTO T 277-15 (2015)—Standard Method of Test
to protect steel from chloride-induced corrosion include for Rapid Determination of the Chloride Permeability of
alkanolamines and an aqueous mixture of amines and fatty- Concrete
acid esters (Nmai et al. 1992; Bobrowski and Youn 19931993; AASHTO TP 36-93 (1993)—Standard Test Method for
Nmai and Krauss 1994; Mäder 19951995).
). Organic amine-based Evaluating Asphalt-Covered Concrete Bridge Decks Using
compounds, such as some amine salts and alkanolamines, Pulsed Radar

when used in a post-treatment process for chloride-induced

corrosion of steel in concrete (Al-Qadi
Al-Qadi et al. 1992).
1992 ACI 201.1R-08—Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspec
Inspec-
Numerous studies have also shown that surface-applied tion of Concrete in Service
(also called penetrating or migrating) corrosion inhibitors ACI 201.2R-16—Guide to Durable Concrete
have the potential to be used for corrosion control on existing ACI 212.3R-16—Report on Chemical Admixtures for
reinforced concrete structures (Söylev et al. 2007; Stephenson Concrete
and Kumar 2009; Krolikowski and Kuziak 2011). However, it ACI 222.2R-14—Report on Corrosion of Prestressing
- Steels
tors might decrease when initial chloride content in concrete ACI 224R-01(08)—Control of Cracking in Concrete
is high (Morris and Vázquez 2002). Structures
ACI 224.1R-07—Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of
Cracks in Concrete Structures
Remedies for controlling corrosion on reinforced concrete ACI 228.2R-13—Report on Nondestructive Test Methods
structures use sound corrosion engineering principles for Evaluation of Concrete in Structures
directed at isolating the reinforced concrete from the corro-
sive environment, alteration of the environment, or control ACI 318-14—Building Code Requirements for Structural
- Concrete and Commentary
sive agents are already present within the concrete matrix ACI 364.1R— Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Structures
when corrosion is detected in a reinforced concrete member. ACI 364.14T-17—TechNote: Section Loss Determination
Though measures that isolate concrete minimize the rate of Damaged or Corroded Reinforcing Steel Bars
of corrosion or the intrusion of additional corrosive agent, ACI 365.1R-00—Service Life Prediction
they trap the existing quantities of these corrosive agents. ACI 423.4R-14—Report on Corrosion and Repair of
Unbonded Single-Strand Tendons
removal of corrosive agents before sealing, such as by ECE. ACI 423.8R-10—Report on Corrosion and Repair of
Many cathode protection systems are available that can Grouted Multistrand and Bar Tendon Systems
control ongoing corrosion in existing reinforced concrete -
structures. rial Properties and U.S. Availability
Various remedial measures have been proven capable of ACI 440R-07—Report on Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
controlling corrosion on existing structures. Criteria and (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures
 ACI 515.2R-13—Guide to Selecting Protective Treat- ASTM C1524-02(2010)—Standard Test Method for
ments for Concrete Water-Extractable Chloride in Aggregate (Soxhlet Method)
ACI 546R-14—Guide to Concrete Repair ASTM C1556-11a(2016)—Standard Test Method for

Concrete Overlays
ACI 562-16—Code Requirements for Assessment, Admixtures to Inhibit Chloride-Induced Corrosion of Rein-
Repair, and Rehabilitation of Existing Concrete Structures forcing Steel in Concrete
and Commentary ASTM D3633/D3633M-12—Standard Test Method for
Electrical Resistivity of Membrane-Pavement Systems

Fabrication and Jobsite Handling of Epoxy-Coated Steel

Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcing Bars
Reinforcement ASTM D4071-84(2016)—Standard Practice for Use
of Portland Cement Concrete Bridge Deck Water Barrier
Deformed and Plain Low-Alloy Steel Bars for Concrete Membrane Systems
Reinforcement ASTM D4580/D4580M-12—Standard Practice for
Measuring Delaminations in Concrete Bridge Decks by
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars Sounding
ASTM D4787-13—Standard Practice for Continuity
Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement
Substrates
Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars ASTM D4788-03(2013)—Standard Test Method for
ASTM A941-16—Standard Terminology Relating to Detecting Delaminations in Bridge Decks Using Infrared
Steel, Stainless Steel, Related Alloys, and Ferroalloys Thermography
ASTM D5385/D5385M-93(2014)—Standard Test
Deformed and Plain Stainless-Steel Bars for Concrete Method for Hydrostatic Pressure Resistance of Water
Water-
Reinforcement
ASTM D6087-08(2015)—Standard Test Method for
Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire Evaluating Asphalt-Covered Concrete Bridge Decks Using
for Concrete Reinforcement Ground Penetrating Radar

Deformed and Plain, Low-Carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars

for Concrete Reinforcement ASTM F2170-16—Standard Test Method for Deter Deter-
ASTM A1055/A1055M-16—Standard Guide for Heated mining Relative Humidity in Concrete Floor Slabs Using in
System Surface Conditions that Produce Contact Burn Injuries situ Probes
ASTM G57-06(2012)—Standard Test Method for Field
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Welded Wire Reinforce- Measurement of Soil Resistivity Using the Wenner Four-
ment, Plain and Deformed, for Concrete Electrode Method
ASTM C42/C42M-16—Standard Test Method for ASTM G109-07(2013)—Standard Test Method for Deter-
Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of
Concrete Embedded Steel Reinforcement in Concrete Exposed to
ASTM C597-16—Standard Test Method for Pulse Chloride Environments
Velocity Through Concrete ASTM G180-13—Standard Test Method for Corrosion
ASTM C856-17—Standard Practice for Petrographic Inhibiting Admixtures for Steel in Concrete by Polarization
Examination of Hardened Concrete Resistance in Cementitious Slurries
ASTM C876-15—Standard Test Method for Corrosion ASTM WK37880—New Test Method for Measuring the
Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete Surface Resistivity of Hardened Concrete Using the Wenner
ASTM C1152/C1152M-04(2012)—Standard Test Method Four-Electrode Method
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As ACI begins its second century of advancing concrete knowledge, its original chartered purpose
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