06 Complex Waves
06 Complex Waves
06 Complex Waves
6. Complex Waves
Complex numbers are commonly used in the study of waves, such as electromagnetic
(light) waves, sound waves, and water waves.
∂2f 1 ∂2f
= , v ∈ R+ . (6.1)
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2
The parameter v, which we take to be a positive real constant, is called the wave speed,
for reasons that will shortly become clear.
Sometimes, we write the wave equation in the following form:
2
1 ∂2
∂
− 2 2 f (x, t) = 0. (6.2)
∂x2 v ∂t
This consists of a linear differential operator acting on f (x, t), which emphasizes that the
wave equation is a linear PDE. Hence, any linear superposition of solutions is also a solution.
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Y. D. Chong (2021) MH2801: Complex Methods for the Sciences
This implies that the wave shifts by δx = (ω/k) δt during the time interval δt. Hence,
the wave velocity is
δx (ω/k) δt ω
= = . (6.4)
δt δt k
As previously noted, ω is conventionally taken to be a positive real number. Hence, positive
k implies that the wave is right-moving (positive velocity), and negative k implies the wave
is left-moving (negative velocity). Moreover, v is the wave speed (i.e., the absolute value of
the velocity):
δx ω
= = v. (6.5)
δt |k|
Here, we denote k = ω/c. Such a superposition is also a solution to the wave equation, called
a standing wave. It can be re-written in a variable-separated form (i.e., as the product of
a function of x and a function of t):
f (x, t) = 2f0 cos kx + (φ1 − φ2 )/2 cos ωt − (φ1 + φ2 )/2 . (6.7)
This can be proven using the trigonometric addition formulas, but the proof is tedious.
There exists a nice set of complex solutions to the wave equation, called complex travelling
waves, which take the form
ω
f (x, t) = A ei(kx−ωt) where = v. (6.9)
k
This can be shown to satisfy the PDE via direct substitution. The complex constant A is
called the complex amplitude of the wave. Consider what happens if we take the real
part of the above solution:
h i h i
Re A ei(kx−ωt) = Re |A| eiarg[A] ei(kx−ωt) (6.10)
h i
= |A| Re eiarg[A] ei(kx−ωt) (6.11)
= |A| cos kx − ωt + arg[A] (6.12)
Comparing this to the real solution from Section 6.2, we see that |A| serves as the
amplitude of the real wave, while arg(A) serves as the phase factor φ. The complex solution
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is thus more succinct than the real solution: a single complex parameter A combines the
roles of two parameters in the real solution.
The complex representation also makes wave superpositions easier to handle. As an
example, consider the superposition of two counter-propagating waves of equal amplitude
and frequency, with arbitrary phases. Using complex travelling waves, we can calculate the
superposition with a few lines of algebra:
f (x, t) = |A| ei(kx−ωt+φ1 ) + |A| ei(−kx−ωt+φ2 ) (6.13)
= |A| ei(kx+φ1 ) + e−i(kx−φ2 ) e−iωt (6.14)
= |A| ei[kx+(φ1 −φ2 )/2] + e−i[kx+(φ1 −φ2 )/2] ei(φ1 +φ2 )/2 e−iωt (6.15)
= 2 |A| cos [kx + (φ1 − φ2 )/2] e−i[ωt−(φ1 +φ2 )/2] . (6.16)
Taking the real part yields our previous result (6.7), without the need for tedious manipu-
lations of trigonometric formulas.
where
kx x
~k = ky , ~r = y , ω
q = v. (6.19)
kz z kx + ky2 + kz2
2
Again, we can verify that this is a solution by direct substitution. The wave-vector ~k is
a generalization of our previous one-dimensional k; it points in the direction in which the
wave travels.
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We now let n be complex, while keeping ω and c as positive real numbers. The solutions to
the ODE have the form
inω
ψ(x) = A exp ± x , where A ∈ C. (6.25)
c
Then
The first exponential factor describes the oscillation of the wavefunction, with the ± sign
determining whether the harmonic wave is moving to the right or to the left. The second
exponential describes the amplification or attenuation of the wave. If n00 6= 0, the amplitude
varies exponentially with x. Thus, depending on the signs of the various parameters, the
wave might grow exponentially along its direction of propagation, which corresponds to
amplification, or decrease exponentially along its direction of propagation, which corresponds
to damping.
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refractive indices n1 (for y > 0) and n2 (for y < 0). We assume that n1 and n2 are positive
real numbers, and consider waves propagating in the x-y plane, ignoring the z direction.
Let us look for a wavefunction of the form
ψ(x, y) = eikx Φ(y). (6.28)
(Why do we seek such a solution? Because the system is translationally symmetric along x,
so it ought to support elementary solutions with a simple wave-like variation in x. This is
an example of the physics principle known as Noether’s Theorem.)
Substituting Eq. (6.28) into the time-independent wave equation reduces it to
2
n(y)2 ω 2
d 2
−k + Φ(y) = 0. (6.29)
dy 2 c2
In the upper medium (y > 0), where n = n1 , there are solutions exp(±iκ1 y) where
n21 ω 2
k 2 + κ21 = . (6.30)
c2
Suppose k < n1 ω/c, so that κ1 is real. We let Φ(y) be a superposition of the two solutions:
Φ(y) = e−iκ1 y + reiκ1 y , where r ∈ C. (6.31)
Putting the x-dependence back in, we get
~ ~
ψ(x, y) = eikin ·r + reikrefl ·r , (for y > 0), (6.32)
where
~kin = k k
, ~krefl = . (6.33)
−κ1 κ1
Eq. (6.32) describes a superposition of an incident wave and a reflected wave, with
wave-vectors ~kin and ~krefl respectively. The complex reflection coefficient r describes the
reflected wave’s amplitude and phase relative to the incident wave. Note that ~kin and ~krefl
have the same x-component (k) and exactly opposite y-components (±κ1 ); this is consistent
with the law of reflection, which states that the angle of reflection matches the angle of
incidence. The angle of incidence θ1 is
k ck
sin(θ1 ) = p = . (6.34)
k2 + κ21 n1 ω
Part of the incident wave may also be transmitted into the lower medium (y < 0).
Returning to Eq. (6.29), let Φ(y) = t exp(−iκ2 y), so that the transmitted wavefunction is
~
ψ(x, y) = teiktrans ·~r , (for y < 0), (6.35)
where t is called the transmission coefficient, and
2 2
~ktrans = k , k 2 + κ2 = n2 ω . (6.36)
−κ2 2
c2
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Note that Eq. (6.35) does not include a wave traveling in the +y direction, on physical
grounds: we are interested in the situation where a wave is incident from the upper medium
and there is no wave incident from the bottom. Now, if k < n2 ω/c, then κ2 is real, and we
can define the angle of transmission θ2 by
k ck
sin(θ2 ) = p = . (6.37)
k2 + κ22 n2 ω
where
r
n22 ω 2
γ2 = k2 − (6.44)
c2
ω
q
2
= [n1 sin(θ1 )] − n22 · . (6.45)
c
This is called an evanescent wave. In the x direction (parallel to the interface) it behaves
like an traveling wave, but in the y direction it decays exponentially away from the interface.
Evanescent waves have numerous applications in optics and other areas. For example, they
underpin the technique called Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy,
which is used to make extremely high-resolution images of biological cells.
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6.6 Exercises
1. Consider the 1D wave equation in a enclosed box of length L and uniform refractive
index n ∈ R. The walls of the box are at x = −L/2 and x = L/2, and the wavefunction
goes to zero at these points: ψ(±L/2) = 0 (i.e., Dirichlet boundary conditions). Show
that ψ(x) = 0 for all x, except for certain discrete values of the frequency ω. Find
these frequencies, and the corresponding non-zero solutions ψ(x).
2. As discussed in Section 6.5.2, a harmonic travelling wave in an energy-nonconserving
medium is described by 2
d ω 2
2
+n ψ(x) = 0, (6.46)
dx2 c
where n is a complex number. (As usual, ω and c are assumed to be positive real
numbers.) Show that the relative sign of Re(n) and Im(n) determines whether the
wave experiences amplification or dissipation, and that the result does not depend of
the wave’s propagation direction. [solution available]
3. When the refractive index is complex, can the real part of the complex wavefunction
be regarded as the solution to the same wave equation? If not, derive a real differential
equation whose solution is the real part of Eq. (6.25).
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