CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents related literature on peer influence, emotional intelligence and

subjective happiness as correlate of cybercrime among undergraduate students in University of

Ibadan. Review of related studies will be done by linking all the independent variables to the

dependent variable of the study (cybercrime) this would be referred to as empirical studies.

2.1 Conceptual Background

2.1.1 Concept of Cybercrime

2.1.2 Concept of peer influence

2.1.3 Concept of emotional intelligence

2.1.4 Concept of subjective happiness

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 Labelling theory

2.2.2 Behavioural Theory

2.3 Empirical Review

2.3.1 Peer influence and cybercrime

2.3.2 Emotional intelligence and cybercrime

2.3.3 Subjective happiness and cybercrime

2.1 Conceptual Background

2.1.1 Concept of Cybercrime

Cybercrime, or computer-oriented crime, is a crime that involves a computer and

a network. The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the

target. Cybercrime may threaten a person, company or a nation's security and financial health

(Moore, (2005). There are many privacy concerns surrounding cybercrime

when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. Internationally,

both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial

theft, and other cross-border crimes. Cybercrimes crossing international borders and involving

the actions of at least one nation-state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare.

A report (sponsored by McAfee), published in 2014, estimated that the annual damage to

the global economy was $445 billion. Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to online

credit and debit card fraud in the US. In 2018, a study by Center for Strategic and International

Studies (CSIS), in partnership with McAfee, concludes that nearly one percent of global GDP,

close to $600 billion, is lost to cybercrime each year (Warren, and Heiser (2002).

Classifications

Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities.[7]

Financial fraud crimes

Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or

refrain from doing something which causes loss. In this context, the fraud will result in

obtaining a benefit by:

• Altering in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise and is a common

form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or by entering

unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized processes;

• Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized

transactions. This is difficult to detect;

• Altering or deleting stored data;

Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including bank

fraud, carding, identity theft, extortion, and theft of classified information. These types of crime

often result in the loss of private information or monetary information.

Cyberterrorism

Government officials and information technology security specialists have documented a

significant increase in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001. There is a growing

concern among government agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) and

the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) that such intrusions are part of an organized effort

by cyberterrorist foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security holes in

critical systems (Bossler, Berenblum and Tamar (2019). A cyberterrorist is someone who

intimidates or coerces a government or an organization to advance his or her political or social

objectives by launching a computer-based attack against computers, networks, or the

information stored on them.

Cyberterrorism, in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the

use of cyberspace or computer resources (Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda piece on

the Internet that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered

cyberterrorism. There are also hacking activities directed towards individuals, families,
organized by groups within networks, tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power,

collecting information relevant for ruining peoples' lives, robberies, blackmailing, etc (Lewis,

(2018).

Cyberextortion

Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to

or threatened with repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers. These

hackers demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and to offer "protection".

According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, cybercrime extortionists are increasingly

attacking corporate websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate and demanding

payments to restore their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI and

many go unreported in order to keep the victim's name out of the public domain. Perpetrators

typically use a distributed denial-of-service attack. However, other cyberextortion techniques

exist such as doxing extortion and bug poaching (Gordon, 2006).

Cybersex trafficking

Cybersex trafficking is the transportation of victims and then the live streaming of

coerced sexual acts and or rape on webcam (Laqueur, Specto and Michael (2002). Victims are

abducted, threatened, or deceived and transferred to 'cybersex dens. The dens can be in any

location where the cybersex traffickers have a computer, tablet, or phone

with internet connection. Perpetrators use social media networks, videoconferences, dating

pages, online chat rooms, apps, dark web sites, and other platforms. They use online payment

systems and cryptocurrencies to hide their identities. Millions of reports of its occurrence are

sent to authorities annually. New legislation and police procedures are needed to combat this
type of cybercrime. An example of cybersex trafficking is the 2018–2020 Nth room

case in South Korea.

Cyberwarfare

The U.S. Department of Defense notes that the cyberspace has emerged as a national-

level concern through several recent events of geostrategic significance. Among those are

included, the attack on Estonia's infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. In August

2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyber attacks, this time in a coordinated and

synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia. Fearing that

such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states, the concept of

cyberspace operations impacts and will be adapted by warfighting military commanders in the

future.

Computer as a target

These crimes are committed by a selected group of criminals. Unlike crimes using the

computer as a tool, these crimes require the technical knowledge of the perpetrators. As such, as

technology evolves, so too does the nature of the crime. These crimes are relatively new, having

been in existence for only as long as computers have which explains how unprepared society

and the world, in general, is towards combating these crimes. There are numerous crimes of this

nature committed daily on the internet. It is seldom committed by loners, instead it involves

large syndicate groups. Crimes that primarily target computer networks ethffefes include:

• Computer viruses

• Denial-of-service attacks

• Malware (malicious code)

Computer as a tool

When the individual is the main target of cybercrime, the computer can be considered as

the tool rather than the target. These crimes generally involve less technical expertise. Human

weaknesses are generally exploited. The damage dealt is largely psychological and intangible,

making legal action against the variants more difficult. These are the crimes which have existed

for centuries in the offline world. Scams, theft, and the likes have existed even before the

development in high-tech equipment. The same criminal has simply been given a tool which

increases their potential pool of victims and makes them all the harder to trace and apprehend

(Mohanta, 2014). Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:

• Fraud and identity theft (although this increasingly uses malware, hacking or phishing,

making it an example of both "computer as target" and "computer as tool" crime)

• Information warfare

• Phishing scams

• Spam

• Propagation of illegal obscene or offensive content, including harassment and threats.

The unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes (spam) is unlawful in some

jurisdictions. Phishing is mostly propagated via email. Phishing emails may contain links to

other websites that are affected by malware (Carback, (2018). Or, they may contain links to

fake online banking or other websites used to steal private account information.

Obscene or offensive content

The content of websites and other electronic communications may be

distasteful, obscene or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances, these

communications may be illegal. The extent to which these communications are unlawful varies

greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can

become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs. One area of Internet

pornography that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is child pornography,

which is illegal in most jurisdictions in the world. Debarati Halder and K. Jaishankar further

define cybercrime from the perspective of gender and defined 'cybercrime against women' as

"Crimes targeted against women with a motive to intentionally harm the victim psychologically

and physically, using modern telecommunication networks such as internet and mobile phones"

(Dennis 2010).

Online harassment

Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, harassment directs obscenities

and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing for example on gender, race, religion,

nationality, sexual orientation. There are instances where committing a crime using a computer

can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of United States v. Neil Scott

Kramer, the defendant was given an enhanced sentence according to the U.S. Sentencing

Guidelines Manual §2G1.3(b)(3) for his use of a cell phone to "persuade, induce, entice, coerce,

or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct." Kramer appealed

the sentence on the grounds that there was insufficient evidence to convict him under this

statute because his charge included persuading through a computer device and his cellular

phone technically is not a computer. Although Kramer tried to argue this point, the U.S.

Sentencing Guidelines Manual states that the term 'computer' "means an electronic, magnetic,

optical, electrochemical, or other high-speed data processing device performing logical,

arithmetic, or storage functions, and includes any data storage facility or communications

facility directly related to or operating in conjunction with such device."

Drug trafficking

Darknet markets are used to buy and sell recreational drugs online. Some drug

traffickers use encrypted messaging tools to communicate with drug mules. The dark

web site Silk Road was a major online marketplace for drugs before it was shut down by law

enforcement (then reopened under new management, and then shut down by law enforcement

again). After Silk Road 2.0 went down, Silk Road 3 Reloaded emerged. However, it was just an

older marketplace named Diabolus Market, that used the name for more exposure from the

brand's previous success (Christian,2015).

Darknet markets have had an up-rise in traffic in recent years for many reasons. One of

the biggest contributors being the anonymity and safety that goes along when using the markets

(Brandom, (2019). There are numerous ways you can lose all your money invested and be

caught when using Darknet markets. Vendors and customers alike go to great lengths to keep

their identities a secret while online. Commonly used tools are virtual private networks, Tails,

and Tor to help hide their trail left behind for investigators. Darknet markets make the user feel

safe as they can get what they want from the comfort of their home. People can easily gain

access to a Tor browser with DuckDuckGo browser that allows a user to explore much deeper

than other browsers such as Google Chrome. However actually gaining access to an illicit

market isn't as simple as typing it in on the search engine like you would with google. Darknet

markets have special links that are changing everyday ending in .onion opposed to the typical

.com, .net. and .org domain extensions. To add to privacy the biggest currency on these markets
is Bitcoin. Bitcoin allows transactions to be committed between people by exchanging wallet

addresses and never having to know anything about the person you're sending money to.

2.1.2 Concept of peer influence

Peer influence is the direct influence on people by peers, or the effect on an individual

who gets encouraged to follow their peers by changing (Jang, Kyungeun; Park, Namkee; Song,

Hayeon (2016) their attitudes, values or behaviors to conform to those of the influencing group

or individual. This can result in either a positive or negative effect, or both. Social groups

affected include both membership groups, in which individuals are "formally" members (such

as political parties and trade unions), and cliques, in which membership is not clearly defined.

However, a person does not need to be a member or be seeking membership of a group to be

affected by peer pressure. Peer pressure can decrease one's confidence.

There has been considerable study regarding the effects of peer pressure on children and

adolescents, and in popular discourse the term is mostly used in the contexts of those age groups.

For children, the common themes for study regard their abilities for independent decision

making; for adolescents, peer pressure's relationship with sexual intercourse and substance abuse

have been significantly researched. Peer pressure can affect individuals of all ethnicity, genders

and ages, however. Peer pressure has moved from strictly face-to-face interaction to digital

interaction as well. Social media offers opportunities for adolescents and adults alike to instill

and/or experience pressure every day (Jang, Kyungeun; Park, Namkee; Song, Hayeon

(2016). Research suggests that not just individuals but also organizations, such as large

corporations, are susceptible to peer pressures, such as pressures from other firms in their

industry or headquarters city (Marquis, Christopher; Tilcsik, András (2016).

 Imitation plays a large role in children's lives; in order to pick up skills and techniques

that they use in their own life, children are always searching for behaviors and attitudes around

them that they can co-opt. In other words, children get influenced by people that are important in

their lives such as friends, parents and even YouTubers, celebrities, singers, dancers, etc.

Children are aware of their position in the social hierarchy from a young age: their instinct is to

defer to adults' judgements and majority opinions (Corriveau, Kathleen H.; Harris, Paul L.

(2010). Similar to the Asch conformity experiments, a study done on groups of preschool

children showed that they were influenced by groups of their peers to change their opinion to a

demonstrably wrong one (Haun, Daniel B. M.; Tomasello, Michael (2011). Each child was

handed a book with two sets of images on each page, with a groups of differently sized animals

on the left hand page and one animal on the right hand, and each child was asked to indicate the

size of the lone animal. All the books appeared the same, but the last child would sometimes get

a book that was different. The children reported their size judgements in turn, and the child being

tested was asked last. Before him or her, however, were a group of children working in

conjunction with the researchers. Sometimes, the children who answered before the test subject

all gave an answer that was incorrect. When asked in the presence of the other children, the last

child's response was often the same as his or her peers. However, when allowed to privately

share their responses with a researcher the children proved much more resistant to their peers'

pressure, illustrating the importance of the physical presence of their peers in shaping their

opinions (Haun, Daniel B. M.; Tomasello, Michael (2011).

An insight is that children can monitor and intervene in their peers' behavior through

pressure. A study conducted in a remedial kindergarten class in the Edna A. Hill Child

Development Laboratory in the University of Kansas designed a program to measure how

children could ease disruptive behavior in their peers through a two-part system. After describing

a series of tasks to their classroom that included bathroom usage, cleaning up, and general

classroom behavior, teachers and researchers would observe children's performance on the tasks.

The study focused on three children who were clearly identified as being more disruptive than

their peers, and looked at their responses to potential techniques. The system utilized was a two-

part one: first, each student would be given points by their teachers for correctly completing

tasks with little disruption (e.g. sitting down on a mat for reading time), and if a student reached

three points by the end of the day they would receive a prize. The second part brought in peer

interaction, where students who reached three points were appointed "peer monitors" whose role

was to lead their small groups and assign points at the end of the day. The results were clear-cut,

showing that the monitored students' disruption dropped when teachers started the points system

and monitored them, but when peer monitors were introduced the target students' disruption

dropped to average rates of 1% for student C1, 8% for student C2, and 11% for student C3

(down from 36%, 62%, and 59%, respectively). Even small children, then, are susceptible to

pressure from their peers, and that pressure can be used to effect positive change in academic and

social environments (Carden Smith, L. K.; Fowler, S. A. (1984).

Adolescence is the time when a person is most susceptible to peer pressure because peers

become an important influence on behavior during adolescence, and peer pressure has been

called a hallmark of adolescent experience (Brown, B. Bradford (2004). Children entering this

period in life become aware for the first time of the other people around them and realize the

importance of perception in their interactions. Peer conformity in young people is most

pronounced with respect to style, taste, appearance, ideology, and values (Durkin, Kevin 1996).

Peer pressure is commonly associated with episodes of adolescent risk taking because these
activities commonly occur in the company of peers. Affiliation with friends who engage in risk

behaviors has been shown to be a strong predictor of an adolescent's own behavior (Spear, Hila

J.; Kulbok, Pamela A (2001). Peer pressure can also have positive effects when youth are

pressured by their peers toward positive behavior, such as volunteering for charity or excelling in

academics (Gormly, Kellie B. (2013). The importance of peers declines upon entering adulthood

(Brown, B. Bradford; Eicher, Sue Ann; Petrie, Sandra (1986).

Even though socially accepted children often have the most opportunities and the most

positive experiences, research shows that social acceptance (being in the popular crowd) may

increase the likelihood of engaging in risky behavior, depending on the norms in the group.

Groups of popular children showed a propensity to increase risky, drug-related and delinquent

behavior when this behavior was likely to receive approval in their groups. Peer pressure was

greatest among more popular children because they were the children most attuned to the

judgments of their peers, making them more susceptible to group pressures (Allen, Joseph P.;

Porter, Maryfrances R.; McFarland, F. Christy; Marsh, Penny; McElhaney, Kathleen Boykin

(2005). Gender also has a clear effect on the amount of peer pressure an adolescent experiences:

girls report significantly higher pressures to conform to their groups in the form of clothing

choices or speech patterns. Additionally, girls and boys reported facing differing amounts of

pressures in different areas of their lives, perhaps reflecting a different set of values and priorities

for each gender (Clasen, Donna Rae; Brown, B. Bradford (1985).

Peer pressure is widely recognized as a major contributor to the initiation of drug use,

particularly in adolescence (Bahr, Stephen J.; Hoffmann, John P.; Yang, Xiaoyan (2005). This

has been shown for a variety of substances, including nicotine and alcohol (Urberg, Kathryn A.;

Shiang-Jeou, Shyu; Liang, Jersey (1990). While this link is well established, moderating factors
do exist. For example, parental monitoring is negatively associated with substance use; yet when

there is little monitoring, adolescents are more likely to succumb to peer coercion during

initiation to substance use, but not during the transition from experimental to regular

use. Caldwell and colleagues extended this work by finding that peer pressure was a factor

leading to heightened risk in the context of social gatherings with little parental monitoring, and

if the individual reported themselves as vulnerable to peer pressure. Conversely, some research

has observed that peer pressure can be a protective factor against substance use (Maxwell,

Kimberly A. (2002).

Peer pressure produces a wide array of negative outcomes. Allen and colleagues showed

that susceptibility to peer pressure in 13- and 14-year-olds was predictive of not only future

response to peer pressure, but also a wider array of functioning (Allen, Joseph P.; Porter,

Maryfrances R.; McFarland, F. Christy (2006). For example, greater depression

symptomatology, decreasing popularity, more sexual behavior, and externalizing behavior were

greater for more susceptible teens. Of note, substance use was also predicted by peer pressure

susceptibility such that greater susceptibility was predictive of greater alcohol and drug use.

Substance use is likely not attributed to peer pressure alone. Evidence of genetic

predispositions for substance use exists (Kendler, Kenneth S.; Prescott, Carol A.; Myers, John;

Neale, Michael C. 2003) and some have begun to examine gene x environment interactions for

peer influence. In a nationally representative sample, adolescents who had genetic predisposition

were more likely to have good friends who were heavy substance users and were furthermore,

more likely to be vulnerable to the adverse influence of these friends (Harden, K. Paige; Hill,

Jennifer E.; Turkheimer, Eric; Emery, Robert E. (2008). Results from specific candidate gene

studies have been mixed. For instance, in a study of nicotine use Johnson and colleagues found
that peer smoking had a lower effect on nicotine dependence for those with the high risk allele

(CHRNA5). This suggests that social contexts do not play the significant role in substance use

initiation and maintenance as it may for others and that interventions for these individuals should

be developed with genetics in mind as well.

Though the impact of peer influence in adolescence has been well established, it was

unclear at what age this effect begins to diminish. It is accepted that such peer pressure to use

alcohol or illicit substances is less likely to exist in elementary school and very young

adolescents given the limited access and exposure. Using the Resistance to Peer Influence Scale,

Sumter and colleagues found that resistance to peer pressure grew as age increased in a large

study of 10- to 18-year-old (Sumter, Sindy R.; Bokhorst, Caroline L.; Steinberg, Laurence;

Westenberg, P. Michiel (2009). This study also found that girls were generally more resistant to

peer influence than boys, particularly at mid-adolescence (i.e. ages 13–15). The higher

vulnerability to peer pressure for teenage boys makes sense given the higher rates of substance

use in male teens. For girls, increased and positive parental behaviors (e.g. parental social

support, consistent discipline) have been shown to be an important contributor to the ability to

resist peer pressure to use substances (Marshal, Michael P.; Chassin, Laurie (2000).

It is believed that peer pressure of excessive drinking in college comes down to three

factors; being offered alcohol, modeling and social norms. Offering alcohol can be both as a kind

gesture or the other extreme which is forceful. Then you have the modeling which is being a

“copycat” and following your friends then finally you have the social norms which are drinking.

There are two reasons why people do it; because everyone does it, or as a means to fit into social

groups. on entering college most people begin to increase their amount of alcohol intake, this is

more so true to those who do not live at home. This would be because you have shifted from
being influenced by your parents to being influenced by your college peers. (Borsari and Carey,

2001).

2.1.3 Concept of emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI), emotional leadership (EL), emotional quotient (EQ)

and emotional intelligence quotient (EIQ), is the capability of individuals to recognize their

own emotions and those of others, discern between different feelings and label them

appropriately, use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, and manage and/or

adjust emotions to adapt to environments or achieve one's goal(s) (Colman, Andrew (2008).

Although the term first appeared in "The Communication of Emotional Meaning" paper

by a member of Department of Psychology Teachers at College Columbia University Joel Robert

Davitz and clinical professor of psychology in psychiatry Michael Beldoch in 1964, it gained

popularity in the 1995 book "Emotional Intelligence", written by author and science

journalist Daniel Goleman. Since this time, EI, and Goleman's 1995 analysis, have been

criticized within the scientific community, despite prolific reports of its usefulness in the popular

press.

Empathy is typically associated with EI, because it relates to an individual connecting

their personal experiences with those of others. However, several models exist that aim to

measure levels of (empathy) EI. There are currently several models of EI. Goleman's original

model may now be considered a mixed model that combines what has since been modeled

separately as ability EI and trait EI. Goleman defined EI as the array of skills and characteristics

that drive leadership performance (Goleman, Daniel (1998). The trait model was developed

by Konstantinos V. Petrides in 2001. It "encompasses behavioral dispositions and self perceived

abilities and is measured through self report" (Petrides, Konstantin; Furnham, Adrian
(2001). The ability model, developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer in 2004, focuses on the

individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social

environment (Salovey, Peter; Mayer, John; Caruso, David (2004).

Studies have shown that people with high EI have greater mental health, job

performance, and leadership skills although no causal relationships have been shown and such

findings are likely to be attributable to general intelligence and specific personality traits rather

than emotional intelligence as a construct. For example, Goleman indicated that EI accounted for

67% of the abilities deemed necessary for superior performance in leaders, and mattered twice as

much as technical expertise or IQ (Goleman, D. (1998). Other research finds that the effect of EI

markers on leadership and managerial performance is non-significant when ability and

personality are controlled for,[14] and that general intelligence correlates very closely with

leadership. Markers of EI and methods of developing it have become more widely coveted in the

past decade by individuals seeking to become more effective leaders. In addition, studies have

begun to provide evidence to help characterize the neural mechanisms of emotional intelligence

(Barbey, Aron K.; Colom, Roberto; Grafman, Jordan (2012).

Criticisms have centered on whether EI is a real intelligence and whether it

has incremental validity over IQ and the Big Five personality traits. Emotional intelligence has

been defined, by Peter Salovey and John Mayer, as "the ability to monitor one's own and other

people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and

to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior". This definition was later broken

down and refined into four proposed abilities: perceiving, using, understanding, and managing

emotions. These abilities are distinct yet related. Emotional intelligence also reflects abilities to

join intelligence, empathy and emotions to enhance thought and understanding of interpersonal
dynamics. However, substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect

to both terminology and operationalizations. Currently, there are three main models of EI:

1. Ability model

2. Mixed model (usually subsumed under trait EI)

3. Trait model

Different models of EI have led to the development of various instruments for

the assessment of the construct. While some of these measures may overlap, most researchers

agree that they tap different constructs.

Specific ability models address the ways in which emotions facilitate thought and understanding.

For example, emotions may interact with thinking and allow people to be better decision makers

(Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). A person who is more responsive emotionally to crucial issues will

attend to the more crucial aspects of his or her life (Mayer, John D (2008). Aspects of emotional

facilitation factor is to also know how to include or exclude emotions from thought depending on

context and situation.[40] This is also related to emotional reasoning and understanding in

response to the people, environment and circumstances one encounters in his or her day-to-day

life.

In 1995, psychologist and science journalist Daniel Goleman published a book

introducing most of the world to the nascent concept of emotional intelligence. The idea--that an

ability to understand and manage emotions greatly increases our chances of success--quickly

took off, and it went on to greatly influence the way people think about emotions and human

behavior. But what does emotional intelligence look like, as manifested in everyday life? For the

past two years, I've explored that question in (Mayer, John D (2008) researching my forthcoming
book, EQ, Applied. In doing so, I've identified a number of actions that illustrate how emotional

intelligence appears in the real world. Here are 13 of them:

1. You think about feelings.

Emotional intelligence begins with what is called self- and social awareness, the ability to

recognize emotions (and their impact) in both yourself and others.

That awareness begins with reflection. You ask questions like:

• What are my emotional strengths? What are my weaknesses?

• How does my current mood affect my thoughts and decision making?

• What's going on under the surface that influences what others say or do?

Pondering questions like these yield valuable insights that can be used to your advantage.

2. You pause.

The pause is as simple as taking a moment to stop and think before you speak or act. (Easy in

theory, difficult in practice.) This can help save you from embarrassing moments or from making

commitments too quickly.

In other words, pausing helps you refrain from making a permanent decision based on a

temporary emotion.
3. You strive to control your thoughts.

You don't have much control over the emotion you experience in a given moment. But you can

control your reaction to those emotions--by focusing on your thoughts. (As it's been said: You

can't prevent a bird from landing on your head, but you can keep it from building a nest.)

By striving to control your thoughts, you resist becoming a slave to your emotions, allowing

yourself to live in a way that's in harmony with your goals and values.

4. You benefit from criticism.

Nobody enjoys negative feedback. But you know that criticism is a chance to learn, even if

it's not delivered in the best way. And even when it's unfounded, it gives you a window into how

others think.

When you receive negative feedback, you keep your emotions in check and ask yourself: How

can this make me better?

5. You show authenticity.

Authenticity doesn't mean sharing everything about yourself, to everyone, all of the time.

It does mean saying what you mean, meaning what you say, and sticking to your values and

principles above all else.

You know not everyone will appreciate your sharing your thoughts and feelings. But the ones

who matter will.

6. You demonstrate empathy.

The ability to show empathy, which includes understanding others' thoughts and feelings, helps

you connect with others. Instead of judging or labeling others, you work hard to see things

through their eyes.

Empathy doesn't necessarily mean agreeing with another person's point of view. Rather, it's

about striving to understand--which allows you to build deeper, more connected relationships.

7. You praise others.

All humans crave acknowledgement and appreciation. When you commend others, you satisfy

that craving and build trust in the process.

This all begins when you focus on the good in others. Then, by sharing specifically what you

appreciate, you inspire them to be the best version of themselves.

8. You give helpful feedback.

Negative feedback has great potential to hurt the feelings of others. Realizing this, you reframe

criticism as constructive feedback, so the recipient sees it as helpful instead of harmful.

9. You apologize.

It takes strength and courage to be able to say you're sorry. But doing so demonstrates humility, a

quality that will naturally draw others to you.

Emotional intelligence helps you realize that apologizing doesn't always mean you're wrong.

It does mean valuing your relationship more than your ego.

10. You forgive and forget.

Hanging on to resentment is like leaving a knife inside a wound. While the offending party

moves on with their life, you never give yourself the chance to heal.

When you forgive and forget, you prevent others from holding your emotions hostage--allowing

you to move forward.

11. You keep your commitments.

It's common nowadays for people to break an agreement or commitment when they feel like it.

Of course, bailing on an evening of Netflix with a friend will cause less harm than breaking a

promise to your child or missing a major business deadline.

But when you make a habit of keeping your word--in things big and small--you develop a strong

reputation for reliability and trustworthiness.

12. You help others.

One of the greatest ways to positively impact the emotions of others is to help them.

Most people don't really care where you graduated from, or even about your previous

accomplishments. But what about the hours you're willing to take out of your schedule to listen

or help out? Your readiness to get down in the trenches and work alongside them?

Actions like these build trust and inspire others to follow your lead when it counts.
13. You protect yourself from emotional sabotage.

You realize that emotional intelligence also has a dark side--such as when individuals attempt to

manipulate others' emotions to promote a personal agenda or for some other selfish cause.

Importance of emotional intelligence

1. Ability to be flexible. To avoid stalemates, during intense negotiations one must remain

flexible. That is, one must be prepared for the unexpected. Those with low emotional intelligence

are uncomfortable with change and panic in the face of the unexpected. Those with high E.Q. use

the challenge of the unexpected to arrive at creative solutions. .

2. Ability to be optimistic. When faced with relentless pressure and little chance for success, the

average person gives up in despair. Yet, giving up is not an option for world class champions,

master negotiators, or business magnates. Because of their optimism, emotionally intelligent

leaders are always hopeful and, therefore, willing to face the challenges that await them.

3. Ability to be empathetic. Empathy, or the ability to place oneself in the shoes of another, is a

major component of emotional intelligence.

4. Ability to resolve conflicts. The emotionally intelligent can resolve conflicts because they

always think in terms of win-win, unlike the "I win, you lose" philosophy of those with little

emotional intelligence.

5. Ability to use humor to lessen stress. Stress wears heavily on our bodies, reducing clarity of

mind, and alertness, both of which are critical in a crisis.

6. Ability to recognize and manage one's emotions. To be successful, one must manage, or

control, emotions.
7.Ability to connect with others using nonverbal communication. During negotiations, it is

critical that both sides understand one another. Negotiations often fail because one side, or both,

doesn't understand that 85% of communication is nonverbal. That is, the meanings of the words

we use merely represent 15% of the message we convey. The other 85% is expressed by body

language and the tone and volume of our voice. Emotionally intelligent people not only are

aware of their emotions, but of the emotions of those they are dealing with. A firm grasp of the

ability to read others by their body language is essential for successful negotiations.

2.1.4 Concept of subjective happiness

Subjective happiness is the scientific term for happiness and life satisfaction thinking and

feeling that your life is going well, not badly. Scientists rely primarily on self-report surveys to

assess the happiness of individuals, but they have validated these scales with other types of

measures. People’s levels of subjective happiness are influenced by both internal factors, such as

personality and outlook, and external factors, such as the society in which they live. Some of the

major determinants of subjective happiness are a person’s inborn temperament, the quality of

their social relationships, the societies they live in, and their ability to meet their basic needs

(Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008).

To some degree people adapt to conditions so that over time our circumstances may not

influence our happiness as much as one might predict they would. Importantly, researchers have

also studied the outcomes of subjective happiness and have found that “happy” people are more

likely to be healthier and live longer, to have better social relationships, and to be more

productive at work. In other words, people high in subjective happiness seem to be healthier and

function more effectively compared to people who are chronically stressed, depressed, or angry
(Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008). Thus, happiness does not just feel good, but it is good for

people and for those around them.

Types of Happiness

Philosophers debated the nature of happiness for thousands of years, but scientists have

recently discovered that happiness means different things. Three major types of happiness are

high life satisfaction, frequent positive feelings, and infrequent negative feelings (Diener,

1984). “Subjective happiness” is the label given by scientists to the various forms of happiness

taken together. Although there are additional forms of SWB, the three in the table below have

been studied extensively. The table also shows that the causes of the different types of happiness

can be somewhat different.

Table 1: Three Types of Subjective happiness

You can see in the table that there are different causes of happiness, and that these causes

are not identical for the various types of SWB. Therefore, there is no single key, no magic wand
high SWB is achieved by combining several different important elements (Diener & Biswas-

Diener, 2008). Thus, people who promise to know the key to happiness are oversimplifying.

Some people experience all three elements of happiness they are very satisfied, enjoy life,

and have only a few worries or other unpleasant emotions. Other unfortunate people are missing

all three. Most of us also know individuals who have one type of happiness but not another. For

example, imagine an elderly person who is completely satisfied with her life she has done most

everything she ever wanted but is not currently enjoying life that much because of the infirmities

of age. There are others who show a different pattern, for example, who really enjoy life but also

experience a lot of stress, anger, and worry. And there are those who are having fun, but who are

dissatisfied and believe they are wasting their lives. Because there are several components to

happiness, each with somewhat different causes, there is no magic single cure-all that creates all

forms of SWB. This means that to be happy, individuals must acquire each of the different

elements that cause it.

Causes of Subjective happiness

There are external influences on people’s happiness the circumstances in which they live.

It is possible for some to be happy living in poverty with ill health, or with a child who has a

serious disease, but this is difficult. In contrast, it is easier to be happy if one has supportive

family and friends, ample resources to meet one’s needs, and good health. But even here there

are exceptions people who are depressed and unhappy while living in excellent circumstances.

Thus, people can be happy or unhappy because of their personalities and the way they think

about the world or because of the external circumstances in which they live. People vary in their
propensity to happiness in their personalities and outlook and this means that knowing their

living conditions is not enough to predict happiness.

In the table below are shown internal and external circumstances that influence

happiness. There are individual differences in what makes people happy, but the causes in the

table are important for most people (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Lyubomirsky,

2013; Myers, 1992).

Table 2: Internal and External Causes of Subjective happiness
 Societal Influences on Happiness

When people consider their own happiness, they tend to think of their relationships,

successes and failures, and other personal factors. But a very important influence on how happy

people are is the society in which they live. It is easy to forget how important societies and

neighborhoods are to people’s happiness or unhappiness. In Figure 1, I present life satisfaction

around the world. You can see that some nations, those with the darkest shading on the map, are

high in life satisfaction. Others, the lightest shaded areas, are very low. The grey areas in the map

are places we could not collect happiness data they were just too dangerous or inaccessible.

Money and Happiness

Will money make you happy? A certain level of income is needed to meet our needs, and

very poor people are frequently dissatisfied with life (Diener & Seligman, 2004). However,

having more and more money has diminishing returns higher and higher incomes make less and

less difference to happiness. Wealthy nations tend to have higher average life satisfaction than

poor nations, but the United States has not experienced a rise in life satisfaction over the past

decades, even as income has doubled. The goal is to find a level of income that you can live with

and earn. Don’t let your aspirations continue to rise so that you always feel poor, no matter how

much money you have. Research shows that materialistic people often tend to be less happy, and

putting your emphasis on relationships and other areas of life besides just money is a wise

strategy. Money can help life satisfaction, but when too many other valuable things are sacrificed

to earn a lot of money such as relationships or taking a less enjoyable job the pursuit of money

can harm happiness.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 Labelling theory

Labelling theory (or social reaction theory) views ‘deviance’ as the creation of social

groups rather than as behaviour that is intrinsically deviant (Becker, 1973). According to Becker

(1973), deviance is simply rule-breaking behaviour that is labelled as deviant by persons of

authority. The theory is concerned with the maintenance of deviant behaviour, rather than its

origins. As such, it is not concerned with why an individual decides to offend. Rather the theory

considers the ways in which patterns of deviant behaviour, deviant roles, and deviant identities

(within certain social contexts) can develop as a consequence of defining persons as deviant and

attempting to punish, treat, or otherwise control them (Petrunik, 1980).

Deviance is bifurcated into primary and secondary deviance (Becker, 1973; Lemert,

1948; Pittaro, 2008). Primary deviance refers to characteristics, experiences, beliefs, or

behaviours regarded as departures from social norms (Lemert, 1948). Of key importance to

labelling theory is that the individual who engages in primary deviance is caught and labelled

deviant by a person or persons of authority (Becker, 1973). ‘Positions of authority’ may be

formal social agencies, including the criminal justice system (CJS), but also informal agencies,

including members of the public, peers, and so forth (Lemert, 1948). This response of

labelling forms the basis of secondary deviance, whereby deviation from social norms is

transformed into a major social role or identity of the individual.

Secondary deviance occurs when the individual accepts the label of deviant (Becker,

1973; Lemert, 1951). As the individual comes to perceive themselves as deviant, and believes

that others also hold this perception, he or she come to internalise this identity (Lemert, 1951;

Maruna et al., 2004; Petrunik, 1980). Secondary deviance is a reaction to the subjective
experience of being labeled deviant, such that the labelling experience “serves to recast

individuals in their own eyes as well as in the eyes of others” (Paternoster & Iovanni, 1989).

Once identification with the deviant label occurs, the individual takes on this label and becomes

an outsider to his or her social environment (Becker, 1973). The individual begins to engage in

further deviant behaviour “as a means of defense, attack, or adjustment to the overt and covert

problems created by the societal reaction to [the primary deviance]” (Lemert, 1951). They

become in a sense a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ (Maruna et al., 2004).

According to labelling theory, criminal justice sanctions are formal processes whereby

socially regarded authority figures (such as the judiciary) apply the label of ‘offender’ to the

individual. If the individual identifies with the label of offender, he or she will maintain this

identity post-release, resulting in secondary deviance. Re-engagement behaviour is the result of

the individual acting within his or her identity (as ‘offender’) and reacting against mainstream

perceptions of them as a deviant (Kaplan & Damphouse, 1997; Maruna et al., 2004). According

to Wakefield (2006), when society stigmatizes, segregates, and excludes ex-offenders, these

individuals have limited opportunities to achieve mainstream lives. In response, “they join

subcultural groups of similarly stigmatized outcasts.

Meisenhelder (1977) proposed the process of ‘de-labelling’. Similar to labelling, de-

labelling occurs when the individual undergoes a formal process whereby the label of deviant or

offender is removed and a new, or perhaps the original label of citizen (or conformist) is re-

instated. This process is theorised to promote desistance from crime. Labelling theory argues that

the transition of offender to non-offender is not adequate without formal recognition, both by the

justice system and the community. It follows that the process of de-labelling requires a formal
and ongoing process of acknowledging that the identity of the returning ex-offender has

transformed from ‘offender’ to ‘citizen’ (Schmalleger, 2006, cited in Pittaro, 2008).

Without a formal process, it is unlikely that the identity of offender will be discarded

(Braithwaite, 1989; Maruna et al., 2004). Unfortunately, no such ritual or ceremony occurs in

Western jurisdictions. In addition to the actual (non-symbolic) process of de-labelling, it is

argued that a symbolic process of the communication of reintegration occurs. Within this

symbolic process, the ex-offender is allowed to transition from the “other/offender” label to “one

of/citizen” via symbolic communications between the offender and his or her community

including those of redemption and forgiveness.

2.2.2 Behavioural Theory

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the

idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs

through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to

environmental stimuli shape our actions Araiba, Sho (2019). According to this school of

thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner regardless of internal

mental states. According to this perspective, only observable behavior should be considered

cognitions, emotions, and moods are far too subjective. Strict behaviorists believed that any

person can potentially be trained to perform any task, regardless of genetic background,

personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the limits of their physical capabilities). It only

requires the right conditioning.

Behaviorism was formally established with the 1913 publication of John B. Watson's

classic paper, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." It is best summed up by the following
quote from Watson, who is often considered the "father" of behaviorism: "Give me a dozen

healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee

to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor,

lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,

penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors." Simply put, strict

behaviorists believe that all behaviors are the result of experience (Chiesa, Mecca (1994). Any

person, regardless of his or her background, can be trained to act in a particular manner given the

right conditioning.

Behaviorism (or behaviourism) is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of

humans and other animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of

certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history,

including (Dillenburger, Karola & Keenan, Mickey

(2009)especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual's

current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the

important role of heredity in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental

events. It combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and theory. Behaviorism emerged in

the early 1900s as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology,

which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally, but derived

from earlier research in the late nineteenth century, such as when Edward Thorndike pioneered

the law of effect, a procedure that involved the use of consequences to strengthen or weaken

behavior. During the first half of the twentieth century, John B. Watson devised methodological

behaviorism, which rejected introspective methods and sought to understand behavior by only

measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not until the 1930s that B. F.
Skinner suggested that covert behavior including cognition and emotions subjects to the same

controlling variables as observable behavior, which became the basis for his philosophy

called radical behaviorism (Araiba, Sho (2019). While Watson and Ivan Pavlov investigated how

(conditioned) neutral stimuli elicit reflexes in respondent conditioning, Skinner assessed the

reinforcement histories of the discriminative (antecedent) stimuli that emits behavior; the

technique became known as operant conditioning.

The application of radical behaviorism known as applied behavior analysis is used in a

variety of contexts, including, for example, applied animal behavior and organizational behavior

management, to the treatment of mental disorders, such as autism and substance abuse (Madden,

Gregory J., ed. (2013). In addition, while behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological

thought do not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in the cognitive-behavior

therapies, which have demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies, such as

simple phobias, PTSD, and mood disorders.

Modern-day theory: radical behaviorism

B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the conceptual underpinning of

the experimental analysis of behavior. This viewpoint differs from other approaches to

behavioral research in various ways, but, most notably here, it contrasts with methodological

behaviorism in accepting feelings, states of mind and introspection as behaviors also subject to

scientific investigation. Like methodological behaviorism, it rejects the reflex as a model of all

behavior, and it defends the science of behavior as complementary to but independent of

physiology. Radical behaviorism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical

positions, such as American pragmatism (Moxley, R.A. (2004). Although John B. Watson

mainly emphasized his position of methodological behaviorism throughout his career, Watson

and Rosalie Rayner conducted the renowned Little Albert experiment (1920), a study in

which Ivan Pavlov's theory to respondent conditioning was first applied to eliciting a fearful

reflex of crying in a human infant, and this became the launching point for understanding covert

behavior (or private events) (Mace, F. Charles; Critchfield, Thomas S. (May 2010)

in radical behaviorism. However, Skinner felt that aversive stimuli should only be experimented

on with animals and spoke out against Watson for testing something so controversial on a

human.

In 1959, Skinner observed the emotions of two pigeons by noting that they appeared

angry because their feathers ruffled. The pigeons were placed together in an operant chamber,

where they were aggressive as a consequence of previous reinforcement in the environment.

Through stimulus control and subsequent discrimination training, whenever Skinner turned off

the green light, the pigeons came to notice that the food reinforcer is discontinued following each

peck and responded without aggression. Skinner concluded that humans also learn aggression

and possess such emotions (as well as other private events) no differently than do nonhuman

animals (Staddon, John (2014).

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1937 and deals with

the management of environmental contingencies to change behavior (W. K. Honig & J. E. R.

Staddon (Eds.), 1977). In other words, behavior is controlled by historical consequential

contingencies, particularly reinforcement a stimulus that increases the probability of performing

behaviors, and punishment a stimulus that decreases such probability. The core tools of

consequences are either positive (presenting stimuli following a response), or negative

(withdrawn stimuli following a response).

The following descriptions explains the concepts of four common types of consequences

in operant conditioning:

• Positive reinforcement: Providing a stimulus that an individual desires to

reinforce desired behaviors. For example, a child loves playing video games. His mother

reinforced his tendency to provide a helping hands to other family members by providing more

time for him to play video games.

• Negative reinforcement: Removing a stimulus that an individual does not desire

to reinforce desired behaviors. For example, a child hates being nagged to clean his room. His

mother reinforces his room cleaning by removing the undesired stimulus of nagging after he has

cleaned.

• Positive punishment: Providing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to

decrease undesired behaviors. For example, a child hates to do chores. His parents will try to

reduce the undesired behavior of failing a test by applying the undesired stimuli of having him

do more chores around the house.

• Negative punishment: Removing a stimulus that an individual desires in order to

decrease undesired behaviors. For example, a child loves playing video games. His parents will

try to reduce the undesired behavior of failing an exam by removing the desired stimulus of

video games.
 Classical experiment in operant conditioning, for example the Skinner Box, "puzzle box"

or operant conditioning chamber to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats, cats

and other species. From the study of Skinner box, he discovered that the rats learned very

effectively if they were rewarded frequently with food. Skinner also found that he could shape

the rats' behavior through the use of rewards, which could, in turn, be applied to human learning

as well. Skinner's model was based on the premise that reinforcement is used for the desired

actions or responses while punishment was used to stop the undesired actions responses that are

not. This theory proved that humans or animals will repeat any action that leads to a positive

outcome, and avoiding any action that leads to a negative outcome. The experiment with the

pigeons showed that a positive outcome leads to learned behavior since the pigeon learned to

peck the disc in return for the reward of food (John O. Cooper; Timothy E. Heron; William L.

Heward (2019).

These historical consequential contingencies subsequently leads to (antecedent) stimulus

control, but in contrast to respondent conditioning where antecedent stimuli elicits reflexive

behavior, operant behavior is only emitted and therefore does not force its occurrence. It includes

the following controlling stimuli:

• Discriminative stimulus (Sd): An antecedent stimulus that increases the chance

of the organism engaging in a behavior. One example of this occurred in Skinner's laboratory.

Whenever the green light (Sd) appeared, it signaled the pigeon to perform the behavior of

pecking because it learned in the past that each time it pecked, food was presented (the positive

reinforcing stimulus).

• Stimulus delta (S-delta): An antecedent stimulus that signals the organism not to

perform a behavior since it was extinguished or punished in the past. One notable instance of this
occurs when a person stops their car immediately after the traffic light turns red (S-delta).

However, the person could decide to drive through the red light, but subsequently receive a

speeding ticket (the positive punishing stimulus), so this behavior will potentially not reoccur

following the presence of the S-delta.

Although operant conditioning plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral

mechanisms, respondent conditioning (also called Pavlovian or classical conditioning) is also an

important behavior-analytic process that need not refer to mental or other internal processes.

Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of the classical conditioning

procedure. At the beginning, the dog was provided a meat (unconditioned stimulus, UCS,

naturally elicit a response that is not controlled) to eat, resulting in increased salivation

(unconditioned response, UCR, which means that a response is naturally caused by UCS).

Afterwards, a bell ring was presented together with food to the dog. Although bell ring was a

neutral stimulus (NS, meaning that the stimulus did not had any effect), dog would start salivate

when only hearing a bell ring after a number of pairings. Eventually, the neutral stimulus (bell

ring) became conditioned (John O. Cooper; Timothy E. Heron; William L. Heward (2019).

Therefore, salvation was elicited as a conditioned response (the response same as the

unconditioned response), pairing up with meat the conditioned stimulus)

Although Pavlov proposed some tentative physiological processes that might be involved

in classical conditioning, these have not been confirmed (Bitterman, M. E. (2006). The idea of

classical conditioning helped behaviorist John Watson discover the key mechanism behind how

humans acquire the behaviors that they do, which was to find a natural reflex that produces the

response being considered. Watson's "Behaviourist Manifesto" has three aspects that deserve

special recognition: one is that psychology should be purely objective, with any interpretation of
conscious experience being removed, thus leading to psychology as the "science of behaviour";

the second one is that the goals of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour (as

opposed to describe and explain conscious mental states); the third one is that there is no notable

distinction between human and non-human behaviour. Following Darwin's theory of evolution,

this would simply mean that human behaviour is just a more complex version in respect to

behaviour displayed by other species.

Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of

mind. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural

science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of

organisms as causes for their behavior (Schlinger, Henry D. (2009). Behaviorism takes a

functional view of behavior. According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: "Behavior analysis

has much to offer the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social

psychologists. We hope that successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will

not only shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but will also generate greater

appreciation of the behavioral approach." Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon

within philosophy of (Moore, J. (2013) language and analytic philosophy. It is sometimes argued

that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a logical behaviorist position[8] (e.g., the beetle in a

box argument). In logical positivism the meaning of psychological statements are their

verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W. V. O. Quine made use of

a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language.

Quine's work in semantics differed substantially from the empiricist semantics of Carnap which

he attempted to create an alternative to, couching his semantic theory in references to physical

objects rather than sensations. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical
behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind.[8] Ryle's central claim was that

instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes", and hence that they were really

misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges

himself to be a type of behaviorist, though he offers extensive criticism of radical behaviorism

and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the possibility of free will

(Moore, J. (2013).

This is Dennett's main point in "Skinner Skinned." Dennett argues that there is a crucial

difference between explaining and explaining away… If our explanation of apparently rational

behavior turns out to be extremely simple, we may want to say that the behavior was not really

rational after all. But if the explanation is very complex and intricate, we may want to say not

that the behavior is not rational, but that we now have a better understanding of what rationality

consists in. (Compare: if we find out how a computer program solves problems in linear algebra,

we don't say it's not really solving them, we just say we know how it does it. On the other hand,

in cases (Fantino, E.; Stolarz-Fantino, S.; Navarro, A. (2003)

like Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, the explanation of how the computer carries on a

conversation is so simple that the right thing to say seems to be that the machine isn't really

carrying on a conversation, it's just a trick.)

Law of effect and trace conditioning

• Law of Effect: Although Edward Thorndike's methodology mainly dealt with

reinforcing observable behavior, it viewed cognitive antecedents as the causes of

behavior,[57] and was theoretically much more similar to the cognitive-behavior therapies than
classical (methodological) or modern-day (radical) behaviorism. Nevertheless, Skinner's operant

conditioning was heavily influenced by the Law of Effect's principle of reinforcement.

• Trace conditioning: Akin to B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism, it is

a respondent conditioning technique based on Ivan Pavlov's concept of a "memory trace" in

which the observer recalls the conditioned stimulus (CS), with the memory or recall being

the unconditioned response (UR). There is also a time delay between the CS and unconditioned

stimulus (US), causing the conditioned response (CR) particularly the reflex to be faded over

time (Brown, Curtis (2001).

Behavior therapy is a term referring to different types of therapies that treat mental health

disorders. It identifies and helps change people's unhealthy behaviors or destructive behaviors

through learning theory and conditioning. Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning, as well as

counterconditioning are the basis for much of clinical behavior therapy, but also includes other

techniques, including operant conditioning, or contingency management, and modeling

sometimes called observational learning. A frequently noted behavior therapy is systematic

desensitization, which was first demonstrated by Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus (Wolpe,

Joseph. (1968).

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) also called behavioral engineering is a scientific

discipline that applies the principles of behavior analysis to change behavior. ABA derived from

much earlier research in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, which was

founded by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues at Harvard University. Nearly a decade after the

study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) was published in that journal,

which demonstrated how effective the token economy was in reinforcing more adaptive behavior
for hospitalized patients with schizophrenia and intellectual disability, it led to researchers at

the University of Kansas to start the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.

Although ABA and behavior modification are similar behavior-change technologies in

that the learning environment is modified through respondent and operant conditioning, behavior

modification did not initially address the causes of the behavior (particularly, the environmental

stimuli that occurred in the past), or investigate solutions that would otherwise prevent the

behavior from reoccurring. As the evolution of ABA began to unfold in the mid-1980s,

functional behavior assessments (FBAs) were developed to clarify the function of that behavior,

so that it is accurately determined which differential reinforcement contingencies will be most

effective and less likely for aversive consequences to be (Mace, F. Charles (1994)

administered. In addition, methodological behaviorism was the theory underpinning behavior

modification since private events were not conceptualized during the 1970s and early 1980s,

which contrasted from the radical behaviorism of behavior analysis. ABA the term that replaced

behavior modification has emerged into a thriving field.

The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the United States also

continues to develop (Slocum, Timothy A.; Detrich, Ronnie; Wilczynski, Susan M.; Spencer,

Trina D.; Lewis, Teri (May 2014). In the US, the American Psychological Association (APA)

features a subdivision for Behavior Analysis, titled APA Division 25: Behavior Analysis, which

has been in existence since 1964, and the interests among behavior analysts today are wide-

ranging, as indicated in a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within the Association

for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI). Such interests include everything from animal

behavior and environmental conservation, to classroom instruction (such as direct

instruction and precision teaching), verbal behavior, developmental disabilities and autism,
clinical psychology (i.e., forensic behavior analysis), behavioral medicine (i.e., behavioral

gerontology, AIDS prevention, and fitness training), and consumer behavior analysis.

The field of applied animal behavior a sub-discipline of ABA that involves training

animals is regulated by the Animal Behavior Society, and those who practice this technique are

called applied animal behaviorists. Research on applied animal behavior has been frequently

conducted in the Applied Animal Behaviour Science journal since its founding in 1974. ABA

has also been particularly well-established in the area of developmental disabilities since the

1960s, but it was not until the late 1980s that individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum

disorders were beginning to grow so rapidly and groundbreaking research was being published

that parent advocacy groups started demanding for services throughout the 1990s, which

encouraged the formation of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, a credentialing program

that certifies professionally trained behavior analysts on the national level to deliver such

services. Nevertheless, the certification is applicable to all human services related to the rather

broad field of behavior analysis (other than the treatment for autism), and the ABAI currently has

14 accredited MA and Ph.D programs for comprehensive study in that field (Kellaway, Lucy

(2015).

2.3 Empirical Review

2.3.1 Peer influence and cybercrime

Previous research among adolescents supports this by showing that delinquent peers

indeed increase individuals’ own risk of offending (Matsueda and Anderson, 1998; Warr, 2002;

Weerman, 2011). Yet this research has generally approached the influence processes as if all

individuals are equally likely to be influenced. Sutherland and Cressey (1978) have specified that
the influence of delinquent friends is stronger the earlier the association is made, the longer the

duration of the association, the more frequently the association occurs, and the closer the

association. As such, the more frequently people engage in activities with delinquent friends and

the more intimate these associations are, the more these friends will transmit delinquent values

and act as role models, and the higher the likelihood that individuals adapt their behaviors to

those of their friends. Although Agnew (1991) has already shown that the association between

delinquent friends and individuals’ own delinquency is stronger the more time they spend

together and the more intimate these associations are, he could not rule out selection processes in

his cross-sectional study.

An insight is that children can monitor and intervene in their peers' behavior through

pressure. A study conducted in a remedial kindergarten class in the Edna A. Hill Child

Development Laboratory in the University of Kansas designed a program to measure how

children could ease disruptive behavior in their peers through a two-part system. After describing

a series of tasks to their classroom that included bathroom usage, cleaning up, and general

classroom behavior, teachers and researchers would observe children's performance on the tasks.

The study focused on three children who were clearly identified as being more disruptive than

their peers, and looked at their responses to potential techniques. The system utilized was a two-

part one: first, each student would be given points by their teachers for correctly completing

tasks with little disruption (e.g. sitting down on a mat for reading time), and if a student reached

three points by the end of the day they would receive a prize. The second part brought in peer

interaction, where students who reached three points were appointed "peer monitors" whose role

was to lead their small groups and assign points at the end of the day. The results were clear-cut,

showing that the monitored students' disruption dropped when teachers started the points system
and monitored them, but when peer monitors were introduced the target students' disruption

dropped to average rates of 1% for student C1, 8% for student C2, and 11% for student C3

(down from 36%, 62%, and 59%, respectively). Even small children, then, are susceptible to

pressure from their peers, and that pressure can be used to effect positive change in academic and

social environments (Carden and Fowler, (1984).

Though the impact of peer group influence in adolescence has been well established, it

was unclear at what age this effect begins to diminish. It is accepted that such peer pressure to

use alcohol or illicit substances is less likely to exist in elementary school and very young

adolescents given the limited access and exposure. Using the Resistance to Peer group influence

Scale, Sumter and colleagues found that resistance to peer pressure grew as age increased in a

large study of 10- to 18-year-old (Sumter, Bokhorst, Steinberg, Westenberg and Michiel

(2009). This study also found that girls were generally more resistant to peer group influence

than boys, particularly at mid-adolescence (i.e. ages 13–15). The higher vulnerability to peer

pressure for teenage boys makes sense given the higher rates of substance use in male teens. For

girls, increased and positive parental behaviors (e.g. parental social support, consistent

discipline) have been shown to be an important contributor to the ability to resist peer pressure to

use substances (Marshal, Chassin and Laurie (2000).

Social scientists such as Mccord and Kevin, 2001, and Savnecki, 2004, identify a co-

relate between peer group influence and the development of anti-social behaviour. Others, such

as Patterson, 1982, Landel and Edward, 1992 and Piquere, David and Al Blumstein 2003,

suggest that peer group influence in the form of „deviancytraining‟ may actually be relevant to

the early development of anti-social behaviour. On his part, McCord et al(2001) did not only

observe that the presence of anti-social peers is a major determinant of cybercrimeamong

children of 12-14 years old but also pointed out that among factors that have been found to be

associatedwith adolescent deviant behaviour are peer delinquent behaviour involving peer

approval of delinquentbehaviour, attachment or allegiance to peers, association with peers

pressure for deviance. Concerning peergroup influence and age and gender, studies (Patterson,

1982, Nagin, 2001 and Savnecki, 2004) have shown thatolder adolescents and young male peer

groups are more influenced than young females.

Lapiere, 1954 and Powel, Tauras and Ross, 2003, agree that Peer group influence may

begin in earlychildhood, and increase until it reaches it‟s peak in the pre-teen and teen years.

They see social control as aprimary process growing from the individual‟s need for group

acceptance and argue that virtually all adolescentsin middle and high school deal with Peer group

influence often on a daily basis. Lapiere points out that in this way,children and teens learn how

to get along with others of their own age group and in the process they learn tobecome more

independent adults. Also, Schachter, 1951 had experimentally demonstrated how members

whosharply deviate from group norms in opinion are rejected by the group. In addition, an

experiment by Ditties andKelly, 1955 reveal that those who conform most rigidly to group norms

are those persons who feel leastaccepted in a group.

Asch, (1952) carried out an experiment to ascertain how influential groups can be in the

lives ofpeople. He tested fifty people and 33 percent of them gave in to the group half the time,

giving that they knew tobe wrong answers, 40 percent gave wrong answers but met as often and

25 percent gave the right answersconsistently. The result revealed that groups can be so powerful

that people will be willing to say things thatthey know are not true. This becomes worrisome

especially when the group of fifty Asch used consisted ofstrangers. The implication is that when

the group consists of friends, people whom the members value highlyand depend on for getting
along in life, the expected conformity will be much higher. Others such as Levine,1999 and

Bond, 2005 replicated Arch‟s experiment and had the same results.

These experiments illustrate thepower of Peer group influence and how easily people can

succumb to groupthink. Henslin, (2008) noted that„groupthink‟ if not prevented can lead to the

destruction of a society‟. Groupthink is one of the main causes ofcybercrime by peer members.

Janis, I (1972, 1982) used the term groupthink to refer to the collectivetunnel vision that group

members sometimes develop. According to Olalekan (2016), it is generally observed that peer

group influence has a lot of influence on students. This is seen from the role played by the peer

group influence in the life and learning of a child, evidence abound that students feel more

comfortable and relaxed among fellow students. A child who is brilliant and surrounded by dull

friends would lose interest in learning. On the other hand, a peer group influence which is prone

to study would have positive effect on a dull member towards learning and stimulate his/her

interest on learning. Katz in Olalekan (2016) wrote that the nature of a peer group influence

determines the impact on the motivation of and achievements of its member. He further suggests

that one group may have a negative impact on its members while the other may have positive

impact on its members as well. The question at this point is, how many of the young people have

the will power to choose a group that thus impact positively on them? However, the attractive

nature and the morals of the group determine whether a group is likely to have positive or

negative impact on members’ motivation and achievement. If the atmosphere of the group is

warm, understanding and supportive, the group influence, task performance and achievement

will most likely be positive. A hostile group will constantly, mostly such that does not place

prominence to academics will frustrate and produce a negative impact not only on the member’s

growth and behavior but also on their drive to studies and academic achievement. Conversely,
the kind of person a student is shows the type of group he or she is most likely to join. In the

same vein Festigen as quoted in Lavy and Schlosser (2007) also noted that imitation of behaviors

in a group occurs when a person acts in a way that is likely to be joined by the rest of the group.

Students who are playful but have academic traits should be encouraged to join a study inclined

group.

Another study was conducted by Lavy and Schlosser (2007) who examined classroom

level peer group influence, and find that a greater percentage of female classmates improve both

boys and girls academic performance. The study predetermined peer characteristics, such as peer

race and gender. Peer group influence may be present in the workplace, at school or within the

society; it can affect people of all ages. It may affect people in different ways but here, the focus

is on the activities of peer group influence as it influences academic performance of

undergraduate students. Peer group influence may have a positive influence and help to

challenge or motivate one to do best. Peer group influence influence may also result in one doing

things that may not fit with ones sense of what is right or wrong. In other words, when peer

group influence makes one do things that people frown at, it is a negative peer group influence.

Operationally peer group influence influence is a force exert by people that is pressured by ideas,

values and behavior either positively or negatively and always associated with adolescents.

Studies have shown that students who do not manage their activities with peer group

influence make lower grades than less socially accepted adolescent (Hartney, in Manski,1993).

The researcher deem it necessary to look at an area that scholars do no often consider in their

study of peer group influence influence, and that is parents influence on pupils peer group

influence relationship. Taiwo in Olalekan (2016) noted that the first people with whom the child

comes in contact with are the parents. They transmit to him their own values of right and wrong
at a time when he is not in contact with any other influences. Unless the foundation laid by home

is sound and solid, the school has nothing to build upon and the child later becomes a problem

not only to his parents but also to the community. It is therefore the home that the child comes

from that determines type of group the child would join. In essence a child from home that is

well-disciplined would find it difficult to be in a group that comprises of delinquents and if he

finds himself in such group, he would refuse to be influenced by their behaviors. In a case where

such a child is influenced by the group behavior, the situation at home does not allow him to

exhibit it and thus he pretends and become meek in the presence of his parents. It is important for

the parents to know a child`s friends both at home and at school, in order to achieve this, parents

should make themselves more accessible totheir children. Hake as quoted in Brown and Larson

(2009) was of the opinion that parents must be properly educated on matters of discipline since it

is dangerous to be too permissive or too strict.

Bankole and Ogunsakin (2015) opine that drug use among students under peer group

influence influence significantly influences academic performance, though in a negative way.

Drug use like smoking, alcoholism and other odd behaviors were expression of peers’ non-

conformity to adult value, while value and moral standard of the peer become increasingly

moves away from the family, most especially during their school years. Peer group influence

influence on risk taking behaviors such as substance abuse and sexual activities have been shown

to increase the likelihood of affecting academic performance in a negative way Santor et al. in

Olalekan (2016). Students learn about what is acceptable in their social group by “reading” their

friends’ reactions to how they act, what they wear, and what they say. The peer group influence

gives this potent feedback by their words and actions, which either encourages or discourages

certain behaviors and attitudes.

 Howard in Steinberg (2005) opined that students have always been exposed to the

influence of peer group influence, but the kinds of influence that they encounter have changed

tremendously in the past years. Peer group influences can influence everything from what a

student chooses to wear to whether or not the student engages in drug related or other delinquent

behavior.

2.3.2 Emotional intelligence and cybercrime

Previous studies with cybervictims have suggested that online victimization may damage

academic performance and self-concept (Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder and Lattanner, 2014).

Despite the importance of emotional skills, the role they have in school has been insignificant,

bearing little influence on the training curriculum. Managing emotions in the school environment

would represent an important dynamic component in education, which would help improve

interpersonal relationships and academic performance.

MacCann et al. (2020) published a recent meta-analysis that explores how EI predicts

academic performance; the analysis suggests that EI is an important predictor after intelligence

and conscientiousness. Emotional and social learning should be given the same importance as

any other area of knowledge; the educational system should encourage this learning for the

benefit of children and adolescents. Some authors have proposed three mechanisms underlying

the EI and academic performance link: Academic emotions regulation, building social

relationships at school, and academic content overlap with EI.

In short, a lack of EI skills affects the behaviors of adolescents it is positively associated

with cybervictimization, low levels of well-being, and low psychological adjustment among

young individuals (Trigueros, Sanchez-Sanchez, Mercader, Aguilar-Parra, López-Liria, Morales-

Gázquez, Fernández-Campoy and Rocamora, 2020). Tokunaga (2010), in addition to stating that

cybervictims show the lowest academic performance, also indicates that they have high rates of

school absenteeism. Likewise, Buelga et al. 2014 report that cybervictims have less social

support and less affiliation with their peers, and therefore experience greater loneliness, less

academic self-esteem, and less involvement in school tasks; all these factors lead to worse

academic achievement. Dropping out of school is significantly more common among children

who have been cybervictimized.

Similarly, Beran and Li (2008) and Sanz and Molano (2014) consider that bullying and

cyberbullying can have repercussions on school learning, which is reflected in poor

concentration, worse school engagement, low grades, and increased absenteeism. However, they

also explain that the fear of going to school can be the result of feelings of frustration, sadness,

and fear caused by the aggression of perpetrators on the one hand, and the difficulty to face

schoolwork, which can make them the object of teasing, ridicule, and intimidation, on the other

2.3.3 Subjective happiness and cybercrime

Kamruzzaman et al, (2016) in a study, found that male students are more likely to engage

in cybercrime than females and that most of the respondents who are involved in cybercrime do

just for mere interest and not for the illegal monetary gain. Another study by Choi, Choo and

Sung (2016) on risk factor in computer crimes using 204 respondents in Japan found that males

are more likely to be engaging in online risky leisure activities such as visiting unknown Web

sites, downloading free games, free music, and free movies than females. Also, Elgbadon and

Adejuwon (2015) in a study in Lagos and Ibadan aimed at finding out factors that predict
engagement in cybercrime among young using 986 young people found that males are more

likely to engage in internet fraud than females

Nana (2015) in a study in Ayawaso East Constituency of the Greater Accra Region using

a sample of 100 youths who are cybercrime culprits found that 47.5% of respondents were from

the Northern region which is basically the urban area while only 5% were from the typically

rural region. Also, Elgbadon and Adejuwon (2015) in a study in Lagos and Ibadan aimed at

finding out factors that predict engagement in cyber-crime among young people, using 986

young people found that urbanization was specifically mentioned by the youth as the major cause

of internet fraud. Another study by Abia et al (2010) in Bamenda region of Cameroon using 386

students found that scamming was common in the urban areas than in the rural areas.

Umeozulu (2012) in a research on causes and perception of cybercrime in Caritas

University in Enugu found that unemployment is the major determinant of cyber-crime. Also,

Femi, Dada and Ayibaabi, (2015) in their study on perceptions of impact of unemployment on

crime in Landmark University students found out that 83.19% of the respondents perceived that

youths are involved in crime as result of unemployment. Another study by Tade and Aliyu

(2011) on the determinant of internet fraud among undergraduates of University of Ibadan

identified as “yahoo boys” reported one of them as saying “the unemployment rate in the country

is so degenerative that, if you are not wise, you will become useless in this country. The means

of survival is through being creative”.

Muraina and Muriana (2015) found that, there exists a large gap between the rich and the

average, as such many strive to level up using the quickest means possible, since for any

business to thrive well, the rate of return in the investment must be growing at a geometric rate
with a minimal risk. Most cybercrime requires less investment and a conducive environment.

Nigeria is such an environment and many cyber criminals take advantage of that. In another

related study, Ndubueze, Igbo, and Okoye, (2013) in Lagos found out that many young people in

Nigeria spend all day in the internet not only due to high rate of unemployment but also as a

result of get rich quick syndrome which they feel can happen through the internet. The over-

emphasis on wealth by the Nigerian society has left the youth with no other choice but to pursue

it, albeit by hook or crook. Cybercrime, with its anonymity, speed and relative guarantee of

returns, has become pretty fashionable among the youth. With poor recreational facilities, most

youths have found a recreational haven of some sort in cyber cafes where they hang out for the

better part of their day.