IADC/SPE 151407

Effective Force and True Force: What are They?

Robello Samuel, Halliburton; Aniket Kumar, University of Houston

Copyright 2012, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and Exhibition

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2012 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and Exhibition held in San Diego, California, USA, 6–8 March 2012.

This paper was selected for presentation by an IADC/SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not
been reviewed by the International Association of Drilling Contractors or the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily
reflect any position of the International Association of Drilling Contractors or the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any
part of this paper without the written consent of the International Association of Drilling Contractors or the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is
restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of IADC/SPE copyright.

Abstract
The predictions of hookload, tension, and stresses are important for the successful completion of any well operation, as well
as for the selection of optimum operating parameters. The terms effective axial force and true force or effective tension and
true tension are used for various tubular designs, including riser designs. To further complicate matters, they are also defined
as buoyancy and pressure area methods of calculating forces. Discussions of these two forces occasionally raise doubts
regarding how to treat the internal and/or external pressures. The main problem stems from the perception that effective force
as a fictitious force, and the inclusion of the internal and external pressures as counter intuitive source of misunderstandings
and wrong designs. Although several authors have used the calculation and concepts correctly, other previously published
papers failed to address the issue clearly and in a simple way; as a result, confusion still exists. These two forces further result
in two neutral points, which raises the questions of “when you apply pressure, does the neutral point change?” and “which
neutral point should be used for stuck pipe calculations?” The working envelop using yield limit with combined loading of
uniaxial force and pressure forces are important. Using the wrong force/tension will result in an incorrect interpretation of the
burst and collapse limits. This paper provides the mathematical treatise and discusses the theoretical basis of these two forces,
including how they are used in torque, drag, buckling, stress, and limit calculations. This paper describes the details, apparent
definition, pitfalls, and context in which these forces can be used. Simple guidelines are presented, as well as several example
calculations to help explain various tubular modeling aspects for future generations of drilling engineers.

Introduction
The presence of fluids in the wellbore requires the inclusion of hydrostatic effects as an integral part of well design and
operations. However, there is still some uncertainty regarding whether to consider buoyancy as a concentrated force or as a
distributed force applied along the length of the tubular. Moreover, the location of the two neutral points resulting from the
two concepts of effective force and true force to calculate the stresses further complicates issues. Determining the correct
location of the neutral point in the drillstring design is important to control the effects of undesired cyclic bending loads.
Ensuring that the neutral point remains limited within the drill collars helps to protect the lighter drillpipe from fatigue
failures. A better understanding of the stress distribution along the drillstring will certainly lead to more optimized drillstring
designs. Moreover, the effective force and true force concepts can be extended and applied to other tubulars, such as tubings,
casings, and marine risers.
Lubinski and Blenkarn (1957) addressed the problem of the buckling of tubing; they provided comprehensive details of
its effects and suggested means for controlling it. They also supported their theory with field evidence and practical observed
examples. Sparks (1984) provided a detailed discussion of the influence of tension, pressure, and weight on pipe and risers.
He addressed the concepts of “effective stress” and “effective tension” and provided several practical examples to promote a
clearer understanding of these concepts. Pattillo and Randall (1980) provided a detailed analysis about determining the
location of the neutral point in a drillstring, as well as the calculation of proper hookload to be applied while attempting to
back off stuck drillpipe.
However, this wealth of literature has not sufficed to remove the confusion; doubts still exist regarding the use of the
correct forces in drillstring design, which has led to errors in stress calculations. The principal reasons for the confusion exist
in clearly misunderstanding the concept of buoyancy, as well as the end loads and end effects. Moreover, the use of various
terminologies, such as “effective tension,” “true wall tension,” and “apparent weight” further complicates issues. True wall
tension is sometimes referred to as true tension, real tension, actual tension, or absolute tension; effective tension is
2 IADC/SPE 151407

sometimes called fictitious tension. This paper clearly states the differences between effective force and true force and
highlights their appropriate application(Azar, Samuel, 2007).

Effective and True Force

To clearly understand the concepts of effective and true force, we must begin with the law of Archimedes, which states that
when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an up-thrust equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
However, the law can be applied directly only to pressure fields that are completely closed; this closed pressure field, when
combined with the distributed weight of the displaced fluid, can produce no resultant moment. The buoyancy of an immersed
tube is the same in any position. However, in the vertical position, the entire force is concentrated at the lower end; in the
horizontal position, the force is distributed evenly over the length. The following paragraphs introduce the concepts of true
and effective forces.
True force refers to actual axial stress distribution along the drillstring. It is calculated after considering all applicable
forces on the drillstring. In the presence of a fluid, bending, straightening, and buckling do not depend on this actual force but
on a non-existing effective force. If fluid is present outside, behavior is as if there were no fluid and as if the weight of steel
were decreased by the weight of the displaced outside fluid. Consequently, even if a drillstring is subjected to an actual
compression, in the presence of the outside fluid the drillstring behaves as if it were subjected to a tension until the effective
force neutral point along the depth of the well. This can be considered to be an extra stabilizing force that adds to the true
force and helps to prevent bending and maintains tension in the drillstring to a farther depth. The equations pertaining to true
and effective forces are presented in the calculation methods section.

Yield Strength
Drillpipe and collars are designed to satisfy certain operational requirements. In general, downhole tubulars must be capable
of withstanding the maximum expected hookload, torque, bending stresses, internal pressure, and external collapse pressure.
If drillpipe is stretched, it will initially go through a region of elastic deformation. In this region, if the stretching force is
removed, the drillpipe will return to its original dimensions. The upper limit of this elastic deformation is the yield strength,
which can be measured in psi. Beyond this, there exists a region of plastic deformation. In this region, the drillpipe becomes
permanently elongated, even when the stretching force is removed. The upper limit of plastic deformation is the tensile
strength. If the tensile strength is exceeded, the drillpipe will fail.
Tension failures generally occur while pulling on stuck drillpipe. As the pull exceeds the yield strength, the metal distorts
with a characteristic thinning in the weakest area of the drillpipe (or the smallest cross sectional area). If the pull is increased
and exceeds the tensile strength, the drillstring will part. Such failures will normally occur near the top of the drillstring.

Stress Distribution of a Freely Suspended Tube in a Fluid

If a tube is freely suspended in fluid, the fluid creates a stress at every point equal to the corresponding pressure at that point.
To determine the axial stress of a vertical tube in the presence of a fluid, we must account for the concentrated force of
buoyancy. The fluid and its related pressure also contact the inside and outside walls of the tube, creating radial and
tangential stresses. Consequently, there are considerable differences in the stress distribution with and without the fluid,
which include the following:
• The pressure on the steel cross-section at the lower end causes the lower end of the tube to be in compression.
• The radial and tangential stresses are equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid.
• The force required to suspend the tube is reduced by an amount equal to the force of buoyancy.
Sometimes buoyancy force is considered as a distributed force that reduces the weight of each increment of the pipe by
the weight of the fluid displaced by the increment. This results from confusing buoyancy and the effects of fluids on
buckling. Static fluids can exert a force only in a direction normal to a surface. For a vertical tube, the fluid pressure can push
upward on the steel cross-sectional area only at the bottom. Consequently, the upward buoyant force should be a concentrated
force at the lower end.

Neutral Point
The term neutral point comes from the concept of neutral equilibrium. Numerous synonymous definitions of neutral point
exist, such as the one that describes the neutral point as the transition between the region of the tube where buckling may
occur and the region where buckling cannot occur. Above the neutral point, the tube is in a stable equilibrium. Below the
neutral point, it is in unstable equilibrium, and at the neutral point, it is in neutral equilibrium. Lubinski and Blenkarn (1957)
provided another definition that considers the neutral point as the point at which the tube can be cut without changing the
weight suspended at the surface.
In the absence of fluid, the neutral point is the point of zero axial stress. A compressive force applied to the lower end
alters the stress distribution and, in turn, alters the location of the neutral point and the stability of the tube. In addition, when
the axial stress is zero, the three principal stresses are equal. In the case of the tube suspended in a fluid, the neutral point is
not at zero axial stress, but rather at the point where the axial stress equals the hydrostatic pressure. As a result, the neutral
point is still the point at which the three principal stresses are equal, which is at the lower end. In the case of an applied
IADC/SPE 151407 3

compressive force at the lower end, the location of the neutral point will be farther from the top when suspended in a fluid.
This is because of the effect of fluid pressure on stability. It is also possible to have different fluid densities inside and outside
the tube, as well as different surface pressures during the process of cementing the casing. An example of the calculation of
buoyant weight for a casing having different fluids inside and outside has also been in shown.

Calculation Methods for Effective and True Forces

The axial force of the string is calculated by using two methods: the true tension or pressure area method and the effective
tension or buoyancy method.
This section briefly describes both methods. The relationship between true and effective tension is given by:
Fe = Ft + Fbs . .............................................................................................................................................. (1)
which can be further written as:
Fe = Ft + Po Ao − Pi Ai . ............................................................................................................................... (2)
where, Fbs , the buckling stability force, is
Fbs = Po Ao − Pi Ai ........................................................................................................................................ (3)
The internal and external pressure are calculated as
Pi = Psp + ∑ ρ gp × Dv
Po = Psa + ∑ ρ ga × Dv

Although the axial force is calculated by using two different methods, the calculations converge to the same value at the
surface, as shown in Fig. 1. Consequently, the Archimedes principle is not violated. The force given by Eq. 1 is termed as
fictitious force. The tension converges at the surface when there is no fluid flow in the string. When there is fluid circulation,
the effective tension will be greater than the true tension at the surface because the pressure is not zero on the drillstring side,
whereas the external pressure is zero for forward circulation and vice versa for reverse circulation.

Fig. 1—Effective and true tension.

Influence of Internal Flow

If the fluid is flowing uniformly internally and externally, the rate of change of momentum entering and leaving the tubular
section should also be included in the effective tension equation (Sparks 2005). Considering that the change of momentum
inside tubular is given as , where , and are the internal fluid mass density, the internal cross-sectional area and
the internal fluid velocity. Similary for outside the tubulars it can be written as where , and are the external
fluid mass density, the external cross-sectional area and the external fluid velocity. Further the effective tension equation then
can be written:
Fe = Ft + Po Ao − Pi Ai − ρ i Ai ui2 + ρ o Ao uo2 . .......................................................................................... (4)
The pressure force and inertia force is called the impulse function. Equation 4 can be further written as
4 IADC/SPE 151407

( ) (
Fe = Ft + Po + ρ o u o2 Ao − Pi + ρ i u i2 Ai ⎫ )
⎬ . ........................................................................................ (5)
Fe = Ft + Fo − Fi ⎭
The thrust produced by the flow stream is called the stream thrust and Fo , Fi are impulse functions. This additional term
does not change the effective tension , however it does modify , even though this modification may be small. Frictional
forces between the fluid and the pipe wall should also theoretically be included.

True Tension or Real Tension Calculation (Pressure Area Method)

The pressure area is used to determine the absolute or true tension in the tubular, including the triaxial pressure forces. This
tension is ascertained by using a free body diagram, as defined in mechanics. The pressure area method is used to determine
the ‘real’ neutral point at which the stress is zero. It is also used to calculate the actual effect of buoyant forces and actual
stresses within a string.
The pressure area method is used to calculate the axial load on the string, which is given by:
Ft = ∑ [Ws Cosθ + FD + ΔFarea ] − Fbottom − WOB . ............................................................................ (6)
where:
Ws = air weight of the segment = Lw air
L = length of drillstring hanging below point in ft
wair = weight per foot of the drillstring in air in lb/ft
θ = inclination in degrees
Fbottom =bottom pressure force; this is a compressive force attributable to fluid pressure applied over the cross-sectional
area of the bottom component

Fig. 2—Force Distribution

IADC/SPE 151407 5

Fd = drag force (lb) = side force L * Coefficient of Friction * sign,

sign = +1 for tripping out, -1 for tripping in and sliding assembly drilling, 0 for rotating on and off bottom
ΔFarea = change in force as a result of a change in area. i.e this is due to the the change in area at junction between two
components of different cross sectional areas, such as the junction between drill pipe and heavy weight or heavy weight and
drill collars or other donwhole tools.

Fig.2 shows the various forces involved in the string. In this case three sections of a drillstring with lengths, L1, L2 and L3
are shown.

Effective Tension Calculation (Buoyancy Method)

The buoyancy method or effective tension, by its nature, calculates the effective stress in the string. When a string is
submerged in a fluid, then according to the pressure area method, there will be a section in compression because of the
buoyant forces. This is an actual stress. However, according to the buoyancy method, it is assumed that this force is
distributed along the entire string so that the bottom of the string is not in compression. This means that the string cannot
buckle under the influence of buoyant forces alone; in other words, a compressive force created by fluid pressure cannot
cause buckling. Because this pressure force cannot contribute to buckling, it is not added to the “buoyancy” force. The
buoyancy method is used to determine where the buckling first occurs and is given by:
(
Fe = ∑ [Ws Cosθ + FD + ΔFarea ] − Fbottom − WOB + Po + ρ o u o2 Ao − Pi + ρ i u i2 Ai . ................ (7) ) ( )
The change in force is a result of a cross-sectional area change at the junction between two components of different cross
sections, such as the junction between the drillpipe and a heavy weight or heavy weight and drill collars. If the area of the
bottom component is larger than the top component, then the force is tensile; if the top component area is larger, then the
force is compressive.
Using the effective tension and the critical buckling force, Fc the buckling criterion can easily be derived:
Fe < − Fc tube is stable tending to buckle. ................................................................................................... (8)
Fe > − Fc tube is stable not tending to buckle.............................................................................................. (9)
Fe = − Fc Neutral stability, intermediate to other two conditions. ............................................................. (10)

Von Mises Stress

Sometimes confusion exists in comparing the yield of the pipe against the effective tension because the stress is calculated
using the true tension. Generally, the von Mises criterion is used for failure calculation and compared to the yield limit of the
pipe.
The von Mises stress can be calculated and further simplified, as shown in the following equations. The effective tension
term is included in these calculations.
2
⎛ Fe ⎞
σ 2
= 3C Y + ⎜⎜
2 2
2 ⎟
⎟ . ............................................................................................................ (11)
⎝ π ( ro − ri ) ⎠
vm 2

Where the effective tension is

Fe = Ft + Po Ao − Pi Ai . ............................................................................................................................. (12)
⎛ r2r2 ⎞
C = ⎜⎜ i 2o ⎟⎟ . .............................................................................................................................................. (13)
⎝ r ⎠
(P − Pi ) = ΔP ...................................................................................................................... (14)
Y = 2o
( ro − ri2 ) ( ro2 − ri2 )

This indicates that the pipe will not fail with only the hydrostatic forces. When the effective stress is greater than or equal
to the yield strength of the pipe, the pipe will yield. For a quick analysis of the stress conditions, a ratio of the yield strength
to the von Mises stress is defined as follows:
Stress ratio,
σ y × %Yield
X = . .................................................................................................................................. (15)
σ vm
6 IADC/SPE 151407

Limit Curves
It is easier to use the effective force rather than the true force to compare the results (Zheng and van Adrichem 2000). An
example is described in the paper that compares the burst pressure. The true force used against the pressure difference
(skewed ellipse) may result in an underestimate of the burst pressure, as opposed to effective force and pressure difference
(skewed ellipse). The advantage of using the effective force, in addition to its simplicity, is that it considers the pressure
forces inherently, as shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3 illustrates the difficulty in obtaining the burst pressure with only the internal
pressure when using the true force rather than effective force, as shown by the arrow lines from the origin.

Fig. 3—Limit Envelop.

Examples
This section provides four examples.

Example 1. A well is being drilled at a depth of 8,000 ft with a mud density of 10.5ppg. The drillstring consists of drillpipe
(5 in.; 19.5ppf E grade Class 1). The effect of tooljoints may be neglected. Assume a wellbore inclination of 20˚ and an
azimuth of 0˚. The friction factor is 0.25. This example computes the true and effective forces when the driller is rotating off
bottom without circulation.
Because the string is rotating off-bottom without circulation, there is no surface pressure applied on the drilling string
side.
• True force calculation:
o Average weight = 19.5ppf
o Weight component = 8000 × 19.5 × cos (20) = 146.59 kips
o Weight on bit = 0 because it is a rotating off bottom operation
o Buoyancy factor = (1-10.5/64.5) = 0.8372
o Side force = 0.8372 × 19.5 × sin (20) = 5.58 (lb/ft)
o Drag force = 0 because there is no circulation
o ΔFarea = 0 because the same cross-sectional area is considered along the length of the drillpipe
o Fbottom should be equal to the stability force at the bottom of the pipe. This bottom force is applied uniformly
throughout the pipe, whereas the buckling stability force is calculated by using the same equation but with
different depths.
o Fbottom = Pe ( Ae − Ai ) = 0.052 × 8000 × 10.5 × 5.27 = -23.02 kips (force is compressive)
• Effective force at surface calculation:
o Fbs = 0 because Pi = Pe = 0 pertaining to this case.
The true force and the effective force at the surface pertaining to this operation is the same and equal to:
146.59 + 0 – 23.02 = 123.57 kips

Example 2. A 15,000 ft string of 7 in., 26 lb/ft N80 casing is run in a hole filled with 10 ppg mud. The string is equipped
with a float shoe. This example calculates the following:
IADC/SPE 151407 7

(a) Hookload of an empty closed end casing string in mud (air weight = 15,000 ft × 26 lb/ft = 390,000 lb)
(b) Hookload of a mud-filled string in mud (same mud weights inside and outside)
(c) Hookload of 16 ppg cement-filled string in mud
In (a), the displaced volume of the mud is / = / / , = 4007 and the displaced weight of the
mud is 4007 × 12 × 7.48 = 359,668 lb.
The displaced weight of the mud is a force acting upward on the casing, attempting to float it out of the well.
Thus, the hookload = 390,000 – 359,668 = 30,332 lb (ignoring the weight of the air).
In (b), because the only action is on the cross section of the steel body, the buoyancy factor difference formula is
adequate. 1 = 1- (10 × 7.48/489.5) = 0.847
= (390,000 lbs) (0.847) = 330, 330 lb
In (c) , the total buoyant weight = weight of casing in air + weight of cement – buoyancy of displaced mud. The weight of
the cement is /4 (6.276 in)2(16ppg)(0.052)(15,000)ft = 385,878 lb. From part (a), the buoyant force is 359,668 lb. Thus,
the total buoyant weight is 390,000 + 385, 878 – 359,668 = 416, 210 lb. The hookload with 16 ppg cement inside the casing
is significantly greater than the air weight of the casing string. Consequently, proper hookload design parameters should be
selected in accordance with the well plan.

Example 3. This example shows how the true and effective tensions are calculated for different drilling operations.
Depth of calculation point = 5,100 ft
Total well depth = 5,000 ft, inclined at 15 deg
Mud weight = 9.0 ppg
WOB = 15,000 lb
Drillstring OD = 5 in., ID = 4.276 in., 22.6 ppf
Assumed:
• Coefficient of friction = 0.25
• Tool joint effects are neglected

Some of the sample calculations are provided in the following equations; Table 1 summarizes the overall tensions.
TVD = 5000 x Cos(15) = 4829.62 ft
Area = /4(5.02 – 4.2762) = 5.27 in2
BF = ( 1 - 9/65.5) = 0.862
Fd = 0.862*22.6*Sin(30) = 4.97 lbf/ft
Fbottom = 5.27 * 2258 = -11,910 lb (compression)
ΔFarea =0 (all components have same cross-sectional area)
At the surface, the Fbs = 0 because Pi = Pe = 0 pertaining to this case. Consequently, the true and effective tensions are same.

TABLE 1—EFFECTIVE TENSION AT SURFACE.

Change in True Effective
Weight Drag Force Stability Area Force WOB Tension Total Tension
Operations (lbf) (lbf) Force (lbf) (lbf) (lbf) Total (lb) (Kips) (kips)
Trip Out 53753.77 3106.050809 -11910.1 0 0 44949.75 44.949753 50.904788
-
Trip In 53753.77 3106.050809 -11910.1 0 0 38737.65 38.737651 44.692686
Rotating on
Bottom 53753.77 0 -11910.1 0 -15000 26843.7 26.843702 32.798737
Rotating off
Bottom 53753.77 0 -11910.1 0 0 41843.7 41.843702 47.798737
-
Sliding 53753.77 3106.050809 -11910.1 0 -15000 23737.65 23.737651 29.692686
Backreaming 53753.77 0 -11910.1 0 15000 56843.7 56.843702 62.798737
The calculation between the true and effective tensions varies other than the surface, as shown in Table 1.

Example 4. This example shows the calculation of true tension and effective tension at the surface and at 2,750 ft for a
tripping out case.
• Given data
o Wellbore depth: 5,500 ft; 10 in. OD, vertical
• Drillstring data
o Drillpipe: 5×3 in.; 19.5 ppf with flush tooljoints
8 IADC/SPE 151407

o Mud density: 9.2 ppg

Both tensions are calculated when a surface pressure of 1,000 psi is applied on the drillstring side. Table 2 summarizes
the results; Fig. 3 shows a plot of the true tension.

TABLE 2—SUMMARY OF TENSIONS AT SURFACE AND TARGET DEPTH.

At Surface At 2,750 ft
No Drillstring Annulus Both No Surface Drillstring Annulus Both
Surface Surface Surface sides Pressures Surface Surface Sides
Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure
True
74.2 81.32 54.6 61.5 20.6 27.67 1 8
Tension
Effective
74.2 74.2 74.2 74.2 37.1 37.1 37.1 37.1
Tension

The effective and true tension remained the same at the surface as well as at a selected depth along the string depths
irrespective of the pressures applied or not. However, the true tension values change for all options shown in Table 1. Fig. 4
and Table 1 indicate that the inside pressure increased the true tension load and conversely annulus side pressure decreased
the true tension.

Fig. 4—True tension for surface pressure.

Summary and Conclusion

The presence of fluids in the wellbore requires the inclusion of hydrostatic effects as an integral part of well design and
operations. Using the wrong force/tension will result in an incorrect interpretation of the burst and collapse limits. This paper
provided the mathematical treatise and provided some theoretical basis of these two forces, including how they are used in
torque, drag, buckling, stress, and limit calculations.
• The inclusion of the fluids must be accounted properly.
• The effective tension is easy to define and easy to use for all calculations using the pressure loads.
• Effective tension affects the yield failure of the pipe.
• Effective force should be used to check the buckling conditions of the tubular.
• Although effective force is easy to use, both true tension and effective tension are important for calculations.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their appreciation to their respective companies for the opportunity to present this paper.

Nomenclature
Ai = inside cross sectional area, in2
Ao = outside cross sectional area, in2
Fbottom
= bottom pressure force, lbf
IADC/SPE 151407 9

Fbs = buckling stability force, lbf

Fe = effective force,lbf
Ft = true force, lbf
Fd = drag force,lbf
Fc = critical buckling force,lbf
L = length of drillstring in feet.
Pi = inside pressure,psi
Po = outside pressure,psi
Psp = surface pressure on the pipe side, psi
Psa = surface pressure on the annulus side, psi
ri = inside radius of the pipe, in.
ro = outside pipe radius, in.
wair
= weight per foot of the drillstring in air in lb/ft.
Ws = air weight of the segment = LWair

Greek
ρ i = inside fluid velocity
ρ o = outside fluid velocity
ρ gp = pressure gradient on pipe side
ρ ga = pressure gradient on annulus side
σ y = yield strength of the pipe, psi
θ = inclination in degrees
ΔFarea = yield strength of the pipe, psi

References
Azar, J.J. and Samuel, G.R. 2007. Drilling Engineering. PennWell Publishers, Tulsa Oklahoma
Hammerlindl, D.J. 1980. Basic Fluid and Pressure Forces on Oilwell Tubulars. JPT, 32 (1): pg. 153-159.
Lubinski, A. and Blenkarn, K.A. 1957. Buckling of Tubing in Pumping Wells, Its Effects and Means for Controlling It. Petroleum
Transactions AIME, 210, p. 73-88.
Pattillo P.D. and Randall, B.V. 1980. Two Unsolved Problems in Wellbore Hydrostatics. Paper presented at the 1980 Drilling Technology
Conference of the International Association of Drilling Contractors, March 18-20
Samuel, R. 2007. Downhole Drilling Tools – Theory and Practice for Students and Engineers, Gulf Publishing, Houston, Texas.
Sparks, C.P. 1984. The Influence of Tension, Pressure and Weight on Pipe and Riser Deformations and Stresses. Transactions of ASME,
Journal of Energy Resources Technology, 106 (March), p. 46-54
Sparks, C.P. 2005. Fundamentals of Marine Riser Mechanics, PennWell Publishers, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Zheng, A. and van Adrichem, W.P. 2000. A New Approach to Monitor Tubing Limits. Paper SPE 60738 presented at the 2000 SPE/ICoTA
Coiled Tubing Roundtable, Houston, Texas, USA, 5–6 April.

SI Metric Conversion Factors

cP×1.0* E–03 = Pa.s
ft×3.048* E–03 = m
in.×2.54* E+00 = cm
lbf×9.869 233 E–00 = N
md×6.894 757 E–04 = μ m2
psi×6.894 757 E+00 = kPa

Conversion factors exact