Chapter 7

Systems of Particles and Rotational Motion

Rigid Body
Ideally a rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape.
The distances between different pairs of such a body do not change.

Motion of a rigid body

The motion of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in some way is
either a pure translation or a combination of translation and rotation.
The motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed in some way is rotation.
1)PureTranslational Motion
In pure translational motion at any instant of time every particle of the body
has the same velocity.
Eg: A block moving down an inclined plane.

Any point like P1 or P2 of the block moves with the

same velocity at any instant of time.

2)Pure Rotational Motion

In pure rotational motion at any instant of time every point in the rotating
rigid body has the same angular velocity,but different linear velocity.
i) Rotation about a fixed axis

Eg: A ceiling fan A potter’s wheel.

The line along which the body is fixed is termed as its axis of rotation.
In rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis, every particle of the body
moves in a circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its
centre on the axis.

ii) Rotation about an axis which is not fixed

Eg: A spinning top An oscillating table fan

Centre Of Mass
The centre of is a hypothetical point where the entire mass of an object may
be assumed to be concentrated to visualise its motion.

Consider a two particle system. Let C be the centre of mass which is at a

distancev X from origin.

⃗ = 𝐦𝟏 𝐫𝟏+𝐦𝟐𝐫𝟐
⃗𝐑
𝒎 +𝒎 𝟏 𝟐

⃗ = 𝐦𝟏 𝐫𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐫𝟐
⃗𝐑 where M=𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
𝐌
𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2
x coordinate of centre of mass 𝑋=
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑦1 +𝑚2 𝑦2
y coordinate of centre of mass 𝑌=
𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑧1 +𝑚2 𝑧2
z coordinate of centre of mass 𝑍=
𝑚1 +𝑚2

If we have n particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , ... 𝑚𝑛

⃗ = 𝐦𝟏𝐫𝟏 +𝐦𝟐𝐫𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐧 𝐫𝐧

⃗𝐑 --------(1)
𝐌

⃗ = ∑𝒎𝒊 𝒓⃗𝒊
⃗𝑹 where M =m1 + m2 +…….+mn
𝑴

If the origin is chosen to be the centre of mass then𝑅⃗ = 0

∑𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
0=
𝑀

∑𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = 0
Problem
Find the centre of mass of three particles at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle. The masses of the particles are 100g, 150g, and 200g respectively.
Each side of the equilateral triangle is 0.5m long.

𝑚1 𝑦1 +𝑚2 𝑦2 +𝑚3 𝑦3
𝑌=
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3
Motion of Centre of Mass
Position vector of centre of mass

⃗R = ∑mi r⃗i
M

⃗ = 𝐦𝟏 𝐫𝟏 +𝐦𝟐𝐫𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐧 𝐫𝐧
⃗𝐑 --------(1)
𝐌
where M =m1 + m2 +…….+mn
Velocity of centre of mass
Differentiating
d d m1 r⃗1 +m2 r⃗2 +⋯……..+mn r⃗n
⃗R = { }
dt dt M
d d d
m1 r1 + m2 r2 + ⋯ … . . +mn rn
⃗ = dt dt dt
V
M
𝐦𝟏 𝐯⃗𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐯⃗𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐧 𝐯⃗𝐧
⃗ =
𝐕 --------------(2)
𝐌
Acceleration of centre of mass
Differentiating
d ⃗ 1 +m2 v
d m1 v ⃗ 2 +⋯……..+mn v
⃗n
⃗V = { }
dt dt M
d d d
m1 ⃗ 1 + m2 v
v ⃗ 2 + ⋯ … . . +mn v⃗
⃗A = dt dt dt n
M
⃗ 𝟏 +𝐦𝟐 𝐚
𝐦𝟏 𝐚 ⃗ 𝟐 +⋯……..+𝐦𝐧 𝐚
⃗𝐧
⃗⃗⃗𝐀 = ………………(3)
𝐌
Force on centre of mass
Acceleration of centre of mass
m1 a⃗1 + m2 a⃗2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn a⃗n
⃗A =
M
⃗ = m1 a⃗1 + m2 a⃗2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn a⃗n
MA
𝐅𝐞𝐱𝐭 = m1 a⃗1 + m2 a⃗2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn a⃗n
𝐅𝐞𝐱𝐭 = 𝐅𝟏 + 𝐅𝟐 + ⋯ … … . . +𝐅𝐧
 ⃗
𝐅𝐞𝐱𝐭 = MA
The centre of mass of a system of particles moves as if all the mass of the
system was concentrated at the centre of mass and all the external forces
were applied at that point.

The centre of mass of the fragments of the projectile continues along the
same parabolic path which it would have followed if there were no
explosion.
Linear Momentum of centre of mass
Velocity of centre of mass
⃗ 1 +m2 v
m1 v ⃗ 2 +⋯……..+mn v
⃗n
⃗V =
M
⃗ = m1 v⃗1 + m2 v⃗2 + ⋯ … … . . +mn v⃗n
MV
⃗ = 𝐩
𝐏 ⃗𝟏+𝐩 ⃗ 𝟐 + ⋯ … … . . +𝐩
⃗𝐧

Law of Conservation of Momentum for a System of Particles

If Newton’s second law is extended to a system of particles,
d⃗P
⃗ ext =
F
dt
When the sum of external forces acting on a system of particles is zero
⃗Fext = 0
d⃗P
=0
dt
⃗P= constant
Thus, when the total external force acting on a system of particles is zero,
the total linear momentum of the system is constant. This is the law of
conservation of the total linear momentum of a system of particles.
 But ⃗P = 𝑀V⃗
𝑀V⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
⃗V = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
When the total external force on the system is zero the velocity of the centre
of mass remains constant or the CM of the system is in uniform motion.

Vector Product or Cross product of Two Vectors

Vector product of two vectors ⃗A and ⃗B is defined as
⃗ x ⃗𝐁
𝐀 ⃗ = AB 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐧̂
Where A and B are magnitudes of A ⃗ and B⃗
𝜽 is the angle between ⃗A and ⃗B
𝑛̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing ⃗A and ⃗B

The direction of ⃗A x ⃗B is given by right hand screw rule or right hand rule
Right hand screw rule
If we turn the head of screw in the direction from ⃗A to B
⃗ ,then the tip of the
screw advances in the direction ofA⃗ x ⃗B

Right hand rule

if the fingers of right hand are curled up in the direction from ⃗A to ⃗B, then
the stretched thumb points in the direction of A ⃗ xB⃗
 • The vector product is not commutative
⃗ x 𝐁
𝐀 ⃗⃗ ≠ 𝐁
⃗⃗ x 𝐀
⃗

• Vector product obeys distributive law

𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐂 )= 𝐀
⃗ x (𝐁 ⃗ x𝐁
⃗⃗ + 𝐀
⃗ 𝐱𝐂

• 𝐀 ⃗ = ⃗𝟎
⃗ x𝐀

• 𝒊̂ × 𝒊̂ = 𝟎 , 𝒋̂ × 𝒋̂ = 𝟎 , ̂×𝒌
𝒌 ̂=𝟎

• 𝒊̂ × 𝒋̂ = 𝒌
̂, ̂ = 𝒊̂,
𝒋̂ × 𝒌 ̂ × 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂
𝒌
• 𝒋̂ × 𝒊̂ = −𝒌
̂, ̂ × 𝒋̂ = −𝒊̂,
𝒌 ̂ = −𝒋̂
𝒊̂ × 𝒌

Angular Velocity and its Relation with Linear Velocity

⃗⃗⃗ is directed along the fixed axis

The angular velocity is a vector quantity. 𝝎
as shown.
The linear velocity of the particle is
⃗⃗⃗
𝒗 =𝝎⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒓
⃗
⃗⃗⃗ and 𝒓
It is perpendicular to both 𝝎 ⃗ and is directed along the tangent to
the circle described by the particle.

Figure shows the direction of angular velocity when the body rotates in
clockwise and anti clockwise direction.
 For rotation about a fixed axis, the direction of the vector ω does not change
with time. Its magnitude may change from instant to instant. For the more
general rotation, both the magnitude and the direction of ω may change
from instant to instant.

Angular acceleration
Angular acceleration α
⃗ is defined as the time rate of change of angular
velocity.
⃗⃗⃗
ⅆ𝝎
⃗⃗ =
𝜶
ⅆ𝒕
If the axis of rotation is fixed, the direction of ω and hence, that of α is fixed.
In this case the vector equation reduces to a scalar equation
ⅆ𝜔
𝛼=
ⅆ𝑡

Torque or Moment of Force

The rotational analogue of force is torque or moment of force .

If a force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐅 acts on a single particle at a point P whose position with respect
⃗ ,then torque about origin o is
to the origin O is 𝒓
⃗ = r F sinθ
𝝉

⃗ x ⃗⃗⃗
⃗𝝉 = 𝒓 𝐅
• Torque has dimensions M L2 T −2
• Its dimensions are the same as those of work or energy.
• It is a very different physical quantity than work.
• Moment of a force is a vector, while work is a scalar.
• The SI unit of moment of force is Newton-metre (Nm)
The magnitude of the moment of force may be written
τ = (r sin θ ) F = 𝒓⊥ F
τ = r (F sin θ ) = r 𝐅⊥
where r⊥ = r sin θ is the perpendicular distance of the line of action of F
form the origin and F⊥ = Fsin θ is the component of F in the direction
perpendicular to r.

Angular momentum of a particle

Angular momentum is the rotational analogue of linear momentum.
Angular momentum is a vector quantity. It could also be referred to as
moment of (linear) momentum.
𝒍=𝒓⃗ ×𝒑
⃗
𝒍 = 𝒓𝒑𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
Relation connecting Torque and Angular momentum
𝑙 =𝑟×𝑝
Differentiating
ⅆ𝑙 d
= (r×p
⃗ )
ⅆ𝑡 dt
ⅆ𝑙 dr⃗ ⃗
dp
= ×p
⃗ + rx
ⅆ𝑡 dt dt
dr⃗ ⃗
dp
⃗ = mv⃗ , dt = v⃗ ,
p = ⃗⃗F
dt
ⅆ𝑙
= v⃗ × mv⃗ + r x ⃗⃗F
ⅆ𝑡
v⃗ × v⃗ = 0 , (r x ⃗⃗F =τ⃗ )
ⅆ𝑙
=0 + 𝜏
ⅆ𝑡
ⅆ𝑙
= 𝜏
ⅆ𝑡
ⅆ𝒍
⃗ =
𝝉 ⅆ𝒕
Thus, the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a particle is equal
to the torque acting on it.
 ⃗
dp
This is the rotational analogue of the equation ⃗⃗
F= , which expresses
dt
Newton’s second law for the translational motion of a single particle.

Relation connecting Torque and Angular momentum for a

system of particles
⃗
ⅆ𝑳
⃗ =
𝝉
ⅆ𝒕
Where 𝐿⃗ = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 + ⋯ ⋅ +𝑙𝑛
Conservation of Angular momentum
For a system of particles
⃗
dL
τ⃗ext = dt
If external torque τ⃗ext = 0 ,
⃗
dL
=0
dt

𝐋 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
If the total external torque on a system of particles is zero, then the
total angular momentum of the system is conserved i.e, remains
constant.

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if it is in both
translational equilibrium and rotational equilibrium.
i.e, for a body in mechanical equilibrium its linear momentum and angular
momentum are not changing with time.
Translational Equilibrium
When the total external force on the rigid body is zero, then the total linear
momentum of the body does not change with time and the body will be in
translational equilibrium .

Rotational Equilibrium
When the total external torque on the rigid body is zero, the total angular
momentum of the body does not change with time and the body will be in
rotational equilibrium .

Partial equilibrium
A body may be in partial equilibrium, i.e., it may be in translational
equilibrium and not in rotational equilibrium, or it may be in rotational
equilibrium and not in translational equilibrium.

Here net torque is zero and the body is in rotational equilibrium.

Net force is not zero and the body is not in traslational equilibrium

Here net torque is not zero and the body will not be rotational equilibrium.
Net force is zero and the body will be in traslational equilibrium.
Couple
A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as
a couple. A couple produces rotation without translation.

Our fingers apply a couple to turn the lid The Earth’s magnetic field exerts equal and
opposite forces on the poles of a compass
needle. These two forces form a couple.

Principles of Moments

The lever is a system in mechanical equilibrium.

For rotational equilibrium the sum of moments must be zero,

𝐝𝟏 𝐅𝟏 − 𝐝𝟐 𝐅𝟐 =0
The equation for the principle of moments for a lever is

𝐝𝟏 𝐅𝟏 = 𝐝𝟐 𝐅𝟐
load arm × load = effort arm × effort

𝐹1 ⅆ2
Mechanical Advantage MA = =
𝐹2 ⅆ1
Centre of gravity
The Centre of gravity of a body is the point where the total gravitational
torque on the body is zero.
• The centre of gravity of the body coincides with the centre of mass. For
a body is small, g does not vary from one point of the body to the other.
Then the centre of gravity of the body coincides with the centre of
mass.
• If the body is so extended that g varies from part to part of the body,
then the centre of gravity and centre of mass will not coincide.

Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia is the rotational analogue of mass.
Moment of inertia is a measure of rotational inertia

The moment of inertia of a particle of mass m rotating about an axis is

I =m𝐫 𝟐
The moment of inertia of a rigid body is

The moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on the mass of the body, its
shape and size; distribution of mass about the axis of rotation, and the
position and orientation of the axis of rotation.
Moments of Inertia of some regular shaped bodies about
specific axes

Rotational Kinetic energy

Cosider a particle of mass m rotating about an axis of radius r with angular
velocity 𝜔
The kinetic energy of motion of this particle is
1
𝑘𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
But v = r 𝜔
1
𝑘𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔2
I =m𝑟 2
𝟏
Rotational 𝐤𝐄 = 𝟐 𝐈𝛚𝟐
Radius of Gyration (k)
The radius of gyration can be defined as the distance of a mass point from
the axis of roatation whose mass is equal to the whole mass of the body and
whose moment of inertia is equal to moment of inertia of the whole body
about the axis.
If K is the radius of gyration, we can write
I =M𝑘 2

𝑰
𝒌=√
𝑴
Kinematics of Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis
The kinematical equations of linear motion with uniform (i.e. constant)
acceleration

The corresponding kinematic equations for rotational motion with uniform

angular acceleration are:

Dynamics of Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

Comparison of Translational and Rotational Motion
Work done by a torque

Work done by a force F acting on a particle of a body rotating about a fixed

axis
dW = F. ds
dW= Fds cosφ
but φ +α =90, φ = 90 – α
cos( 90 – α) =sin α
dW = F(r dθ)sinα
dW = r F sin α dθ
dW = 𝜏 dθ

W= 𝝉 θ

Instantaneous power by a Torque

ⅆ𝑊
P= ⅆ𝑡

But, dW =𝜏 dθ
dθ
P= 𝜏 ⅆ𝑡

P = τω
Angular Momentum in Case of Rotation about a Fixed Axis
Or
Relation Connecting Angular Momentum And Moment Of Inertia
Angular momentum of a particle, 𝑙 =𝑟×𝑝
For a system of particles , ⃗ =∑ 𝑙
L
⃗L = ∑ ⃗r × p
⃗
⃗L = ∑ 𝑟𝑝 sin 90 𝑘̂
⃗L = ∑ 𝑟𝑝 𝑘̂
⃗ = ∑ 𝑟𝑚𝑣 𝑘̂
L (p=mv)
⃗L = ∑ 𝑟𝑚(𝑟𝜔) 𝑘̂ (v=r𝜔)
⃗L = ∑ 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔 𝑘̂
⃗L = Iωk̂

⃗⃗⃗
𝐋 = 𝐈𝛚

Relation Connecting Torque and Angular Acceleration

⃗
dL
τ⃗ = dt

But ⃗L = 𝐼𝜔
⃗
⃗⃗⃗
d𝐼𝜔
τ⃗ =
dt
⃗⃗⃗
d𝜔
τ⃗ = I dt

⃗
⃗ =𝐈𝛂
𝛕
Conservation of angular momentum
If the external torque is zero, angular momentum is constant.
L = constant
Iω = constant

When I increases ,ω decreases and vice versa, so that Iω is constant.

While the chair is rotating with

considerable angular speed , if you stretch
your arms horizontally, moment of
inertia(I) increases and as a result, the
angular speed(ω) is reduced.
If you bring back your arms closer to your
body, moment of inertia(I) decreases and
as a result, the angular speed(ω) increases
again.

A circus acrobat and a diver take

advantage of this principle.
Also, skaters and classical, Indian or
western, dancers performing a
pirouette on the toes of one foot
display ‘mastery’ over this principle.