categorize countries which was named the North-

MODULE 3 South Divide where First World countries were

known as the North while Third World countries

3.1 The Global comprised the South.

North-South Divide
OVERVIEW

The North-South Divide is a socio-

economic and political categorization of countries.
The Cold-War-era generalization places countries
in two distinct groups; The North and the South. The Brandt line, a definition from the 1980s
The North is comprised of all First World countries dividing the world into the wealthy north and the poor
and most Second World countries while the South south.
is comprised of Third World countries. This
categorization ignores the geographic position of The North (First World Countries)
countries with some countries in the southern
hemisphere such as Australia and New Zealand The North of the Divide is comprised of
countries which have developed economies and
being labeled as part of the North.
account for over 90% of all manufacturing
industries in the world. Although these countries
LEARNING OUTCOMES
account for only one-quarter of the total global
Specifically, after learning the module, you are
population, they control 80% of the total income
expected to: earned around the world. All the members of the
➢ Define the Global North-South divide. G8 come from the North as well as four permanent
➢ Discuss the history of the Global North- members of the UN Security Council. About 95% of
South dynamic. the population in countries in The North have
➢ Critically challenge the accuracy of the enough basic needs and have access to
Global North–South divide. functioning education systems. Countries
➢ Analyze how a new conception of global comprising the North include The United States,
relations emerged from the experiences Canada, all countries in Western Europe, Australia,
of Latin American countries particularly New Zealand as well as the developed countries in
the South-South connection. Asia such as Japan and South Korea.

The South (Third World Countries)

The Global North-South Divide
The South is comprised of countries with
History developing economies which were initially referred
to as Third World countries during the Cold War.
The origin of dividing countries into the An important characteristic of countries in the
North South Divide arose during the Cold War of South is the relatively low GDP and the high
the mid-20th century. During this time, countries population. The Third World accounts for only a
were primarily categorized according to their fifth of the globally earned income but accounts for
alignment between the Russian East and the over three-quarters of the global population.
American West. Countries in the East like the Another common characteristic of the countries in
Soviet Union and China which became classified the South is the lack of basic amenities. As little as
as Second World countries. In the west, the United 5% of the population is able to access basic needs
States and its allies were labelled as First World such as food and shelter. The economies of most
countries. This division left out many countries countries in the South rely on imports from the
which were poorer than the First World and North and have low technological penetration. The
Second World countries. The poor countries were countries making up the South are mainly drawn
eventually labeled as Third World countries. This from Africa, South America, and Asia with all
categorization was later abandoned after the African and South American countries being from
Second World countries joined the First World the South. The only Asian countries not from the
countries. New criteria were established to South are Japan and South Korea.

1
Criticism Technical Cooperation Among Developing
The North-South Divide is criticized for Countries, which was also held in Buenos Aires.
being a way of segregating people along economic
lines and is seen as a factor of the widening gap The central theme of discussion will be how
between developed and developing economies. South-South cooperation represents an
However, several measures have been put in opportunity to achieve the 2030 Agenda for
place to contract the North-South Divide including Sustainable Development, the globally-agreed
the lobbying for international free trade and blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and
globalization. The United Nations has been at the the planet.
forefront in diminishing the North-South Divide
through policies highlighted in its Millennium UN Secretary-General António Guterres,
Development Goals. (Sawe, 2017) who will participate in the opening ceremony of the
event, strongly believes in the importance of South-
Challenges South cooperation to generate both new ideas and
The accuracy of the North–South divide concrete projects and also as a means to enable
has been challenged on a number of grounds. voices from the Global South to drive innovation
Firstly, differences in the political, economic and and promote development.
demographic make-up of countries tend to
complicate the idea of a monolithic South. UN News has put together a handy guide to
Globalization has also challenged the notion of two answer some questions regarding this important
distinct economic spheres. Following the meeting.
liberalization of post-Mao China initiated in 1978,
growing regional cooperation between the national 1. Let’s
start with the basics, what is South-
economies of Asia has led to the growing South Cooperation?
decentralization of the North as the main economic
power. The economic status of the South has also South-South cooperation refers to the
been fractured. As of 2015, all but roughly the technical cooperation among developing countries
bottom 60 nations of the Global South were in the Global South. It is a tool used by the states,
thought to be gaining on the North in terms of international organizations, academics, civil
income, diversification, and participation in the society and the private sector to collaborate and
world market. Globalization has largely displaced share knowledge, skills and successful initiatives in
the North–South divide as the theoretical specific areas such as agricultural development,
underpinning of the development efforts of human rights, urbanization, health, climate change,
international institutions such as the IMF, World etc.
Bank, WTO, and various United Nations affiliated
agencies, though these groups differ in their 2. What happened in Argentina 40 years ago?
perceptions of the relationship between
globalization and inequality. Yet some remain During the 1960s and 1970s, with the global
critical of the accuracy of globalization as a model socio-economic climate entangled with Cold War
of the world economy, emphasizing the enduring politics, developing countries began seeking ways
centrality of nation-states in world politics and the to chart the course of their own development;
prominence of regional trade relations. alternatives to the existing economic and political
order.
What is South-South cooperation and why
does it matter? Technical cooperation among these
Southern States started as a pioneering
This week in Argentina’s capital, Buenos associative effort to strengthen their diplomatic and
Aires, over one thousand people, including high- international negotiating power through political
level government delegations and representatives dialogue.
from the private sector and civil society, will gather
for the Second High-level United Nations What is now known as South-South
Conference on South-South Cooperation, or cooperation, derives from the adoption of the
BAPA+40. Buenos Aires Plan of Action for Promoting and
Implementing Technical Cooperation among
The Conference marks the 40th Developing Countries (BAPA) by 138 UN Member
anniversary of the United Nations Conference on States in Argentina, on September 18, 1978.
2
 The plan established a scheme of travel to Colombia and exchange their knowledge
collaboration among least developed countries, and experience in that field. Both Cambodia and
mostly located in the south of the planet. It also Colombia had a major issue with anti-personnel
established for the first time a framework for this mines in different moments of their history.
type of cooperation and incorporated in its practice
the basic principles of relations between sovereign 4. What is the importance of South-South
States: respect for sovereignty, non-interference in cooperation?
internal affairs and equality of rights, among others.
“Innovative forms of knowledge exchange,
The BAPA defined as well a series of new technology transfer, emergency response and
and concrete recommendations aimed at recovery of livelihoods led by the South are
establishing legal frameworks and financing transforming lives,” said the Secretary-General in
mechanisms at the national, regional, interregional November 2018, during the inauguration of the
and global levels. 10th South-South Development Expo at UN
Headquarters in New York.
Technical cooperation was defined in
Buenos Aires as “an instrument capable of “The facts speak for themselves”, António
promoting the exchange of successful experiences Guterres said. The countries of the South have
among countries that share similar historical contributed to more than half of the world’s growth
realities and similar challenges”. in recent years; intra-south trade is higher than
ever, accounting for more than a quarter of all
3. But what about North-South cooperation world trade; the outflows of foreign direct
and Triangular cooperation? investment from the South represent a third of the
global flows; and remittances from migrant workers
The division of “North” and “South” is used to low and middle-income countries reached 466
to refer to the social, economic and political billion dollars last year, which helped lift millions of
differences that exist between developed countries families out of poverty.
(North) and developing countries (South).
The UN chief believes that the ambitious and
Although most of the high-income countries transformational 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
are indeed located in the northern hemisphere, it Development cannot be achieved without the
should be noted that the division is not totally ideas, energy and tremendous ingenuity of the
faithful to the actual geographical division. A countries of the Global South.
country is defined as North or South not by
location, but depending on certain economic 5. What can South-South cooperation achieve?
factors and the quality of life of its population.
Together with political dialogue and
North-South cooperation, which is the most financial cooperation, South-South cooperation
traditional type of cooperation, occurs when a has promoted a large number of knowledge and
developed country supports economically or with expertise exchanges through programs, projects,
another kind of resources a less favored one, for and initiatives that have helped solve specific
example, with financial aid during a natural problems in the countries of the Global South.
disaster or a humanitarian crisis.
Last November, the UN Office for South-
Triangular cooperation, as the name South Cooperation published a document
implies, involves three actors, two from the South gathering more than 100 successful experiences
and one from the North. The latter, which can also that have contributed to the development of
be an international organization, provides the countries around the world.
financial resources so that the countries of the
South can exchange technical assistance on a The publication contains examples from all
specific topic. regions of the world that demonstrate the potential
success of South-South cooperation such as
For example, in what is considered a Cuba’s support in the fight against Ebola in West
successful experience, Japan International Africa; Mexico’s experience in diversifying corn
Cooperation Agency (JICA) made it possible products to improve health and nutrition in Kenya;
financially for demining Cambodian experts to the knowledge of strategies to reduce hunger
3
shared by Colombia to Mesoamerican countries;
and the lessons from Chile to the Caribbean SUMMARY
countries on product labeling as a measure to end
obesity, among many others.
6. What is going to happen this week in
The North–South divide (or Global North and Global
Argentina? South) is a socio-economic and political division of
The Member States will meet again in Buenos Earth popularized in the late 20th century and early
Aires for the Second High-Level Conference on 21st century. Generally, definitions of the Global
South-South Cooperation, BAPA+40, to review North is not exclusively a geographical term, and it
includes places such as Australia, Canada, the
four decades of trends and launch a new strategy
European Union, Israel, Japan, New Zealand,
in order to implement the 2030 Agenda. Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan (ROC), the United
BAPA+40, provides a unique opportunity to Kingdom, and the United States. The Global South
review the lessons learned since 1978, identify new is made up of Africa, Latin America and the
areas and mechanisms where South-South and Caribbean, Pacific Islands, and the developing
countries in Asia, including the Middle East. It is
Triangular cooperation can add value and have a
generally seen as home to: Brazil, India and China,
greater impact, and commit to building an adequate which, along with Indonesia and Mexico, are the
and systematic follow-up in the framework of the largest Southern states in terms of land area and
United Nations system. population.
For three days, world leaders will meet to The North is mostly correlated with the Western
world, while the South largely corresponds with the
discuss a political declaration that is expected to
developing countries (previously called "Third
call for an increase in South-South cooperation, as World") and Eastern world. The two groups are
well as institutional strengthening of reporting and often defined in terms of their differing levels of
monitoring systems for this type of partnership. wealth, economic development, income inequality,
The event will also feature panel democracy, and political and economic freedom, as
discussions and a pavilion of different countries defined by freedom indices. States that are
generally seen as part of the Global North tend to
that will share successful experiences,
be wealthier, less unequal and considered more
demonstrating the effectiveness of this type of democratic and to be developed countries who
cooperation, and the potential of the ideas of the export technologically advanced manufactured
countries in the Global South. (The UN Department products; Southern states are generally poorer
of Economic and Social Affairs 2019) developing countries with younger, more fragile
democracies heavily dependent on primary sector
exports and frequently share a history of past
ASSESSMENT TASK No. 1 colonialism by Northern states. Nevertheless, the
divide between the North and the South is often
challenged and said to be increasingly incompatible
Answer each question below. 5 points each! with reality.
In economic terms, as of the early 21st century, the
(1) In what way the global north-south divide? North—with one quarter of the world population—
controls four-fifths of the income earned anywhere
in the world. 90% of the manufacturing industries
(2) What way or method do you recommend to are owned by and located in the North. Inversely,
resolve the gap/divide between the Global the South – with three quarters of the world
North and the Global South? population
three quarters of the world population—has access
to onefifth of the world income. As nations become
economically developed, they may become part of
definitions the "North", regardless of geographical
location; similarly, any nations that do not qualify for
"developed" status are in effect deemed to be part
of the "South"

4
 consumerism. From this, there may emerge a
political will to halt or to reverse the process of
globalization, in order to safeguard some degree of
3.2 Asian Regionalism territorial control and cultural diversity. One way of
achieving such a change could be through the New
OVERVIEW Regionalism.

Over the last decade, the issue of The two processes of globalization and
regionalism has once again "been brought back in", regionalization are articulated within the same
albeit in a different form compared to the debate on larger process of global structural transformation,
regional integration some three decades ago. the outcome of which depends on a dialectical
Thus, I shall argue that we are dealing with a "new" rather than linear development. It can therefore not
regionalism. I shall also argue that this regionalism be readily extrapolated or easily foreseen. But
can be seen as a response to the process of rather it expresses the relative strength of
globalization and the social eruptions associated contending social forces involved in the two
with this process. The second part of the paper processes. They deeply affect the stability of the
applies the framework to the case of East Asia. Westphalian state system; and therefore, they at
the same time contribute to both disorder and,
LEARNING OUTCOMES possibly, a future world order.
➢ Differentiate between regionalization and
globalization. There is an intricate relationship between
➢ Identify the main characteristics of regionalization and globalization. Compared to
regionalism. "regionalism", with an impressive theoretical
➢ Understand the driving forces for regional tradition behind it, "globalism" is a more recent
cooperation among states in general, and in concept in social science. Whether its
the East Asian region in particular. consequences are seen as catastrophic or as the
ultimate unification of the world, the concept of
Globalism versus Regionalism globalization is often used in a rather loose and
ideological sense.
Globalism can be defined as programmatic
globalization, the vision of a borderless world. I see However, there are also many definitions of
globalization as a qualitatively new phenomenon. the new regionalism, and, just as is the case with
If globalization implies a tendency towards a global globalization, some are enthusiastic, some more
social system, its origins may be traced far back in alarmist. For the critics, the regionalist trend
history, but one could also argue that the process constitutes a threat to the multilateral system. For
reached a new stage in the post-Second World the enthusiasts, on the other hand, the new
War era. The subjective sense of geographical regionalism could form the basis for an improved
distance is dramatically changed, some even multilateral system. The basic problem with
speak of "the end of geography". Also, in globalization is its selectiveness. Exclusion is
ecological terms, the world is experienced as one. inherent in the process, and the benefits are evenly
Economic interdependence was made possible by balanced by misery, conflict, and violence. The
the political stability of the American world order, negative effects are incompatible with the survival
which lasted from the end of the Second World of civil society, and thus in the longer run a threat
War until the late '60s or early '70s. Basically, to all humanity.
globalization indicates a qualitative deepening of
the internationalization process, strengthening the The New Face of Regionalism
functional and weakening of the territorial
dimension of development. What do I mean by the new regionalism?
The new regionalism differs from the "old"
Globalism thus implies the growth of a regionalism in a number of ways, and I want to
world market, increasingly penetrating and emphasize the following five contrasts:
dominating the "national" economies, which in the
process are bound to lose some of their 1. Whereas the old regionalism was formed in
"nationness". This means the dominance of the a bipolar Cold War context, the new is
world market over structures of local production, as taking shape in a multipolar world order.
well as the increasing prevalence of Western-type The new regionalism and multipolarity are,
5
 in fact, two sides of the same coin. The 5. Whereas the old regionalism was
decline of US hegemony and the concerned only with relations between
breakdown of the Communist subsystem nation-states, the new forms part of a global
created a room-for-maneuver, in which the structural transformation in which non-state
new regionalism could develop. It would actors (many different types of institutions,
never have been compatible with the Cold organizations, and movements) are also
War system since the "quasi-regions" of active and operating at several levels of the
that system tended to reproduce bipolarity global system.
within themselves. This old pattern of
hegemonic regionalism was, of course, In sum, the new regionalism includes
most evident in Europe before 1989, but at economic, political, social and cultural aspects,
the height of the Cold War discernible in all and goes far beyond free trade. Rather, the
world regions. There are still remnants of it political ambition of establishing regional
here in East Asia. coherence and regional identity seems to be of
primary importance. The new regionalism is linked
2. Whereas the old regionalism was created to globalization and can therefore not be
"from above" (often through superpower understood merely from the point of view of the
intervention), the new is a more single region. Rather it should be defined as a
spontaneous process from within the world order concept, since any particular process
regions, where the constituent states now of regionalization in any part of the world has
experience the need for cooperation in systemic repercussions on other regions, thus
order to tackle new global challenges. shaping the way in which the new world order is
Regionalism is thus one way of coping with being organized. The new global power structure
global transformation since most states lack will thus be defined by the world regions, but
the capacity and the means to manage regions of different types.
such a task on the "national" level.
Core and Periphery
3. Whereas the old regionalism was inward
oriented and protectionist in economic A rough distinction can be made between
terms, the new is often described as "open", three structurally different types of regions: core
and thus compatible with an interdependent regions, peripheral regions and, between them,
world economy. However, the idea of a intermediate regions. How do they differ from each
certain degree of preferential treatment of other?
countries within the region is implied in the
idea of open regionalism. How this The core regions are politically stable and
somewhat contradictory balance between economically dynamic. They organize for the sake
the principle of multilateralism and the more of being better able to control the rest of the world,
particularistic regionalist concerns shall be the world outside their own region. The
maintained remains somewhat unclear. I intermediate regions are closely linked to the core
would rather stress the ambiguity between regions. They will be incorporated as soon as they
"opened" and "closed" regionalism. conform to the criterion of "core-ness", that is,
economic development and political stability.
4. Whereas the old regionalism was specific
with regard to its objectives (some The peripheral regions, in contrast, are
organizations being security-oriented, politically turbulent and economically stagnant.
others economically oriented), the new is a Consequently, they must organize in order to
more comprehensive, multidimensional arrest a process of marginalization. Their regional
process. This process includes not only arrangements are at the same time fragile and
trade and economic development but also ineffective. Their overall situation makes "security
environment, social policy, and security, regionalism" and "developmental regionalism"
just to mention some imperatives pushing more important than the creation of free trade
countries and communities towards regimes. They are necessarily more introverted.
cooperation within new types of regionalist
frameworks. The core regions are those regions which
are politically capable, no matter whether such
capability is expressed in the form of a political
6
organization or not. So far only one of the three "Africa South of the Sahara" or "the Indian
core regions, namely Europe, aspires to build such subcontinent". This first level can be
an organization. The other two, that is North referred to as a "proto-region", or a "pre-
America and East Asia, are both economically regional zone", since there is no organized
strong, but so far, they lack a regional political society. In order to further regionalize, this
order. particular territory must, necessarily, be
inhabited by human beings, maintaining
Structurally close to the core are the intermediate some kind of relationship. This brings us to
regions, all in preparation for being incorporated in the social dimension.
the core, the speed depending on their good,
"core-like", behavior. They are: 2. Region as social system implies trans-local
relations between human groups. These
Central Europe, obediently waiting first in relations constitute a security complex, in
line for membership in the European Union, Latin which the constituent units, as far as their
America and the Caribbean, in the process of own security is concerned, are dependent
becoming "North Americanized", China, South- on each other, as well as the overall
East Asia, and the "European Pacific", or Oceania stability of the regional system. Thus, the
(Australia, New Zealand), all now being drawn by social relations may very well be hostile.
Japanese capital into the East Asia economic The region, just like the international
space. system of which it forms a part, can,
therefore, be described as anarchic. The
Remaining in the periphery are thus the classic case of such a regional order is
following five regions: the post-Soviet area, the 19th century Europe. At this low level of
major parts of it now in the process of being organization, a balance of power or some
reintegrated in the form of Commonwealth of kind of "concert", is the sole security
Independent States (perhaps laying the ground for guarantee. This is a rather primitive
a future core region), the Balkans, where the security mechanism. We could, therefore,
countries have lost whatever little tradition of talk of a "primitive" region.
cooperation they once might have been involved in,
the Middle East, a region defined from outside and 3. Region as organized cooperation in any of
with a most unsettled regional structure, South the cultural, economic, political or military
Asia, with a very low level of "regionness", because fields. In this case, region is defined by the
of the "cold war" (sometimes getting hot) between list of countries which are the formal
the two major powers, India and Pakistan, and members of the regional organization in
finally, Africa, wherein many countries the political question. In the absence of some kind of
structures called "states" are falling apart. organized cooperation, the concept of
regionalism does not make much sense.
Levels of Regionness This more organized region could be called
the "formal" region. It should be possible to
Thus, the peripheral regions are relate the "formal region" (defined by
"peripheral" because they are stagnant, turbulent organizational membership) to the "real
and war-prone. The only way for these regions to region" (which has to be defined in terms of
become less peripheral is to become more potentialities and through less precise
regionalized, i.e. to increase their levels of criteria) in order to assess the relevance
"regionness". Otherwise, their only power resource and future potential of a particular regional
would rest in their capacity to create problems for organization.
the core regions ("chaos power"), and thereby
inviting some sort of external engagement. What 4. Region as civil society takes shape when
shall we then understand by "regionness"? It the organizational framework facilitates
means that a region can be a region more or less. and promotes social communication and
There are five degrees of "regionness": convergence of values throughout the
region. Of course, the pre-existence of a
1. Region as a geographical unit, delimited by shared cultural tradition in a particular
more or less natural physical barriers and region is of crucial importance here, but
marked by ecological characteristics: culture is not only a given but continuously
"Europe from the Atlantic to the Urals", created and recreated. However, the
7
 defining element here is the integration as a possible future result. The concept
multidimensional and voluntary quality of "new regionalism" refers to a transformation of a
regional cooperation and the societal particular region from relative heterogeneity to
characteristics indicating an emerging increased homogeneity with regard to a number of
"regional anarchic society", that is dimensions, the most important being culture,
something more than anarchy, but less security, economic policies, and political regimes.
than society. The convergence along these four dimensions may
be a natural process or politically steered or, most
5. Region as acting subject with a distinct likely, a mixture of the two. A certain level of
identity, actor capability, legitimacy and "sameness" is a necessary but not sufficient
structure of decision-making. Crucial areas condition.
for regional intervention are conflict
resolution (between and particularly within • Culture takes a long time to change. Of
former "states") and the creation of welfare importance here is rather the inherently
(in terms of social security and regional shared culture which usually is
balance). This process is similar to state transnational, since national borders in
formation and nation-building, and the many cases are artificial divisions of a
ultimate outcome could be a "region-state", larger cultural area.
which in terms of scope can be compared • A transformation of the security regime
to the classical empires, but in terms of (from security complex towards security
political order constitutes a voluntary community) is perhaps the most crucial
evolution of a group of formerly sovereign factor.
national, political units into a supranational • Changes in political regimes today typically
security community, where sovereignty is mean democratization.
pooled for the best of all. • Changes in economic policies nowadays
normally go in the direction of economic
The five levels may express a certain openness.
evolutionary logic, but the idea is not to suggest a
stage theory but to provide a framework for The dynamics of regionalization thus
comparative analysis. Since regionalism is a constitute the interaction between these
political project it may, just like a nation-state dimensions and can, furthermore, be found at
project, fail. This, similarly, means different levels of world society:
peripheralization and decreasing regionness for
the region concerned. Changes in terms of On the global level, the changing structure
regionness thus imply changes of the structural of the world system provides room-for-maneuver
position in the center-periphery order. for the regional actors, at the same time as the
process of regionalization in itself constitutes a
The Dynamics of Regionalization structural change towards multipolarity.
The degree of "regionness" of particular
• On the level of interregional relations, the
areas can increase or decrease depending on
behavior of one region affects the behavior
regional dynamics, in which global, as well as
of others. European regionalism is, for
national/local forces of course, have an impact.
instance, the trigger of global
regionalization, at least in two different
Regionalization affects and is affected by ways: one positive (in promoting
many levels of the world system: the system as a regionalism by providing a model) the other
whole, the level of interregional relations, and the negative (in provoking regionalism by
internal structure of the single region. It is not constituting a protectionist threat).
possible to state which of these levels comes first
• The regions themselves constitute arenas
or which is the more important since changes on
for sometimes competing, sometimes
the various levels interact. There are also different
converging "national interests". If the
dimensions of the process relating to each other.
overall trend within a particular
geographical area is a convergence of
Regional integration was traditionally seen
interests, we can speak of an emerging
as a harmonization of trade policies leading to
regional actor.
deeper economic integration, with political
8
 • The actual process of regionalization is they are looked upon with suspicion and
triggered by events on the sub-national fear among the minor players).
level as well. One example is the "black
hole" syndrome or the disintegration of The policy takers can be further subdivided into:
nation-states due to ethnonational
mobilization. A less violent form of national • those who are supportive of the
disintegration is the emergence of regionalization process (sometimes the
economic micro-regions as the geopolitical smaller players are the main proponents),
environment creates a more direct access the "supporters",
to the macro economy for dynamic sub- • those who try to find their own path or,
national regions. rather, several paths (since they would be
Although the region is slowly becoming an welcome into more than one regional
actor in its own terms, the nation-states typically organization), "the multitrackers",
still conceive it as an arena where so-called • and those who are left in the cold (since
"national interests" could be promoted, and these they are seen as liabilities rather than
interests are, of course, differently conceived by assets), "the isolated".
different social groups in society. Whereas certain
groups may find it rewarding to move into the In some cases, regionalism grows from
supranational space, others cling to the national extended bilateral relations, for instance in the
space where they have their vested interests to Americas, where both NAFTA and Mercosur
protect. Regionalization thus creates its own resulted from a situation where third parties
counterforces. (Canada and Uruguay) became anxious not to be
left in the cold. The regional powers (in these cases
The Crucial Role of State Behavior the USA and Brazil) usually prefer bilateralism to
regionalism. This is also the case in South Asia,
Regionalization does not come about where the small players softly imposed regionalism
unless the states in a particular region want it. It on the regional power. India was always more in
may come about through a more or less favor of bilateralism. The same behavior seems to
spontaneous or unintended convergence in terms be repeated by China in East Asia.
of political regime, economic policy or security, but
often one can identify a triggering political event The change from bilateralism to regionalism
which sets the process in motion. Naturally, this is thus one crucial indicator of increasing
political event is related to the main players in the regionness of a region, but as here defined,
region, the policymakers, in contradistinction to increasing regionness can also result from
policy takers, the smaller players. In order to overlapping bilateral agreements within a region,
understand the regionalization in various areas of since such agreements imply policy convergences
the world, it is thus wise to observe the behavior of in various fields. It is therefore important to take the
the policymakers. point of departure in the geographical area as such,
and not from the formal regional agreements.
We can divide the policymakers into two
categories, those whose influence goes beyond a The Impact of Regionalization
particular region, the world powers, and those
whose influence is confined to a particular region, The final issue I want to discuss here
the regional powers. concerns the consequences of regionalization in
terms of security and development. What are, first,
• World powers may not be able to achieve the security problems to which regionalization may
hegemony on the world level, which, since provide a solution? They can be summarized in the
the range of their influence is undefined metaphor of "black holes", or what in UN
and varying, means that there will be a terminology is referred to as "failed states".
certain competition among them. National disintegration seems to reinforce the
• The regional powers may be hegemonic process of regionalization via threats to regional
in their own regions (which implies a security, provoking some kind of reaction on the
general acceptance or at least tolerance regional level. It may even form part of the process
of their leadership throughout the region) of regionalization, since the enlargement of political
or simply dominant (which means that space provides opportunities for different sub-
national and micro-regional forces, previously
9
locked into state structures, to reassert
themselves. Secondly, the new regionalism may
provide solutions to development problems, which
The collapse of political authority at one in fact can be seen as a form of conflict prevention,
level of society tends to open up a previously latent since many of the internal conflicts are rooted in
power struggle at lower levels, and in a complex development problems of different kinds. Under
multi-ethnic polity the process of disintegration may the old regionalism, free trade arrangements
go on almost indefinitely. However, sooner or later reproduced center-periphery tensions within the
there must be some reorganization of social power regions, which made regional organizations either
and political authority on a higher level of societal disintegrate or fall into slumber. Let me propose
organization, most probably the region. the following seven arguments in favor of a more
This is likely to be preceded by some form of comprehensive development regionalism:
external intervention with the purpose of reversing
the disintegration process. Again, the region may • Although the question of size of national
play a role, but there are also other, and so far, territory might be of lesser importance in a
more important, actors. A distinction can be made highly interdependent world, regional
between five different modes of external cooperation is nevertheless imperative,
intervention: unilateral, bilateral, plurilateral, particularly in the case of microstates,
regional and multilateral. which either have to cooperate to solve
common problems or become client states
• The unilateral can either be carried out by of the "core countries" (the "sufficient size"
a concerned neighbor trying to avoid a argument);
wave of refugees or by a
regional/superpower having strategic • Self-reliance, rarely viable on the national
interests in the region. level, may yet be a feasible development
• In the bilateral case, there is some kind of strategy at the regional, if defined as
(more or less voluntary) agreement coordination of production, improvement of
between the intervener and the country in infrastructure and making use of
which the intervention is made. complementarities (the "viable economy"
• The plurilateral variety can be an ad hoc argument);
group of countries or some more
permanent form of alliance. • Economic policies may remain more stable
• The regional intervention is carried out by and consistent if underpinned by regional
a regional organization and thus has a arrangements which cannot be broken by
territorial orientation. a participant country without provoking
• The multilateral, finally, normally means a some
UNled or at least UN-sanctioned operation. kind of sanctions from the others (the
"credibility" argument);
These distinctions are not very clear-cut,
and in real-world situations several actors at • Collective bargaining on the level of the
different levels may be involved, the number region could improve the economic
increasing with the complexity of the conflict itself. position of marginalized countries in the
However, it is my belief that future external world system, or protect the structural
interventions will be a combination of regional and position and market access of emerging
multilateral operations, but with an increasingly export countries (the "effective articulation"
important role for the former. The record of argument);
regional intervention in domestic conflicts and
regional conflict resolution is a recent one and • Regionalism can reinforce societal viability
therefore the empirical basis for making an by including social security issues and an
assessment is weak. However, in almost all world element of redistribution (by regional funds
regions there have been attempts at conflict or specialized banks) in the regionalist
resolution with a more or less significant element project (the "social stability" argument);
of regional intervention, often in combination with
multilateralism (UN involvement). Perhaps the • Ecological and political borders rarely
future world order can be characterized as regional coincide. Few serious environmental
multilateralism? problems can be solved within the
10
 framework of the nation-state. Some regional security. Here the circle is closed: regional
problems are bilateral, some are global, cooperation for development reduces the level of
quite a few are regional, the latter often conflict and the peace dividend facilitates further
related to water: coastal waters, rivers, and development cooperation. This positive circle can
groundwater. The fact that regional also be turned into a vicious circle, where conflict
management programs exist and persist, and underdevelopment feed on each other.
in spite of nationalist rivalries, shows the Security and development form one integrated
imperative need for environmental complex, at the same time as they constitute two
cooperation (the "resource management" fundamental imperatives for regional cooperation
argument); and increasing regionness. The levels of
regionness between regions in the process of
• Regional conflict resolution, if successful and being formed will continue to be uneven. Only the
durable, eliminates distorted investment future will decide where these levels will be, and
patterns, since the "security fund" (military where the balance between regionalization and
expenditures) can be tapped for more globalization will be struck. However, political will
productive use (the "peace dividend" and political action will certainly play their part in
argument). breaking the vicious circle of regional conflict,
insecurity, and underdevelopment.
In sum, development regionalism contains
the traditional arguments for regional cooperation Regionalism in "the Pacific Age"
such as territorial size and economies of scale, but,
more significantly, add some which are expressing Asia-Pacific is becoming the new center of
new concerns and uncertainties in the current global capitalism. It can also be seen as an
transformation of the world order and world emerging trade bloc under the leadership of Japan,
economy. its distinctness depending on the relative degrees
of cooperation and conflict among competing
During the Cold War, a common argument capitalisms: North America, Europe, and Asia
(the "common security" approach) against nuclear Pacific. It contains several potential regional
armament was that the destructive capacity of the formations, the shapes of which, due to unresolved
military establishments was excessive and security dilemmas, are still uncertain. It is thus not
therefore irrational and that whatever reduction of so easy to tell what is intraregional and
the level of armament that could be negotiated interregional in the case of Asia-Pacific. So far, the
might be used for civil (development) purposes. three regions within the Asia-Pacific area show a
Some regions, such as East Asia and Europe (and low degree of regionness. East Asia lacks any kind
within these regions Japan and West Germany in of formal regionalist framework. South-East Asia
particular) were seen as "free riders" of the security earlier contained two regional formations: the now
order since they could devote more resources to more or less post-Communist Indo-China and the
investment and economic growth. previously Anti-Communist ASEAN grouping. The
political rationales for these formations have thus
In the post-Cold War order, these regions completely changed, much like in Europe, and
have been encouraged to take a larger there are new possible alignments. The "European
responsibility for their own security. At the same Pacific" (Australia and New Zealand) may turn
time, the removal of the Cold War "overlay" Euro-Asian, but they may also be seen as regional
permitted latent conflicts to re-emerge, giving rise great powers in a fourth "region" of Pacific
to costly (conventional) armaments races. The microstates: the South Pacific. In the sections
security situations differ from region to region, with below we first describe the historical heterogeneity
vacuum problems in East Asia and Europe, of the Pacific region, secondly experiences of
eruptions of older conflicts in South Asia and the regional conflict and conflict resolution, and thirdly
Middle East, breakdowns of political order leading integrative forces that nevertheless exist.
to "tribalism" in Africa and the Balkans. The only
region experiencing relative peace is Latin Pacific Regions and Regional Identity
America, which now may be said to have a
comparative advantage in peace and political In the first section of this chapter, an
stability. The peace in East Asia seems less stable, argument was made that regionalization is a
but in view of the high degree of economic worldwide process forming a part of global
independence, the states have a high stake in transformation. A crucial issue is thus what

11
regional formations can be found in this particular crucial impact on further regionalization and future
geographical area, and what, if any, shared regional configurations.
cultural basis there is to form a regional identity.
The Asia Pacific area, which in itself hardly Perhaps the most complex issue in the
constitutes a region except in a purely region is the future role of Japan. Will it remain
geographical sense, contains three more distinct number two in Pax Americana or take a more
regional formations: East Asia, South-East Asia, independent global or regional role? The latter, and
and Australia/New Zealand, which, although perhaps more likely option, would imply the
physically distant from Europe, have cultural accumulation of military strength and a break with
European origins. Under the impact of successive the introverted Japanese world view. It also implies
immigrations, this heritage is becoming less reversing the process of "de-Asianization" begun in
distinct and economically the region is becoming the 19th century. The former course presupposes
part of Asia. Sixty-five percent of the Asia-Pacific that the US itself does not turn to isolationism,
trade is now intraregional (compared to 62% in the which would create great confusion as far as Japan
EC). Also, the embryonic security network (ASEAN is concerned (Tamamoto 1990). References to
Regional Forum) is extended throughout the Asia- "global partnership" cannot hide the fact that the old
Pacific area. The Pacific also includes the South security order is defunct, due to the disappearance
Pacific islands of Polynesia, Melanesia, and of the main threat, against which the order was
Micronesia, and reaches parts of the USA and built, and the emergence of new threats which may
Latin America. Although not seen as "Asian" (being necessitate new approaches. There is, as yet, no
far away from the Asian continent), the South national consensus in Japan regarding her proper
Pacific is also becoming part of the East Asian role in the world. The erosion of the hegemonic
economic space. Thus, regionalism can be position of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)
discussed in terms of maximalist and minimalist implies that different options will be more politically
regionalist options (Öjendal 1996a). articulated and possibly that future lines of action
will be based on a changing pattern of political
East Asia is the most dynamic of the world alliances. The pressure on Japan from outside also
regions, containing a hegemonic contender increases, due to the regionalist and protectionist
(Japan), an enormous "domestic" market (China), trend in the world economy.
three NICs (South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong)
and a socialist autarky (North Korea), in the midst Japan, not a great practitioner of but
of major changes which may fundamentally alter increasingly dependent on free trade, has so far
the pattern of cooperation within the region. A been rather negative or at least neutral to the idea
reunification of Korea, a democratization of China of regionalism. It would, if regionalization were to
and a more independent Japanese role would be the main trend, appear as a regional power in
release an enormous potential. These changes are more than one sense, which is bound to create
admittedly not imminent, but on the other hand suspicions throughout the region. Some countries
quite feasible. At present, the East Asian region is have the Greater East Asian Co-prosperity Sphere
a region largely in the geographical, economic and in vivid memory, and even today the Japanese
perhaps cultural (Confucian-Buddhist) sense of the attitude towards Asia is not free from arrogance. As
concept, while a regional security order is missing. in the case of Germany in the EC/EU, a
Previous experiences of "regionalism" have been comprehensive regional framework would help
rather imperialistic. The degree of "regionness" is protect Japan against itself, an Asianized Japan
thus low in spite of the fact that unplanned rather than a Japanized Asia. Japan has, however,
economic integration is now taking place due to the a rather weak identity as an Asian power, and the
dominance of the yen. Regional integration thus prospect of "reAsianization" does not seem to be
takes place without much formal institutionalization very popular. At the moment, Japan has "a regional
(Palmer 1991, p. 5). The end of the Cold War policy for Asia but not a policy of regionalism"
opened up new possibilities for inter-subregional (FEER, 18 June 1992). The latter would
contacts, widening the potential regional necessitate that Japan acted more like a powerful
cooperation. The Confucian model provides a nation-state, less like an international trading firm
dominant pattern of social and political (Pyle 1993).
organization, which now frequently is hailed as a
cultural alternative to Westernization (Herald Much will, of course, depend on the future
Tribune, 13 July 1992). Many countries are facing behavior of China in the region. China will continue
internal basic policy options which will have a the long road towards a more open economy in
12
spite of the temporary isolation which followed in Stable peace in the larger region would
the wake of the Tiananmen Square incident. change the basic parameters for the way ASEAN
China's self-reliance-oriented economy built in the operates at present. As the superpowers pull out,
Cold War context is in need of transformation, old rivalries are emerging, at the same time as the
which (as in the case of Viet Nam) implies a objective preconditions for a cooperation
change in the domestic balance of power away encompassing the whole region in the longer run
from Beijing and towards the south, where foreign are improving. This trend will be reinforced by great
investments flow. Guangdong Province is forging power ambitions in the larger Asia-Pacific area,
links with Hong Kong, Fujian with Taiwan, Japan where South-East Asia is sandwiched between
invests primarily in the Shanghai area, and South East Asian (China, Japan) and South Asian (India)
Korea in Shandong Province. China as a regional powers. There is a strong feeling of
centralized empire is probably doomed, but its encirclement and external penetration in the South-
eventual dissolution could hopefully be less East Asian region, coexisting with a tradition of
turbulent than the dissolution of the Soviet empire reliance on external security support. Somehow
proved to be. this contradiction must be overcome.

Regional Conflict Management The Cambodian conflict has been of major

concern for the ASEAN countries and has been
Asia-Pacific is a Cold War-era par compared to a "Bosnia" in the region (FEER, 27
preference. This means that previous conflicts May 1993). The history goes much further back,
have had a strong element of external superpower actually to the Viet Nam war. The ultra-leftist Khmer
intervention in accordance with the Cold War Rouge regime pursued an extreme autarkic line
pattern. This situation is now changing quite which included the physical elimination of urban
dramatically, and more traditional rivalries are ("cosmopolitan") elements. The first intervention
resurging, more similar to a 19th-century Europe- was of the unilateral (neighborly) kind. The
type situation. The larger Asia-Pacific "region" (or Vietnamese intervention led to a sharp polarization
rather geographical area) was most affected by the both at the regional and the global level. In 1991,
Cold War, and the recent lifting of the superpower when the Soviet veto had disappeared from
overlay, therefore, has created a kind of vacuum international decision making, an agreement in the
and a great uncertainty in the security field. Security Council (permanent five) on the
Several powers (great powers and middle powers) "framework for a comprehensive settlement of the
have more or less open regional ambitions, which Cambodia conflict" was reached and the United
must be related to turbulent and highly Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
unpredictable domestic situations in the countries (UNTAC) was created. This, the largest UN
concerned. Regarding the China-Japan relation, operation so far, was the beginning of the peace
Barry Buzan has made an interesting comparison process and included a democratic election. The
with the role of restless Germany, now played by non-participation of the Khmer Rouge in the
China, in 19th century Europe, whereas the British elections fueled the fears that the guerrillas
role as the global power fully satisfied with the planned a division of the country. However, their
status quo is played by Japan (Buzan 1996). The political strength was much less than generally
avoidance of a replay of this drama is obviously expected. They had become "rebels without a
necessary for regional peace. Korean unification is cause" (Theyer 1995). The turnout of the voters, on
another key to real regional cooperation. the other hand, was much larger than expected and
Considering the economic superiority of South was a triumph for the UN. The operation gave an
Korea and the political lag in North Korea, such a opportunity for Japan to participate in a large
reunion may take different forms: war, a international operation, probably indicating a more
spontaneous process of the German type (an far going security interest in the region. For
"Anschluss") or a more organized path through Cambodia, several question marks remain, above
preparatory negotiations. Regional conflict all the question of how the Khmer Rouge may rejoin
management is thus an important step towards the national community and on what conditions.
further regionalization. At the same time the overall Only when this problem has found a solution, is it
regional framework for conflict resolution is weak, possible to talk about real conflict resolution. So far
hardly existing in East Asia, and so far, confined to this is rather a case of multilateral conflict
one of the two subregions in South-East Asia. management with a strong regional component.
Cambodia has strongly declared its intention to
become a member of ASEAN, and this co-optation
13
(which can be compared to the inclusion of Greece, latter can be exemplified by ethnic tensions
Spain, and Portugal in the EEC) is also seen by the (Malaysia, the Philippines) and the former by old
regional organization as a stabilizing measure. territorial disputes (Indonesia vs. Malaysia), as well
Whether this implies the survival of democracy as contrasting views on regional security
(particularly of the kind imposed by the UN) (Singapore vs. Indonesia and Malaysia). As in
remains to be seen (Öjendal 1996b). Europe, the dismantling of the Cold War system
will change the pattern of conflict rather than
Towards Regional Cohesion eliminate the conflicts. We can, therefore, expect
more relaxation between the two subregions, but
East Asia and South-East Asia are, due to more conflicts within them. Possibly the ASEAN
economic linkages, becoming hard to separate framework is now strong enough to deal with them.
from each other, and will be even more converging The recent ASEAN meeting in Manila, for instance,
in the future, as countries such as Malaysia and addressed the tension over the Spratly Islands in
Thailand (apart from Singapore, which is already the South China Sea, which triggered a wider
known as a NIC) are more or less successfully ASEAN interest to discuss a future security
trying to apply the NIC strategy. Thus, the Asian arrangement "in the post-Cambodia era" (The
core of the Pacific rim, east, and south-east, will Nation, Bangkok, 23 July 1992). Ad hoc
probably follow its own economic course. consultations may no longer be sufficient (Leifer
1992).
South-East Asia, like Europe, has been
divided into two economic and political blocs: The countries in ASEAN could be
ASEAN (Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, described as capitalist in economic terms and
Malaysia, the Philippines, and Brunei) which has conservative in political terms, although, for
existed since 1967, and the "Indochinese" area instance, Singapore and Indonesia differ
(Vietnam, Kampuchea and Laos). The latter significantly in their economic policies. The
subregion has been under Communist rule, with organization assumed importance as a regional
Vietnam exercising sub-regional hegemony. This organization only after 1975 when there were
role is now played down at the same time as increasing political uncertainties in the region. The
market-oriented economic policies (daimio) are economic integration that has taken place so far is
implemented. Vietnam, and behind it the Soviet rather modest, and the figure for intraregional trade
Union, was earlier seen as a threat by the ASEAN is only about 20 percent. The external dependence
countries. This threat was a crucial factor behind on Japan is felt to be problematic.
the relative cohesiveness of the organization in the
Cold War era. The source of common cause and The national economies are outward-
identity was thus partly an external threat, and oriented, and the political systems are formally
there were few incentives for economic democratic or semi democratic but in practice
cooperation. Only recently (January 1993) a free more or less authoritarian. The Confucian model
trade agreement, AFTA, within the 330-million- has a strong impact on this region as well, so
people ASEAN region was agreed to be realized authoritarianism, in fact, constitutes the
within a fifteen-year period. The planned tariff homogenizing political factor. The ASEAN
slopes of the different countries differ according to countries are in various phases on a NIC-type
starting point and speed, which complicates the development path. Problems in the international
competitive situation in the intraregional trade of market usually reinforce domestic authoritarianism
the constituent countries. The more protectionist due to the strong two-way causal relationship
countries will probably use AFTA to dump into between economic growth and political stability.
more open economies. Many therefore doubt that Economic growth and redistribution are a
this free trade zone will be realized. ASEAN precondition for ethnic peace, political stability a
countries are direct competitors in many areas and precondition for the economic confidence
it will take a long time for them to develop into expressed by international capital towards the
complementary economies. From the very region.
beginning, ASEAN was a political, rather than
economic, organization (Yamakage, 1990), and Australia and New Zealand, although
now the political preconditions have changed. geographically distant from Europe, have
European, and particularly British, origins. Under
In fact, there are strong inter-state, as well the impact of successive immigrations, the
as intra-state, tensions in the two subregions. The European heritage is becoming less distinctive.
14
Economically, they are becoming part of Asia and expansion as its main goal. Similar to the "Atlantic
dependent on Japan. Australia's exports to Britain project" in Europe, it is a trans-regional network
have fallen from 32% (in 1950) to a mere 3% today. providing a bridge for the USA in the area, and
Sixty percent of exports now go to Asia. The therefore supported by US-oriented regimes and
leaders are, consequently, promoting a republican opposed by spokesmen for a genuinely Asian
Australia less attached to Britain and more involved regionalism. From the US point of view APEC, like
in Asia, but this involvement obviously has its limits. NAFTA in the Americas, is a continuation of its
The term "open regionalism" is often used for strategy of bilateralism. Again, we meet the two
regional trade arrangements that do not hurt third distinct understandings of regionalism:
parties. The ASEAN countries are still not (1) a way of managing multilateralism and
convinced about the goodwill of the two European (2) a challenge to multilateralism.
Asians, and as an editorial in The New Straits
Times puts it "first it must prove that it is proud to So far, the first conception predominates in
be part of Asia" (quoted from EPW, 24 April 1993). Asia-Pacific. The idea of any kind of more
Australia is publicly criticizing the regionalist project introverted regionalism is thus very controversial in
of creating an East Asian Economic Caucus a region extremely dependent on unhindered world
(EAEC), which is a proposition from the South-East trade, and the debate is carried out merely in terms
Asian region while backing the much looser Asia of an "insurance policy" (FEER, 25 July 1991).
Pacific Economic
ASSESSMENT TASK No. 2
Cooperation (APEC). Politically they are thus still
INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY
not quite part of the region, and there has also been
50 points!
a discussion on Australia joining NAFTA (Bangkok
Post, 12 Sept. 1992). The Australian attitude to Activity: Discovering Asia
Europe is becoming increasingly negative.
Similarly, New Zealand is one of the major victims
of European agricultural protectionism.

In 1990 the Malaysian Prime Minister

Mahathir (in frustration over drawn-out GATT
negotiations) urged Japan to act as a leader of an
East Asian Economic Grouping (EAEG), which
would create an East Asian and South-East Asian Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, The Taj Mahal, Agra, India
super bloc with a Sino-Japanese core. EAEG (it (1632-1653)
has since been modestly renamed the East Asia
Economic Caucus - EAEC) would be a sort of “The world is a book, and those who do not
response to the European and North American travel read only a page,” so said Saint Augustine.
"fortresses". The EAEC proposal is slowly gaining In this activity, students will spend time exploring
support among other ASEAN countries, whereas the Internet, and try to look for and get at least FIVE
the East Asian countries, particularly Japan and interesting images of places in Asia. The goal of
South Korea, have taken a more skeptical attitude. this activity is to help students be familiar with and
So have the USA and the World Bank. According appreciate the different places located in our
to a World Bank report (Sustaining Rapid continent.
Development), East Asia can strengthen regional
integration through trade liberalization and Materials Needed
promotion of foreign direct investment within the A laptop computer, MS PowerPoint
framework of the multilateral trading system. "A
trading block would more likely foster an inward Method
orientation, impairing the worldwide search for 1. Search the Internet and obtain at least FIVE
market opportunities that has served East Asia so pictures about the places located in Asia.
well" (quoted from the Bangkok Post, 15 April 1993, 2. Describe each picture in 10 words by describing
p. 25). its subject or content.
3. Create a Power Point Presentation.
A more comprehensive alternative is thus 4. Present your pictures using power point and
the 15member-strong forum for Asia Pacific write your description at the bottom of each
Economic Cooperation (APEC), which was set up picture.
in 1989 with regional and interregional trade
15
5. Send/Upload your done PPT to our Private FB
Group.

SUMMARY
Regionalism is a performative
discourse. It seeks to achieve legitimacy for
definitions of boundaries and to obtain
approval for this definition in cultural and
political, and popular and official
understandings. Thus, regionalism is
concerned with giving meaning to bounded
material and symbolic worlds in an effort to
create intersubjective meanings. Regionalism
concerns process and story, more than
artifact. It is concerned with emphasizing the
moral particularity of a population bounded by
territory and with valorizing regional culture as
a mean to create regional identity.
Regionalism is frequently linked to
“topophilia,” that is, to the existence of
affective bonds between a people and place
or setting.

References

• Steger, Manfred B., Paul Battershy, and

Joseph M. Siracusa, eds. 2014. The Sage
Handbook of Globalization. Two Volumes.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

• Castillo, Joy. 2021. Modules in the

Contemporary World with SARS Education
and HIV/AIDS Awareness, University of
Eastern Philippines, Laoang Campus.

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