Fire Service Pump Operators Handbook (Warren E. Isman)

Fire
Service
PUDlP
Operators
Handbook
Warren E. Isman
Fire Chief, Fairfax County (VA) Fire and Rescue Service
FIRE"E.taSiNEERING"
A PennWell Publication
i.
Dedication
The writing of a textbook takes a great deal of time during which many chores get neglected. This neglect
is hardest on a family. So, for their understanding and help during this hectic period I am dedicating this
book to my wife Marguerite, and my children Emily, Susan, Amy, Kenneth, Matthew, Janet, David, Carla,
and Theodore.
Disclaimer
The recommendations, advise, descriptions, and the methods in this book are presented solely for educational
purposes. The author and publisher assume no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage that results from the
use of any of the material in this book. Use of the material in this book is solely at the risk of the user.
Copyright © 1984 by
PennWell Corporation
1421 South Sheridan Road
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74112-6600 USA
800.752.9764
+1.918.831.9421
sales@pennwell.com
www.pennwellbooks.com
www.pennwell.com
www.FireEngineeringBooks.com
Director: Mary McGee
Managing Editor: Jerry Naylis
Production/Operations Manager: Traci Huntsman
Isman, Warren E.
Fire Service Pump Operator’s Handbook / By Warren E. Isman
ISBN-13: 978-0-87814-905-6
ISBN-10: 0-87814-905-8
The Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver-Operator Professional Qualifications, Chapter 3, NFPA
1002-1982, copyright 1982, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy MA 02269, reprinted
with permission. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the
referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, without the
prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America

3 4 5 6 7 8 12 11 10 09 08
IsmanCopyrtpg.indd 1 9/1/08 11:30:41 AM

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iii.
Preface
Today's pump grew out of a basic need-the need to get water on fire as
quickly and efficiently as possible.
The advancements made through the centuries dictated the need for a
pump operator, which has become a full-time specialization. With today's
highly sophisticated equipment, a fire apparatus driver/operator must meet
certain performance standards set forth by the National Fire Protection
Association.
This book provides the information necessary to efficiently operate a fire
department pumper and to meet the requirements set forth in Chapter 3 of the
NFPA 1002 Standard, Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifica-
tions 1982, "Apparatus Equipped With a Fire Pump."
Starting with the basics (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and
working through fractions, ratios and hydraulics, this book discusses the dif-
ferent types of pumps; the equipment carried on or attached to a pumper and
their testing and maintenance; nozzle reactions; pressure control systems;
priming devices; the different operations for drawing water from various
sources; and driver training.
In the interest of providing a step-by-step progression, not all the paragraphs
in NFPA Standard 1002 are dealt with in the order set forth in the standard.
Water movement, flows, and a review of equations and definitions are
covered in the appendices at the back of the book.
iv.
Contents
Chapter Page
Preface
1 Basic Mathematical Operations 1
2 Fractions 9
3 Algebra 24
4 Ratio, Proportion, Percentage, Powers and Roots 33
5 The Metric System and Fire Service Hydraulics 43
6 Fireground Hydraulics 47
7 Introduction to Pump Operations 75
8 Positive Displacement Pumps 80
9 Centrifugal Pumps 90
10 Pump Drives 117
11 Pump, Cab, Body Components 128
12 Nozzle Reaction 141
13 Pressure Control Systems 144
14 Priming Devices 169
15 Drafting Operations 182
16 Hydrant Supply and Operations 189
17 Relay Operations 201
18 Sprinkler and Standpipe Operations 209
19 Tanker and Portable Pump Operations 225
20 Testing and Maintenance 234
21 Driver Training 247
Appendix
A Understanding Fluids 252
B Water Movement 256
C Quantity of Water Flowing 265
D Equations 271
E Definitions 272
Index 277 v.
Chapter 1
Basic Mathematical
Operations
Many firefighters, faced with the opportunity of becoming a pumper/driver,
become concerned because of the calculations that will be necessary to operate
the pump correctly. Firefighters who have been out of school for some time are
afraid that they will not remember some of the basics of mathematics. For
those who are worried, this chapter is presented as a review. Read it carefully,
for it provides the foundation for all of the calculations in this book.
There are two common systems that can be used to express numbers-
Arabic and Roman. The one most commonly used. and the one more familiar
to firefighters is the Arabic system. The Arabic system is based on 10 figures
called digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. By using these digits in various
combinations, any number can be expressed.
The value of the figure is dependent upon the location of the digit within the
number. A mark, called a decimal point, is used to separate whole numbers
from parts of a whole number. Whole numbers are written to the left of the
decimal point, while parts of a whole number are written to the right of the
decimal point.
The place names for the digits are:
M H T T H T U T H T
I U E H U E N E U H
L N N 0 N N I N N 0
L D U D S T T D U
I R T S R S H R S
0 E H A E S E A
N D 0 N D D N
S U D S T D
T S S H T
H A S H
0 N S
U D
S S
A
N
D
S
Using this system, the number 1296317.845 would be read as one million,
two hundred ninety-six thousand, three hundred seventeen and eight hundred
forty-five thousandths. 1
PUMP OPERATORS HANDBOOK
Another important part of mathematics is the shorthand symbols that are

used to indicate the mathematical operations to be performed. The symbols
used for this text are:
Symbol Word Meaning Example
+ plus addition 5+7= 12
minus subtraction 7-5=2
x times multiplication 5x7=35
+,/ divide division 6+3=2
10/5=2
equals equality 3+2=4+1
0 parentheses perform the operation (3 + 2) x (4 + 1) = 5 x 5 x 25
contained within
o0 parentheses multiplication (3 + 2) (5 - 3) = 5 x 2 = 10
ADDITION
Addition is c0mbining two or more numbers to yield one answer, the sum.
The steps for addition are:
Step 1. Write the numbers one under each other, with all the unit digits in
the unit column, the tens digits in the tens column, the hundreds in the hun-
dreds column, etc.
Step 2. Add all the digits in the units column. If the total is greater than 9,
write the unit digit of the total in the unit column and carry the other digits to
the tens column.
Step 3. Add all the digits in the tens column, including the digits carried
from the unit column. If the total is greater than 9, write the unit digit in the tens
column and carry the other digits to the hundreds column.
Step 4. Continue to add each column, carrying forward the digits greater
than 9.
Example: Four pumpers on the fireground are supplying 526 gpm,

738 gpm, 1226 gpm, and 946 gpm. What is the total amount of water
being supplied?
Step 1. Arrange vertically 526

738
1226
946
212
Step 2. Add the units column. The 6
number 26 is greater than 9 so the 6 is
written in the unit column and the 2 is
carried to the tens column.
Step 3. Add the tens column. The 3
number 13 is greater than 9 so the 3 is
written in the tens column and the 1 is
carried to the hundreds column.
Step 4. Add the hundreds column. 4
The number 24 is greater than 9 so the
4 is written in the hundreds column
and the 2 is carried to the thousands
column.
Step 5. Add the thousands column. 3
2 3436
BASIC MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS
The total flow at the fireground is three thousand four hundred and thirty-six
gallons per minute.
Addition should always be checked by adding the digits in reverse order. If
the original was added from top to bottom, check your work by adding from
bottom to top.
Two-rules for performing mathematical operations of addition are:
Rule 1: If a and b are used to represent any two numbers, then it can be said
that a + b = b + a. This is called the commutative rule of addition and means
that the order of addition is reversible.
Rule 2: If a, b, and c are used to represent any three numbers, then it can
be said that a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. This is called the associative rule of addition
and means that addition can be performed in any sequence. This is the rule
that permits addition to be checked by adding the digits in the rev~rse order.
MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication is a simplified process of adding the same number a given
number of times. For example, 15 added together three times will equal 45.
This can be accomplished either by
Addition or Multiplication
15 15
15 x 3
15 45
45
The terms used for multiplication are:

Multiplicand x Multiplier = Product
In performing multiplication operations, it does not matter which number is
written first, the product is always the same. Thus, you may write 15 x 3 = 45,
or 3 x 15 = 45. (Refer to rule 3 later in chapter.) For ease of operations,
however, it is usually best to use the smaller number for the multiplier. The
steps for multiplication are:
Step 1. Place the multiplier below the multiplicand, with the unit digits in
the unit column, tens digits in the tens column, etc.
Step 2. Use the unit digit of the muliplier and multiply the unit digit of the
multiplicand with it. If the resultant number is greater than 9, write its unit digit
in the units column and carryover the other digits to the tens column of the
multiplicand.
Step 3. Use the unit digit of the multiplier and multiply the tens digit of the
multiplicand with it. Add the carryover from step 2. If the resultant number is
greater than nine, write its unit digit in the tens column and carryover the other
digit to the hundreds column of the multiplicand.
Step 4. Continue this process until all the digits of the multiplicand have
been multiplied by the unit digit of the multiplier.
Step 5. Use the tens digit of the multiplier and multiply the unit digit of the
multiplicand with it. If the resultant number is greater than 9, write its tens digit
in the tens column and carryover the other digits to the hundreds column of
the multiplicand. 3
Step 6. Continue this process until all the digits of the multiplicand have
been multiplied by the tens digit of the multiplier.
Step 7. Continue until all digits of the multiplier have been used.
Step 8. Add the resultant figures in each column.
Example: If a particular pump can deliver 248 gpm, how much

water can the pumper supply in 23 minutes?
Step 1. Arrange multiplier and multiplicand:
248
x 23
Step 2. Use the units digit of the multiplier and multiply the units digit of the
multiplicand (3 x 8 = 24). Write the 4 in the units column and carry the 2 to the
tens column of the multiplicand:
2
248
x 23
4
Step 3. Use the unit digit of the multiplier and multiply the tens digit of the
multiplicand (4 x 3 = 12). Then add the 2 that was carried over from step 1
(12 + 2 = 14). Write the 4 in the tens column and carry the 1 to the hundreds
column.
1
248
x 23
44
Step 4. Use the units digit of the multiplier and multiply the hundreds digit
of the multiplicand with it (3 x 2 = 6). Now add the 1 carried from step 3
(6 + 1 = 7). Write the 7 in the hundreds column.
12
248
x 23
744
Step 5. Use the tens digit of the multiplier and multiply the units digit of the
multiplicand with it (2 x 8 = 16). Write the 6 in the tens column and carry the 1
to the tens column of the multiplicand:
1
248
x 23
744
6
Step 6. Continue the process until all the digits of the multiplicand have
4 been multiplied by all the digits of the multiplier:
1
248
x 23
744
496
Step 7. Add the resultant figures:
248
x 23
744
496
5704 gallons
Multiplication can be checked by reversing the multiplier and the multi-
plicand.
In order to be proficient in the multiplication process, the student must
memorize the multiplication tables from 1 through 12.
Three rules for performing mathematical operations of multiplication are:
Rule 3: If a and b are used to represent any two numbers, then it can be said
that a x b = b x a. This is called the commutative rule of multiplication and
means that the order of multiplication is reversible.
be said that (a x b) xc = a x (b x c). This is called the associative rule of
multiplication and means that the multiplication can be performed in any
sequence.
be said that a x (b + c) = (a x b) + (a x c). This is called the distributive rule of
multiplication.
SUBTRACTION
Subtraction is the opposite process of addition and is used to determine the
difference between two quantities. In performing subtraction, the larger
number (the minuend) is placed on top, while the number to be subtracted (the
subtrahend) is placed on the bottom. The steps for subtraction are:
Step 1. Write the minuend on top and the subtrahend on the bottom, being
sure that the units column, tens column, etc., line up.
Step 2. Start with the units column and subtract the subtrahend from the
minuend.
Step 3. Continue sutracting in the other columns.
Example: A pumper is delivering 362 gpm through two lines to the

fireground. One line, supplying 251 gpm is shut down. How much
water is still being delivered to the fireground?
Step 1. Write the minuend and subtrahend:
362
-251
111 gpm
minuend.
Step 3. Continue the subtraction of the other columns. 5
Sometimes, however, even though the subtrahend is smaller than the min-
uend, individual digits of the subtrahend are larger. When this happens, 10
units must be borrowed from the preceding column. This is possible because a
number like 481 can be written:
400 + 80 + 1
400 + 70 + 11
390 + 90 + 1
In the second_ case, 10 was borrowed from the tens column and added to
the units column. In the third case, 10 was borrowed from the hundreds col-
umn and added to the tens column.
Example: If a pump is supplying a discharge pressure of 192 psi,

there is a friction loss of 87 psi. What is the remaining pressure at the
nozzle?
Step 1. Write the minuend and subtrahend:
192
- 87
minuend. Since the 7 is larger than the 2, borrow from the tens column
(12-7 =5):
8 12
1 .9""%
8 7
5
Step 3. Continue subtracting in the other columns (8 - 8 = 0) and

(1-0= 1):
8 12
1..9"Z
8 7
1 0 5
Subtraction can be checked by adding the answer and the subtrahend. This
sum should equal the minuend.
DIVISION
Division is a simplified process of subtracting the same number a given
number of times. For example, if 15 were subtracted from 45, and repeated
three times, there would be no remainder.
45 - 15 = 30
30 - 15 = 15
15 - 15 = 0
Another way of explaining division is how many times one number is con-
tained in another number. The expressions used for division are:
Dividend - the number to be divided
6 Divisor - the number to divide by
Quotient - the answer

Remainder - the extra amound of the quotient that is not less than the
divisor and therefore not a whole number.
Dividend = Quotient + Remainder

Divisor Divisor
Quotient + Remainder
Divisor ) Dividend
The steps for division are:

Step 1. Write the numbers as a division problem.
Step 2. Determine the largest possible number, that when multiplied by the
divisor, will not be more than the dividend.
Step 3. Subtract the product of step 2 from the dividend.
Step 4. Bring down the next digit from the dividend.
Step 5. Repeat steps 2 and 3.
Step 6. Continue the process until all the digits of the dividend are used.
Step 7. If the final number resulting from the subtraction is not zero, then
the division cannot be done evenly. This final number is the remainder.
Example: If 8236 gpm are needed on the fireground and 14

pumpers are available to supply it, how much water must each
pump?
Step 1. Write the numbers as a division problem:
14 )8236
Step 2. Determine the largest possible number that, when multiplied by the
divisor, will not be more than the dividend (5 x 14 = 70).
5
14 )8236
70
Step 3. Subtract the product of step 2 from the dividend (82 - 70 = 12) .
5
14 )8236
70
12
Step 4. Bring down the next digit from the dividend (3):
5
14 )8236
70
123
divisor, will not be more than the dividend (8 x 14 = 112). 7
58
14 }8236
70
123
112
Step 6. Subtract the product of step 5 from the dividend (123 - 112 = 11) .
58
14 }8236
70
123
112
11
Step 7. Bring down the next digit from the dividend (6):
58
14 )8236
70
123
112
116
divisor, will not be more than the dividend (8 x 14 = 112):
588
14 }8236
70
123
112
116
112
Step 9. Subtract the product of step 8 from the dividend (116 - 112 = 4).
This difference of 4 is the remainder. Each pumper will be required to supply
588 gpm.
588
14 }8236
70
123
112
116
112
4
8
Chapter 2
Fractions
In addition to whole numbers, the firefighter must also be able to handle
computations involving parts of a whole number-expressed as a fraction.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify and demonstrate the use
of fractions, percentages, and decimal fractions in mathematical calculations as
required to solve fire department pumper hydraulic problems."·
If the line and the circle below are divided into four parts, then one part
would be 1/4 of the total. Two parts would be 2/4, three parts would be 3/4,
and four parts would be 4/4, or the whole amount.
~4.
With this explanation then, the fraction line indicates division. The bottom
number, called the denominator, shows the number of equal parts that the
whole is divided into. The numerator is the top number and shows how many
equal parts of the whole have been taken to make a fraction.
Other terms used to define particular types of fractions are:
Common fraction: A fraction that has both the numerator and denominator
expressed as whole numbers.
Proper fraction: A fraction whose numerator is smaller than its denominator.
Improper fraction: A fraction whose numerator is larger than or equal to its
denominator.
Complex (compound) fraction: A fraction in which numerator or
denominator or both are expressed as a fraction:
Paragraph 304.6. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982. Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Profes-
sional Qualifications. Copyright© 1982. National Fire Protection Association. Quincy. Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted 9
material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject. which is represented only by the
standard in its entirety.
3
_5_= 3 +~
2 5 5
5
Mixed number: A number which contains a whole number and a fraction.

Reducing common fractions
Fractions can be handled more easily if they are in their lowest terms. This
means that they are expressed as simply as possible.
The rule for reducing fractions:
Rule 6: If the numerator and denominator are both multiplied or divided by
the same number, the value of the fraction will not change.
Example: Reduce 9/12 to lowest terms.
Step 1. Select the largest number that will divide evenly into both the
numerator and denominator. (Answer-3)
Step 2. Divide the numerator and denominator by this number (9 + 3 = 3;
12+3=4).
9+3 3
12+3 4
Therefore, 3/4 is the fraction expressed in simplest terms.
Reducing improper fractions

Example: Reduce 28 to lowest terms.
6
Step 1. Divide the numerator by the denominator (28 + 6 = 4 : ):
_4_
6 )28
24
4
Step 2. Reduce the proper fraction to its lowest terms (4 + 2 = 2; 6 + 2 = 3) :
4+2 =~
6+2 3
Step 3. The fraction can now be expressed as the mixed number 4 2/3.
Sometimes it is necessary to change a mixed number to an improper fraction
to perform a mathematical operation.
Example: Change 8 3/4 to an improper fraction.
Step 1. Multiply the whole number by the denominator of the fraction

(8 x 4=32):
8%
10 8x4=32
FRACTIONS
Step 2. Add the numerator to the product obtained in step 1 (32 + 3 = 35) .
8x4+3=35
Step 3. Place the result over the denominator. The improper fraction is
35
4·
8x4+3 = 35
4 4
Adding fractions
The firefighter will come in contact with drawings and specifications that will
contain whole numbers, common fractions and mixed numbers. Here's how
these combinations are handled so that they can be added.
Example: A nozzle has tips with the following diameters available:

3/4,7/8, 1, 11/2, 11/4 and 1 1/8 Inches. What is the sum of the
nozzle diameters?
Step 1. To add fractions, all the denominators must be the same. This
means finding the smallest number that can be divided by all the
denominators, which is 8.
Step 2. Divide this denominator, called the lowest common denominator
(LCD), by the denominator of the first fraction 3/4 (8 + 4 = 2) .
Step 3. Multiply the numerator and denominator of the first fraction by the
quotient obtained in step 2 (3 x 2 = 6; 4 x 2 = 8):
Step 4. Those fractions already expressed in terms of the lowest common

denominator do not change:
7 and 1
8 8
Step 5. Continue putting the other functions in terms of the lowest common
denominator:
-1 x-=-
4 4
2 4 8
Multiply the numerator and denominator by the quotient obtained in step 2:
-1 x-=-
2 2
4 2 8 11
Step 6. Write the fractions and whole numbers in a vertical column:

6
8
7
8
1
1~
8
11-
8
1l
8
Step 7. Add numerators of fractions:
6 + 7 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 20
Step 8. Place result over lowest common denominator:
20
8
Step 9. Reduce to lowest possible terms:
-20
= 2 -4= 2 -
1
8 8 2
Step 10. Add column of whole numbers:
1+1+1+1=4
Step 11. Add the sum of the fractions:
4+2l=~
2 2
Subtracting fractions -
The need for understanding the subtraction of fractions is also necessary for
pump operations.
Subtracting proper fractions

Example: Subtract 5/64 from 23/32.
Step 1. Determine the lowest common denominator-64.

Step 2. Write the fractions, in terms of the lowest common denominator, in
a vertical column:
23 x 2 46
=
32 2 64
5 = 5
12 64 64
FRACTIONS
Step 3. Subtract the numerators:
46-5=41
Step 4. Place the r~ult over the lowest common denominator:
41
64
Subtracting mixed numbers from mixed numbers
Example: Subtract 2 13/64 from 5 5/32.
Step 1. Determine the lowest common denominator: 64.

Step 2. Write the fraction, in terms of the lowest common denominator, in
a vertical column:
52 x 1.. = 510
32 2 64
213 = 213
64 64
Step 3. If the numerator of the number to be subtracted (13) is larger than

the numerator of the other fraction (10), then one unit (~:)must be borrowed:
510 = 4 + 64 + 10
64 64 64
= 474
64
Step 4. Subtract the numerators of the fractions (74 -13 = 61) and the
whole numbers (4 - 2 = 2).
4 74
64
2 13
64
2 61
64
Step 5. Place the fraction result over the lowest common denominator:
61
64
Step 6. The resulting mixed number is the answer:
2 61
64 13
Multiplying fractions
As in the muliplication of whole numbers, multiplication of fractions is a
simplified process of adding the same fractions given amount of times.
Example: Multiply 23/4 by 5 1/3.
Step 1. Change mixed numbers to improper fractions:
2~ = 4x2+3 = 11
4 4 4
s1- = 3x5+1 = 16
3 3 3
Step 2. Write the problem as a multiplication problem:
11 x 16
4 3
Step 3. Multiply the numerators:
11 x 16= 176.
Step 4. Multiply the denominators:
4x3= 12.
Step 5. Write the new fraction:
176
12
Step 6. Reduce the fractions to the lowest terms:
176+ 12= 14~ = 14.£

12 3
Rule 6 states that the numerator and the denominator could both be di-
vided by the same number without changing the value of the fraction. Using
this rule, the multiplication process can be simplified by using the method
called cancellation.
Example: Multiply 2 3/4 by 5 1/3.
Step 1. Change mixed numbers to improper fractions:
2.~ = 4x2+3 11
4 4 4
s1- =
3 x 5 + 1 = 16
14 333
FRACTIONS

11 x 16
4 3
Step 3. Select a number that is common to any numerator and any

denominator (4).
Step 4. Divide the numerator and denominator by this factor: 4+4= 1;
16+4=4:
4
~x 16
.If' 3
1
Step 5. Multiply the numerators:
11x4=44
Step 6. Multiply the denominators:
1x3=3
Step 7. Write the new fraction:
44
3
Step 8. Reduce the fraction to lowest terms:
44+3= 142/3
Dividing fractions
Division of fractions, like division of whole numbers, is the process of deter-
mining how many times one number is contained in another.
Dividing proper fractions

Example: Divide 3/8 by 1/4.
Step 1. Write out the division problem:
~+l
8 4
Step 2. Invert the divisor:
~x..i
8 1 15
Step 4. Find the number that is common to any numerator and

denominator (4 is common to 8 and 4) and divide by this factor:
1
~x;(
fir 1
2
Step 5. Multiply numerators and denominators (3 x 1 = 3; 2 x 1 = 2):
-3
x1 3
-= -
212
~= 1.1..
2 2
Dividing mixed numbers

Example: Divide 6 7/8 by 47/32.
Step 1. Change the mixed numbers to improper fractions:
~ = 8x6+7 = 55
8 8 8
~ = 32x4+7 = 135
32 32 32
Step 2. Write out the division problem:
55
- ...... -
135
-
8 32
Step 3. Invert the divisor and write the problem as a multiplication problem.
55 x~
8 135
Step 4. Find the number that is common to any numerator and
denominator (8 is common to 8 and 32; 5 is common to 55 and 135) and
divide by these factors:
11 4
~x~
Z 135
1 27
Step 5. Multiply numerators and denominators (11 x 4 = 44; 27 x 1):
11 x ~ 44
16 1 27 27
FRACTIONS
44 117
27 27
Decimal fractions
A common fraction indicates division. If this division is actually carried out,
the resulting answer is a decimal fraction.
A decimal fraction can be considered as a common fraction with a
denominator that is either 10 or a power of 10 (100, 1000, 10,000, etc.). A
power of 10 means 10 times itself a specific number of times (10 x 10 = 100;
10 x 10 x 10= 1000; lOx 10 x lOx 10= 10,000).
The denominator in a decimal fraction is replaced by a period called a
decimal point. Digits written to the left of the decimal point represent whole
numbers. Each movement of one digit to the left increases the value of the digit
by a power of 10. Digits to the right of the decimal point represent decimal frac-
tions and each movement to the right decreases the value of the digit by a
power of 10. As earlier discussed, the place values to the right of the decimal
point are:
(j)
(j)
::c
r-
Cl Cl
Z (j) Z
<t:
(j) (j)
::c <t:
r- ::> (j)
::> Cl (j) (j)Cl
0 z<t: ::c ::c z 0
r- <t: ::c
(j)
::c r- ::c
r- r- Cl ::> r- :c
(j)
(j) Cl (j) (j)
(j) Cl ::> z Cl Cl z 0 Ll.lCl r-
Z Ll.l 0 <t: Ll.l (j) Ll.l <t: Z
::c :r:
-
0
......I
......I
0::
Cl
Z
::> Z
r- ::>
:r:
Ll.l
(j)
0
0::
Cl
z Z
::>
(j)
(j)
!::::
Z
::c
r-
Z
0::
Cl
(j)
::>
z 0 Z ::> :J
Ll.l ::c Ll.l
::>
r-
......I
0::
Cl
Z
0
~ ::c r- r- ::c Ll.l

r- ::> r- ::c r- r- ::c ~
2, 5 8 9, 6 3 4 5 1 4 9 8 7
If the number 333,333 were written, all the digits are the same, but does
each digit have the same value? The value of each digit depends on its location
within the number. The number can be expressed as:
300= 3x 100
30= 3x 10
3= 3x1
decimal point •
3 tenths = 3x 1/10
3 hundredths = 3 x 1/100
3 thousandths = 3x 1/1000
Three hundred thirty-three and three hundred thirty-three thousandths

(333 333/1000)
The numerator of the decimal fraction is the digits to the right of the decimal
point. The denominator of a decimal fraction is a 1 followed by one zero for
each digit in the decimal fraction: 17
Decimal
Fraction Numerator No. of Digits Denominator Fraction
.8 8 1 10 8/10
.07 7 2 100 7/100
.063 63 3 1000 63/1000
.0520 52 3 1000 52/1000
Note that in the last example the right-hand zero was dropped. This can always
be done with zeroes at the right-hand edge of a decimal fraction as they have
no value.
The numbers in the preceding table are read as: 8 tenths; 7 hundredths; 63
thousandths; 52 thousandths.
Decimal fractions are added, subtracted, multiplied and divided in the same
way as whole numbers, with some extra steps for handling the decimal point.
Adding decimals
The steps for adding decimals are:
Step 1. Write the number one under each other, lining up the decimal
point.
Step 2. Add the numbers in the vertical columns and carryover values
greater than 9. Since this is a system of 10, carryover across the decimal point
is necessary.
Step 3. Insert the decimal point in the answer in the same place as it ap-
pears in each number.
Example: If the distances between the centers of gages A, B, C and

D were 3.917, 1.086 and .027 inches respectively, what is the
distance between A and D?
Step 1. Arrange the numbers vertically and line up the decimal points:
3.917
1.086
0.027
Step 2. Add the numbers and carryover across the decimal point:
CDCD®
3.917
1.086
0.027
5.030
Step 3. Insert the decimal point in the answ~r in the same location as it ap-
pears in each number:
5.03 (five and three hundredths inches)
Addition should always be checked by adding the digits in reverse order. If

the original was added from top to bottom, check your work by adding from
18 bottom to top.
FRACTIONS
Subtracting decimals
The steps for subtraction of decimals are:
Step 1. Write the numbers one under the other, lining up the decimal
points. The subtrahend is on the bottom and the minuend is on the top.
Step 2. Start with the right column and subtract the subtrahend from the
minuend.
Step 3. If a number in the subtrahend is larger than the number in the same
column of the minuend, borrow 10 from the next column to the left.
Step 4. Insert the decimal point in the same location as it appears in each
number.
Example: The inner diameter of one hose is found to be 2.416

inches, while the inner diameter of another hose is 1.029 inches.
How much larger is the diameter of the first hose over the second
hose?
Step 1. Arrange the numbers vertically and line up the decimal point:
2.416
-1.019
Step 2. Start with the right-hand column and subtract. If a number in the
subtrahend is larger than the number in the minuend, borrow 10 from the next
column to the left. Since 9 is larger than 6, borrow 10 from the hundredths col-
umn (16-9=7).
®®
2. 4.% if
-1. 029
7
Step 3. Continue subtracting in the other columns, borrowing where
necessary:
®
@@®
2. It X .6
-1. 029
1. 3 8 7
Step 4. Insert the decimal point in the ai~t;Wer in the same location as it ap-
pears in each number:
1.387 inches (one and three hundred eighty-seven thousandths inches)
Subtraction can be checked by adding the answer and the subtrahend,

which should equal the minuend.
Multiplying decimals
The steps for multiplying decimals are:
Step 1. Place the multiplier below the multiplicand, with the right-hand
digits lined up.
Step 2. Multiply in the same manner as used for whole numbers.
Step 3. Count the number of decimal places {numbers to the right of the 19
decimal point) in the multiplier and the multiplicand.

Step 4. Place the decimal point in the answer by starting at the right-hand
digit and counting off the number of places from step 3.
Example: If 1 square inch of water 1 foot high weighs .434 pounds.

how much will 1 square inch of water 7.26 feet high weigh?
Step 1. Place the number with the right-hand digits lined up:
7.26
.434
Step 2. Multiply in the same manner as used for whole numbers:
0)~
<D
<D~
7.2 6
.434
2.9 0 4
2 178
2 9 04
315084
Step 3. Count off the number of decimal places (5).

Step 4. Place the decimal point in the answer by starting at the right-hand
edge and counting the number from step 3 (5):
3.15084
Step 5. Write the answer:
3.15084 pounds
Multiplication can be checked by reversing the multiplier and the multipli-

cand. Always check the location of the decimal point.
Multiplying decimals by powers of 10

The distributive rule of multiplication (rule 5) permits the development of an
easy method of multiplying decimal fractions by powers of 10. This method
says that for each zero in the multiplier, move the decimal point one place to
the right.
Example: Multiply .(34)( 100.
Step 1. Determine the number of zeros in the multiplier 100 (2).

Step 2. Move the decimal point two places to the right:
43.4
.434 x 100=43.4
20
FRACTIONS
Dividing decimals
The steps for dividing decimals are:
Step 1. Write the figures as a division problem, in the same way as for
whole numbers.
Step 2. Move the decimal point of the divisor to the extreme right and
count the number of places moved. This makes the divisor a whole number.
Step 3. Move the decimal point of the dividend the same number of places
determined in step 2. If there are not enough digits in the dividend, add zeros
before placing the decimal point.
Step 4. Place the decimal point in the quotient above the spot determined
in step 3.
Step 5. Divide in the same manner used for whole numbers.
Step 6. Continue the division until the quotient has the number of decimal
places needed for the answer. Add zeroes to the right of the decimal point if
more places are needed in the dividend.
Example: Divide 16.73 by 2.304, use three decimal places in the

answer.
Step 1. Write the figures as a division problem:
2.304 )16.73
Step 2. Move the decimal point of the divisor to the extreme right three
places:
2304.
Step 3. Move the decimal point of the dividend three places to the right:
16730.
Step 4. Place the decimal point in the quotient:
2304 )16730.
Step 5. Divide in the same manner used for whole numbers. Add three
zeroes to the right of the decimal pOint so that the answer will have three
decimal places:
7.261
2304 )16730.000
16128
6020
4608
14120
13824
2960
2304
656
16.73+2.304= 7.261 21
Dividing decimals by powers of 10

As in the case of multiplication, the distributive rule permits the development
of an easy method of dividing decimal fractions by powers of 10. This method
says that for each zero in the divisor, move the decimal point one place to the
left.
Example: Divide 2.304 by 1000.
Step 1. Determine the number of zeroes in the divisor, 1000 (3).

Step 2. Move the decimal point three places to the left:
.002304
.002304
Rounding off decimals
It is sometimes necessary to delete some of the least significant digits in a
decimal fraction. The number of places in the answer is determined by the ac-
curacy required. The steps for rounding off are:
Step 1. Determine the number of places required.
Step 2. Write the number using one more place than that determined in
step 1.
Step 3. If the right-hand digit is 6 or greater, increase the next digit to the
left by 1.
Step 4. If the right-hand digit is 4 or less, leave the next digit to the left as it
is.
Step 5. If the right-hand digit is 5 and it is preceded by an odd number, in-
crease the digit by 1.
Step 6. If the right-hand digit is 5 and it is preceded by an even number,
leave the next digit to the left as it is.
Example: Round off 3.72024 to three decimal places; .9876981 to

two decimal places; 1.064566 to three decimal places.
Step 1. Determine the number of places required:
3.72024 .9876981 1.064566

(3) (2) (3)
Step 2. Write the number using one more place than that determined in
step 1:
3.7202 .987 1.0645
Step 3. Round the numbers according to the rules:
3.720 .99 1.064

Decimal equivalents
Many times when working with numerous fractions, especially in measure-
ments of length, it is easier to handle the problem as a decimal fraction. To
make the conversion from common fraction to decimal fraction easier, a stan-
22 dard chart (table 1) for common measurement fractions has been developed.
FRACTIONS
TABLE 1 Decimal Equivalent

1/64 .015625 17/64 .265625 33/64 .515625 49/64 .765625
1/32 .03125 9/32 .28125 17/32 .53125 25/32 .78125
3/64 .046875 19/64 .296875 35/64 .546875 51/64 .796875
1116 .0625 5/16 .3125 9116 .5625 13/16 .8125
5/64 .078125 21/64 .328125 37/64 .578125 53/64 .828125
3132 .09375 11/32 .34375 19/32 .59375 27/32 .84375
7164 .109375 23/64 .359375 39/64 .609375 55/64 .859375
118 .125 3/8 .375 518 .625 718 .875
9/64 .140625 25/64 .390625 41/64 .640625 57/64 .890625
5132 .15625 13/32 .40625 21/32 .65625 29/32 .90625
11/64 .171875 27/64 .421875 43/64 .671875 59/64 .921875
3116 .1875 7/16 .4375 11116 .6875 15/16 .9375
13/64 .203125 29/64 .453125 45/64 .703125 61/64 .953125
7132 .21875 15/32 .46875 23/32 .71875 31/32 .96875
15/64 .234375 31/64 .484375 47/64 .734375 63/64 .984375
114 .25 1/2 .5 314 .75 1 1.
The decimal equivalent can be read directly from the chart. Conversely, if the
decimal equivalent is known, the chart will provide the nearest fraction
equivalent.
23
Chapter 3
Algebra
In addition to the basics of mathematics, "The fire apparatus driver/ operator
shall demonstrate the use of simple algebraic formulas required to solve fire
department pumper hydraulic problems." *
Algebra is an extension of the basic mathematical procedures. However, in-
stead of using numbers, algebra replaces the numbers with letters. These letters
can be used to represent a general number. By using these general numbers,
mathematical definitions can be developed that will apply any time, no matter
what numbers are used. The mathematical rules continue to apply, with cer-
tain additional rules for the handling of algebraic symbols.
In Chapter 1, some mathematical symbols were defined. These symbols [+,
-, x, +, =, 0] represent the same operations in algebra, but additional rules
and procedures are also necessary. These rules deal with the mathematical
designation of groups, subscript notations, and the performance of algebraic
procedures.
Some additional definitions required for discussing algebraic operations are
given below. The examples are based upon the expression 3ax + 4y - z.
Expression Explanation Example

Algebraic A group of symbols that 3ax+4y-z
expression represent a number.
Term A combination of +3ax, or +4y, or -z
symbols between [Note that when no sign is
+ (plus) or - (minus) included in an algebraic expression,
signs. a plus sign is understood (+ 3ax) ;
and if a letter is present without a
number (z), the number 1 is
understood.]
Factors The individual parts 3, a, and x are each factors
of the terms. of the term 3ax.
Numerical The number in a term. 3 is the numerical
Coefficient coefficient of ax.
Paragraph 3-4.7. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Profes-
sional Qualifications, Copyright© 1982, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted
material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which Is represented only by the
24 standard in its entirety.
ALGEBRA
Letters and subscripts

In algebra, letters are used to represent numbers. Sometimes a specific letter
is used to designate values for a specific quantity. For example, when discuss-
ing fire service hydraulics, p is usually used to represent pressure in pounds per
square inch, while d stands for the diameter of a nozzle in inches.
Letters, then, are used to express formulas-general expressions that state a
fact. These general expressions are true no matter what numerical .values are
used in the formula to replace the letters. For example, if A = area of a rec-
tangle, I = length of a rectangle, and w = width of a rectangle, then the formula
A= w x I, can be stated. This formula would be true for any value of width and
length. It is important to distinguish between capital and small letters because
the same letter can be used as a capital and as a small letter in the same for-
mula and mean different quantities. .
Another way of distinguishing different values of the same quantity is by the
use of subscripts. The subscript number has no numerical value. For example,
if three successive pressure measurements were made, they might be
designated as Pl = 58 psi, P2 = 63 psi, and P3 = 59 psi. The subscripts 1, 2 and
3 just show a sequence of measurement.
In certain cases, a particular letter is chosen to represent a constant value
that does not vary from formula to formula. Such a symbol is the Greek letter
pi (rr) that represents the value 3.14159. The formula for the area (A) of a cir-
cle is A = IT r2, with r signifying the radius of a circle. The circumference (C) of
a circle is C = 2 rr r. In both of these formulas, the symbol IT has the same
value, 3.14159. In working with a constant in a formula, it can be handled
mathematically as any number. However, it is easier to handle IT than
3.14159 and the substitution of the number for the symbol can be made after
the necessary manipulation of the formula is completed.
Adding symbols
To add terms, which are made up of individual factors, all factors except the
numefical coefficient must be the same. The steps for addition are:
Step 1. Group the factors that are alike together.
Step 2. Add the numerical coefficients of the like factors.
Step 3. Rewrite the final answer.
Example: Add 3xy + 2z + 5yz + 7xy + 3y + 4xz + z + 2xy + yz + 4y.
Step 1. Group like factors together:

3xy + 7xy + 2xy
2z+z
5yz+yz
3y+4y
4xz
Step 2. Add the numerical coefficients of the like factors:
3xy + 7xy + 2xy = 12xy

2z+z=3z
5yz+yz=6yz
3y+4y=7y
4xz=4xz
Step 3. Rewrite the final answer:

12xy+3z+6yz+ 7y+4xz 25
Subtracting symbols
As in addition, subtraction of symbols requires that ali factors except the
numerical coefficient within the term be the same. The steps for subtraction
are:
Step 1. Group the factors that are alike together.
Step 2. Perform the mathematical operations, addition and/or subtraction,
for the numerical coefficients of the like factors.
Step -3. Rewrite the answer.
The rules for handling addition and subtraction can be stated as follows:
Rule 7: When combining factors with the same sign (either plus or minus)
add the numerical coefficients and place the sign in front of the numerical coef-
ficient of the answer.
Rule 8. When combining factors with opposite signs, subtract the numerical
coefficients and place the sign of the larger coefficient in front of the numerical
coefficient of the answer.
Example: ab + 6a - 5c - 2ab - 2a + 2b + 6c - 4bc - 4a - 3c - 2bc.
Step 1. Group the factors that are alike together:
+ab-2ab
+6a-2a-4a
-5c+6c-3c
+2b
-4bc-2bc
Step 2. Perform the mathematical operations indicated:

+ab-2ab= -ab
+6a-2a-4a=O
-5c+6c-3c=-2c
+2b= +2b
-4bc-2bc= -6bc
Step 3. Rewrite the final answer:

- ab - 2c + 2b - 6bc
Subtraction of negative numbers requires the use of an additional rule:

Rule 9: With negative numbers used in subtraction, change the sign of sub-
trahend and add.
Example: Subtract 4x - (- 2x)

Step 1. Using rule 9, change the sign of the factor (- 2x) to + 2x.
Step 2. Add the factors: 4x + (+ 2x) = 6x.
Multiplying symbols
Multiplication of symbols can be accomplished whether or not the terms or
factors are the same. The steps for multiplication are:
Step 1. Multiply the numerical coefficients.
26 Step 2. Multiply the symbols of the terms.
ALGEBRA
Step 3. Determine the sign by using' the rules:

+ x + +
+ x - = -
- x - = +
Step 4. Combine the numerical coefficients, the symbols, and the sign.
Examples: (3x) (4y) (2z); (- 2a) (4b); (- 6c) ( - 3d)
Step 1. Multiply the numerical coefficients:
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

(3) (4) (2) = 24 (2) (4) = 8 (6)(3) = 18
Step 2. Multiply the symbols:

(x) (y) (z) = xyz (a) (b) = ab (c)(d) = cd
Step 3. Determine the sign:

(+)(+)(+)= + (-)(+)=- (-)(-)=+
Step 4. Combine:

+ 24xyz -8ab + 18cd
There are various methods for indicating multiplication in algebra. It is
necessary to be familiar with all the methods.
1. a(b) = ab
2. (a)(b) = ab
3. axb=ab
4. a' b =ab
Dividing symbols
Division of terms with symbols is very similar to arithmetical division. The
steps for division are:
Step 1. Write the problem in the form of a fraction.
Step 2. Divide the numerical coefficients of the numerator and de-
nominator.
Step 3. Cancel the symbols that are common to the terms in both the
numerator and denominator.
Step 4. Determine the sign by using the rules:
+ + +
+ +
+
Step 5. Write the final answer.
Examples: 36xy + 12y; - 4a + 3abc; - 5de + - 8ef
Step 1. Write the problem as a fraction: 27


36xy -4a -5de
12y 3abc -8ef
Step 2. Divide the numerical coefficients of the numerator and denom-

inator:
36 = 3 4
- = 1.33 ~= .625
12 3 8
Step 3. Divide the svmbols:
X)/ = x ~=.l d¢'=A
)f ;roc bc ef f
Step 4. Determine the sign:
±=+ -=-=+
+ +
Step 5. Write the final answer:
+3x -1.33 .625d

bc f
Algebraic grouping
In order to avoid misinterpretation, a series of symbols has been developed
for indicating the sequence of steps necessary to perform the mathematical
operations. These grouping symbols are: 0 parentheses; [] brackets;
I
t braces. Rules for handling the grouping symbols are:
Rule 10. If a plus sign ( + ) precedes a grouping symbol, perform the opera-
tions within the symbol exactly as indicated.
Rule 11. If a minus sign (-) precedes a grouping symbol, change the sign
within the grouping symbol (a minus to a plus or a plus to a minus) and then
change the sign preceding the grouping symbol to a plus. Perform the opera-
tions within the symbol.
Rule 12. If a coefficient precedes the grouping symbol, each term within the
symbol must be multiplied by the coefficient.
Example: 6 t5 [4(3xy + 2y) - 6(xy - 2z)] + 7y I - 6z. Find the

= =
value of this algebraic expression if x 2, y 3 and z 4. =
Step 1. Perform the first operation within the parentheses, using rules 10
and 12 for + sign grouping:
4(3xy + 2y) = 12xy + 8y

Step 2. Perform the second operation within the parentheses, using rules
11 and 12 for + sign grouping:
-6(xy - 2z)
Change + xy to - xy
Change - 2z to + 2z
Change -6 to +6
Multiply by the coefficient 6( - xy + 2z) = - 6xy + 12z
Step 3. Rewrite the problem with the work performed in steps 1 and 2:
28 6 t 5 [12xy + 8y - 6xy + 12z] + 7y I- 6z
ALGEBRA
Step 4. Combine similar terms within the brackets:
+ 12xy -6xy = +6xy
Step 5. Rewrite the problem:
615 [6xy +8y + 12z] + 7yl -6z
Step 6. Perform the operation within the brackets, using Rules 10 and 12
for + sign grouping:
5 [6xy + 8y + 12z]
30xy + 40y + 60z
6 {30xy + 40y + 60z + 7y 1 - 6z
Step 8. Combine similar terms within the braces:
40 y + 7 y = 47y
6 130xy + 47y +60z1 -6z
Step 10. Perform the operation within the braces, using rules 10 and 12 for
+ sign grouping:
180xy + 282y + 360z - 6z
Step 11. Combine similar terms:
360z - 6z = 354z
180xy + 282y + 354z
Step 13. Substitute the numerical values x=2, y=3, z=4:
180(2) (3) + 282(3) + 354(4)

1080 + 846 + 1416 = 3342
Equations
As explained in the introduction to this unit, formulas are general expres-
sions that state a fact. An equation is a statement that expresses an equality
and indicates that the quantity on one side of the = sign is the same as that on
the other side. Whenever a formula is expressed, an equality is also expressed.
However, not all equations can be considered formulas.
A formula is said to have a left-hand and a right-hand side, separated by an
equal sign. Equations can be solved by applyjng certain basic rules:
Rule 13: The value of an equation is not changed if:
1. The same value is added to both sides of the equation.
2. The same value is subtracted from both sides of the equation. 29
3. Both sides of the equation are multiplied by the same number.

4. Both sides of the equation are divided by the same number.
5. A factor is moved from one side of the equation to the other side and its
sign is changed. This is called transposing.
Example: Solve the equation x - 4 = 11.

Step 1. In order to solve the equation, the unknown quantity, x, must be
isolated. This can be accomplished by using rule 13(1) and adding 4 to each
side of the equation.
x-4=11
+ 4 +4
Step 2. Add both sides of the equation:
x-4=11
+ 4 +4
x + 0 = 15
x = 15
Step 3. Check the answer by substituting the answer in the original

equation:
15 - 4 = 11
11=11
Example: Solve the equation a + 3a + 6 = -10.
Step 1. In order to solve the equation, the unknown quantity, a, must be

isolated. This can be accomplished by combining a and 3a and using rule
13(2). Subtract 6 from each side of the equation.
a + 3a + 6 = -10
4a + 6 = -10
-6 -6
Step 2. Subtract both sides of the equation:
4a +. 6 = -10
-6 -6
4a + 0 = -16
4a = -16
Step 3. In order to isolate a, both sides of the equation must be divided by
4, using rule 13(4).
4a 16
4 4
Step 4. Divide both sides of the equation:
4
.Ka _~
=
,K If
30
a = -4
ALGEBRA

equation:
- 4 + 3( - 4) + 6 = - 10
- 4 - 12 + 6 = - 10
-10 = -10
Example: Solve the equation ~ - 4 = 5.

Step 1. In order to solve the equation, the unknown quantity c must be
isolated. This can be accomplished by using rule 12(1) and adding 4 to both
sides of the equation.
c 4 =5
6
+4 +4
Step 2. Add both sides of the equation:
.£.+0=9
6
Step 3. In order to isolate c, both sides of the equation must be multiplied
by 6, using Rule 13(3):
.£.x 6 =9(6)
6
Step 4. Multiply both sides of the equation:
c = 54
equation:
54 -4=5
6
9
~ - 4 = 5
~
1
9 - 4 = 5
5 = 5
Example: Solve the equation 6a + 7 -2a = -3a -14.
Step 1. In order to solve the equation, the unknown quantity, a, must be

isolated. This can be accomplished by using Rules 13(1) and 13(5),
transposing. 31
6a + 7 - 2a = - 3a - 14
4a + 7 = - 3a - 14
+3a "\
4a + 7 = - 3a - 14
'- -7
Step 2. Combine terms:
4a + 3a = - 14 - 7
7a = -21
Step 3. Divide both sides of the equation by 7, using Rule 13(4):
1 3
/fa = P1
7' ;f
1
a = -3
equation:
6(-3) + 7 -2(-3) = -3(-3) -14

- 18 + 7 + 6 = + 9 - 14
-5 = -5
32
Chapter 4
Ratio, Proportion,
Percentage, Powers
and Roots
The last area of mathematics that potential pump operators need to review is
ratio, proportion, percentage, powers and square roots.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall demonstrate the use of propor-
tions in mathematical calculations as required to solve fire department pumper
hydraulics problems.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify and demonstrate the
determination and use of square roots at required to solve fire department
pumper hydraulic problems."·
RATIO
It is often necessary to make a comparison of like quantities. This can be
done by making a ratio, that can be expressed siIVPly as a fraction. For exam-
ple, pumper 1 which is 12 years old can be compared to pumper 2 which is six
years old by expressing the ratio:
Pumper 1 age = 12 years 2

Pumper 2 age 6 years 1
This means that pumper 1 is twice as old as pumper 2. Since a ratio can be ex-
pressed as a fraction, it can be reduced to lowest terms without changing in
value. It is important to remember that ratios can be used to compare like
quantities. This leads to rule 14 which states:
Rule 14: In a ratio, both the numerator and denominator must be ex-
pressed in the same units.
In addition to being expressed as a fraction or a division problem, a ratio can
be shown in the form 6 : 12. This form is read as "6 is to 12," with 6 as the
numerator and 12 as the denominator. The steps for determining a ratio are:
Step 1. Determine the quantities that are the same.
Step 2. Write the quantities as a ratio.
Step 3. Reduce the ratio to lowest terms.
Paragraphs 3-4.4 and 3-4.5. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus
Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright© 1982, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced sub-
ject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. 33
Example: The second floor of a building is 125 feet wide by 175

feet long. What is the ratio of the width to the length?
Step 1. Determine the quantities that are the same:
125 feet
175 feet
Step 2. Write the quantities as a ratio:
125 : 175
125
175
Step 3. Reduce the ratio to lowest terms (125 + 25 = 5; 175 + 7 = 7):
The width is 5/7 of the length.
PROPORTION
A proportion is the equality of two ratios. It means that the ratio of a quantity
is equal to the ratio of another quantity. For example, 5/10 = 10/20 is a pro-
portion showing the equality of the two ratios.
Another way of writing a proportion is:
5 : 10 :: 10 : 20
This can be read as "5 is to 10 as 10 is to 20." The symbol: is read as "is to"
and the symbol :: is read as "as." When written this way, the end or outside
terms are called the extremes, while the middle or inside terms are called the
means.
Rule 15: For proportions, the product of the mean equals the product of
the extremes.
As an example, the general proportion is
a : b :: c : d, or
~=..£..
b d
Using rule 15, a and d are the extremes and band c are the means. There-
fore, ad = bc. This rule is used to solve a proportion when one of the terms is
unknown. \
In ratios, only like quantities can be compared. In proportions, however,
each ratio can contain unlike quantities, provided that when setting up the pro-
portion, the unlike terms are compared in the same order. This results in the
development of two different types of proportions, the direct and indirect.
A direct proportion is a proportion in which the unlike quantities change in
the same order in each ratio. An indirect or inverse proportion is one in which
34 one ratio gets larger while the other ratio gets smaller.
RATIO, PROPORTION, PERCENTAGE, POWERS AND ROOTS
The proportion
60 miles = 4 minutes or 60 : 120 :: 4 : 8

120 miles 8 minutes
is a direct proportion because both ratios increase in the same direction (as the
miles increase so does the time required).
In a proportion dealing with the number of people needed to do a job, the
more individuals involved, the less time that is necessary. If it takes six people
12 minutes to do a job, then it will take 24 people 3 minutes to do the same
job. The proportions can be set up as follows:
6 people = 3 minutes or 6: 24:: 3 : 12

24 people 12 minutes
This is an indirect proportion because as one quantity increases, the other

quantity decreases.
The steps for solving proportion problems are:
Step 1. Determine the three known values and assign a letter to the
unknown value that is to be computed.
Step 2. Determine whether the proportion has a direct or indirect
relationship.
Step 3. Write the ratios as a proportion.
Step 4. Solve the proportion using rule 15.
Step 5. Check the answer by substituting the computed value in the original
problem and reworking.
Example: An elevated water supply tank holds 10,000 gallons of

water when filled to a depth of 50 feet. How many gallons will it con-
tain when the depth Is 29 feet?
Step 1. Determine the three known values and the unknown:
10,000 gallons
G = unknown gallons
50 feet
29 feet
Step 2. Determine whether direct or indirect: direct (the amount of water in

the tank decreases as the water depth decreases.
Step 3. Write the ratio as a proportion:
10,000 : G :: 50 : 29
10,000 _ 50
G 29
Step 4. Solve the proportion using rule 15 .
......Mean .....
10,000: G :: 50 : 29
"-Extreme~
50 G = 29,000
G = 58,000 gallons 35
Step 5. Check the answer:
10,000 (29) = 50 (5800)

290,000 = 290,000
Example: If it takes seven firefighters 28 minutes to perform a par-
ticular evolution, how many firefighters are needed to do the job in
four minutes?
Step 1. Determine the unknown values and the unknown:
7 firefighters
F = unknown firefighters
28 minutes
4 minutes
Step 2. Determine whether direct or indirect. This is indirect (the number of

firefighters needed to do the job increases when the time necessary decreases.)
Step 3. Write the ratio as a proportion:
7 : F :: 4 : 28
-
7 4
=--
F 28
Step 4. Solve the proportion using rule 15:
4F = 196
F = 49
28 (7) = 4 (49)
196 = 196
PERCENTAGES
The word percent is another way of saying hundredths and is indicated by a
% sign. The word percentage means dividing something into 100 equal parts.
There are three ways of expressing hundredths:
1 common fraction
100
.01 decimal fraction
1 % percent
The steps for finding a percent of a number are:

Step 1. Change the percent to decimal form.
Step 2. Multiply the number by the decimal.
Example: What is 17 % of 1264 gallons?
Step 1. Change the percent to a decimal:
36 17% = .17
Step 2. Multiply the number by the decimal:
1264
.17
8848
1264
214.88
214.88 gallons
To calculate percentage, it is necessary to know the rate of percent and the

amount with which the comparison is to be made. The formula that states this
is: p = rb, where p = percentage, r= rate (%), b= base (quantity with which the
comparison is to be made). Using algebra, this formula can be rewritten as:
2.. = band 2.. = r

r b
The particular form of the formula used depends on which of the quantities
are known.
Example: A fire department employs 73 firefighters. If an 11 per-

cent increase is authorized, how many firefighters will be hired and
what will be the total employment?
Step 1. Write the formula:
p = rb
r = .11; b = 73
Step 2. Substitute in the formula and perform the mathematical operation:
p = .11 (73)
p = 8.03 firefighters
total department = 73 + 8
= 81 firefighters
Example: A particular engine in a pumper is rated to develop 320

hp. When actually measured, the engine develops 249.6 hp. What
percent efficient is the engine?

r = 2..
b
p = 249.6; b = 320

249.6
r =
320
r = .78
r = 78% 37
Example: An engine in a pumper is rated as being 82 percent effI-

cient and actually develops 270 hp. What is the theoretical horse-
power of the engine?
b= ~
r
p = 270; r = .82
b =
270
.82
b = 329.27 hp
POWERS
As previously discussed, an easier way to express the sum 5 + 5 + 5 is to
write 5 x 3. There is also a shorthand notation for repeated multiplication. For
example, 5 x 5 can be written as 52 and 5 x 5 x 5 can be written as 53. The
number 5 is called the base; the numbers 2 and 3 are called the exponents;
and the product of 52 or 53 is called the power of the factors.
The units of measurement are very important when considering powers. A
unit of measure, when multiplied by itself, is a square (inches times inches
equals square inches). At the conclusion of the mathematical operations, the
correct units must be calculated.
The rules for handling exponents are:
Rule 16: The basic rules of exponents are:
A. (xa) (xb) = xa+ b

B. {xa)b = xab
C. {xy)a = (xa) (ya)
D. xa = xa - b
xb
E. {~)a= xa
y ya
F. XO = 1
The steps for performing operations with powers are:
Step 1. Write the problem.
Step 2. Determine the correct rule to use and perform the mathematical
operation.
Step 3. Calculate the correct units.
Example: Calculate (32 ) (33); (32 )3; (3·4)3; 33 2 ; (,,)2

3
5
Step 1. Write the problem:

Example Example Example Example Example
1 2 3 4 5
(3 2) (3 3) (3 2)3 {3'4)3 35 (1-) 2
38 32 4
operation:
Rule 16A Rule 16B Rule 16C Rule 16D Rule 16E
32 + 3 35 - 2 32
32x3 33 x43
42
35 36 27x64 33
9
243 729 1728 27
16
Step 3. Calculate the correct units
fifth sixth third third square

power power power power
Example: If a sphere has a diameter of 3 1/2 inches, what is its

=
volume using the formula v TT D 3 + 6, where TT 3.14; D 3.5 = =
inches, and D3 = (3.5)3 cubic inches?
v =
TT D3
6
TT = 3.14
D = 3.5 inches
D3= (3.5)3 cubic inches
Step 2. Perform the mathematical operations:
3.14x 3.5 x 3.5 x 3.5

v =
6
v =
134.627
6
v = 22.44
Step 3. Calculate the correct units:
inches x inches x inches = inches 3

= cubic inches
v = 22.44 cubic inches
ROOTS
A root is the opposite of a power. It says that a number, when multiplied by
itself, will give the original number. For example, the square root of 25 asks
what number, when multiplied by itself, will give 25. Similarly, the cube root of
27 asks what number when multiplied by itself three times will give 27.
The mathematical shorthand method of writing square root is the radical
sign V- . To indicate a cube root, the radical sign is written ~ .
Very few square roots work out to a whole number. The square root of 9 is
exactly 3, but the square root of 10 is not a whole number. The square root of
10 can be rounded off to 3.16. For this reason it is necessary to calculate most
of the square roots. However, it is not the purpose of this text to teach the 39
mathematical method for determining square root. Instead, Table 1 has been
provided to give the square root of numbers from 1 to 100, to two decimal
places.
TABLE 1. Square Roots

No. Sq. Root No. Sq. Root No. Sq. Root No. Sq. Root
1 1.00 26 5.10 51 7.14 76 8.72
2 1.4 27 5.20 52 7.21 77 8.78
3 1.73 28 5.29 53 7.28 78 8.83
4 2.00 29 5.38 54 7.35 79 8.89
5 2.24 30 5.48 55 7.42 80 8.94
6 2.45 31 5.57 56 7.48 81 9.00
7 2.65 32 5.66 57 7.55 82 9.06
8 2.83 33 5.74 58 7.62 83 9.11
9 3.00 34 5.83 59 7.68 84 9.16
10 3.16 35 5.92 60 7.75 85 9.22
11 3.32 36 6.00 61 7.81 86 9.27
12 3.46 37 6.08 62 7.87 87 9.33
13 3.61 38 6.16 63 7.94 88 9.38
14 3.74 39 6.24 64 8.00 89 9.43
15 3.87 40 6.32 65 8.06 90 9.49
16 4.00 41 6.40 66 8.12 91 9.54
17 4.12 42 6.48 67 8.18 92 9.59
18 4.24 43 6.56 68 8.25 93 9.64
19 4.36 44 6.63 69 8.31 94 9.70
20 4.47 45 6.71 70 8.37 95 9.75
21 4.58 46 6.78 71 8.43 96 9.80
22 4.69 47 6.86 72 8.48 97 9.85
23 4.80 48 6.93 73 8.54 98 9.90
24 4.90 49 7.00 74 8.60 99 9.95
25 5.00 50 7.07 75 8.68 100 10.00
Rule 17: The basic rules for square root are:

Va
A~ =
vb
B. Yah = Va Vb
(Break down a large number into two factors, one of which can be square
rooted equally.)
The steps for performing operations with roots are:
Step 1. Write the problem.
problem.
Step 3. Check the answer by squaring the result.
Examples: Calculate ;r; '1'160; m.


!4 I
'1'160 Y27
v'25
operation:
Rule 17A Rule 178 Table
y'41 v'I6xVIO
v'251 4xVIO
4x3.16
2
40 5 12.64 5.20
Example 1: 2/5 x 2/5 = 4/25

Example 2: 12.64 x 12.64 = 159.77
Example 3: 5.20 x 5.20 = 27.04
Example: If the formula for the diameter of an engine cylinder is

c = v'HP )( 2.5 what cylinder diameter will be necessary for a 325
N
=
hp, eight-cylinder engine? In the formula, c cylinder diameter in
=
inches; HP engine horsepower; and N number of cylinders. =
v'HP x 2.5
c =
N
HP = 325 hp
N = 8 cylinders
Step 2. Perform the mathematical operations. Note: The square root of

32.5 comes from the table, using the value halfway between 32 and 33.
v'325 x 2.5
c =
8
v'25 x 13 x 2.5
c =
8
5v'13 x 2.5
c =
8
5v'32.5
c =
8
5 x 5.7
c =
8
28.5
c =
8
c = 3.56 inches
Step 3. Check the square root calculations:
325 x 2.5 = (28.5)2

812.5 = 812.25
Example: Solve the problem v'.176 .
41
Step 2. Perform the mathematical operation:
ffi6
V1000
Vf.76
VlOOO
V16 x v'IT
V100 v10
4 x v'IT
10 x v10
4 x 3.32
10 x 3.16
13.28 = .42
31.6
.42 x .42 = .1764
42
ChapterS
The Metric System and

Fire Service Hydraulics
The shift from the United States from the English system of management to
the International Metric System has begun. In order to prepare fire service per-
sonnel for this changeover, the impact of metrics on hydraulics will be dis-
cussed. However, the development of water movement formulas throughout
this book will use the current measurement system. As the u.se of the metric
system becomes more common, the text will be revised to reflect the change.
Although the metric system was approved by Congress in 1866 for use in
the United States, obViously very little use has been made of this authorization.
The National Bureau of Standards has recommended a gradual phase-in pro-
gram, which is being partially implemented.
The official name for the metric units is the International System, which is
abbreviated SI.
The basic units of measure for the SI system are:
length meter
mass gram
force dyne or newton
liquid volume liter
temperature celsius
time second
pressure pascal
quantity of heat joule
One of the big advantages of the SI system is that multiples of 10 of the basic
unit are used. Thus, a common prefix is developed for each measurement.
These prefixes are:
nano n 1/1,000,000,000 0.000000001 10- 9
micro J.L 1/1,000,000 0.000001 10- 6
milli m 1/1000 0.001 10- 3
centi c 1/100 0.01 10- 2
deci d 1/10 0.1 10- 1
hecto h 100 100.0 102
kilo k 1000 1000.0 103
mega M 1,000,000 1,000,000.0 106
giga G 1,000,000,000 1,000,000,000.0 10 9
For example, if the meter is the basic unit of length, then 1000 meters would
equal 1 kilometer, while one hundredth of a meter would be equal to a cen- 43
timeter. The same is true of a liquid volume measure. If a pump delivers 1000
liters per minute, then this is the same as 1 kiloliter per minute.
Definitions
When compared to the British Imperial System that was established on a
very arbitrary basis (an acre equals the amount of land a yoke of oxen can plow
in one day), the SI sytem has logical interrelations.
meter one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator

to either pole
gram weight of 1 cubic centimeter of water at 4°C
liter volume of kilogram of water at 4 ° C
dyne force required to produce a velocity of 1 cen-
timeter per second when acting for 1 second on a
mass of 1 gram
gram calorie quantity of heat required to raise 1 gram of water
1 degree celsius
Abbreviations
Term Symbol Measurement
millimeter mm 0.001 meter
c~ntimeter cm 0.01 meter
meter m 1.0 meter
kilometer km 1000 meters
cubic centimeters cc 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm
milligram mg 0.001 gram
centigram cg 0.01 gram
gram g 1.0 gram
kilogram kg 1000 grams
milliliter ml 0.001 liter
centiliter cI 0.01 liter
liter I 1.0 liter
kiloliter kl 1000 liters
newton N
second s
pascal Pa
joule J
CONVERSION
Length
1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 mm = 0.0394 in
= 2.54 cm 1cm = 0.394 in
1 foot = 304.80 mm = 0.033 ft
= 30.48 cm 1m = 39.37 in
= 0.305 m = 3.28 ft
1 mile 1609.34 m 1 km = 3280.83 ft
= 1.609 km = .621 mi
Area
= 645.16 mm 2 1 cm 2 = 0.155 in 2
= 6.45 cm 2 = 0.0011 ft2
44 1 ft2 = 929.03 cm 2 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2
Volume
= 16.38 cc 1 cc = 0.061 in 3
= 0.016 I 11 = 61.02 m 3
1 fe = 28.321 = 0.035 ft3
1 gallon = 3.791 = 0.264 gallons
= 35.31 ft3
= 264.19 gallons
Pressure
1 psi = 0.703 g/mm2 1 g/cm 2 = 0.0142 psi
= 70.307 g/cm 2 = 2.048 Ib/ft 2
= 0.0703 kg/cm 2 1 kg/cm 2 = 14.223 psi
= 6.894 kPa = 0.968 atmospheres
1 atmosphere 1.034 metric 1 kPa = .145 psi
atmosphere
Force
1 Ib = 444,800 dynes 19 = 0.00221b
= 453.6 9 1 kg = 2.2051b
= 4.448 N 1N = .2251b
Temperature
1°C = 5/9(OF - 32)
Energy
1 Btu = 1055 J 1J = 0.000948 Btu
Flow
1 gpm = 0.06398 lis 1 lis = 15.85 gpm
COMMON MEASUREMENTS
Pumper Ratings
750 gpm 47.31 lis 50
1000 gpm 63.08 lis 60
1250 gpm 78.85 lis 80
1500 gpm 94.62 lis 95
2000 gpm 126.16 lis 125
Hand Lines
20 gpm 1.26 lis 1
30 gpm 1.89 lis 2
100 gpm 6.31 lis 6
120 gpm 7.57 lis 8
200 gpm 12.62 lis 13
250 gpm 15.77 lis 15
Pressure
Nozzle
fog 100 psi 689.4 kPa 700 kPa
straighthand 50 psi 344.7 kPa 350 kPa
straight master 80 psi 551.5 kPa 550 kPa
stream
45
Friction loss in 100 feet 2112-inch hose

100 gpm 3 psi 20.68 kPa 20 kPa
200 gpm 10 psi 68.94 kPa 70 kPa
300 gpm 21 psi 144.77 kPa 150 kPa
400 gpm 36 psi 248.15 kPa 250 kPa
500 gpm 55 psi 379.17 kPa 375 kPa
head· 0.434 psi! 1 foot 9.81 kPa/m 10 kPa/m
• Amount of pressure at base of a column of water is a gain or loss depending on position of nozzle In relation to the pump.
Conclusions
It will be some time before the fire service adopts the SI system. Standardiza-
tion must be established so that new appliance sizes and hose lengths can be
determined, and certain questions must be answered, such as:
1. Will the standard length of hose become 20 meters?
2. Will the unit of pressure be the kilopascal or the bar?
3. Will 60-mm diameter hose replace standard 2112-inch hose?
4. Will 75-mm diameter hose replace standard 3-inch hose?
5. Will 15 lis be accepted as the standard hand line flow?
Once fire service personnel become familiar with the new numbers,
hydraulic calculations will become much simpler than those presently in use.
46
Chapter 6
Fireground Hydraulics
Before jumping into the calculations and concerns of hydraulics, an under-
standing of the history of firefighting might be of value. A study of past
firefighting techniques not only provides a proper perspective as to the impor-
tance of present equipment and techniques, but forms a foundation for further
progress and technological advances.
Man, from the beginning of recorded history, has been concerned with fire.
While it provided him with warmth against the cold, heat for cooking, and light
for security, it was also a terrible enemy which destroyed whole cities.
In his battle to keep this force under his control, man soon learned that he
had an ally with water. Early man found water ideal for fire control because
there was an ample supply, it extinguished flames and it did not harm the user.
As civilization progressed, however, man found that a ready supply of water
was not available when and where he needed it. Firefighting could not be ac-
complished in the cities where adequate water supplies did not exist. There-
fore, aqueducts were developed. About 300 B.C., an aqueduct, capable of
supplying over 50 million gallons of water per day, was constructed for Rome.
However, while water for domestic use now could be conveniently carried,
the situation was quite different when water was needed for firefighting. In fire-
fighting, speed was essential, and carrying heavy buckets of water from the
source to the fire scene proved inefficient. From this need, a mechanical
device, a pump, was developed. The pump could move the water to the fire-
ground and enable early firefighters to deliver the water to greater heights than
they could be throwing the buckets of water at the fire.
Fluids and flows

The movement of these volumes of water led to the need for understanding
a new branch of science- hydraulics. The science of hydraulics is concerned
with the study of fluids at rest, called hydrostatics, and fluids in motion, called
hydrokinetics. A fluid is defined as a substance that yields to the slightest force
and recovers its previous state when the force is removed.
Both hydrostatics and hydrokinetics are important to the firefighter because
he must know what to expect when water in a hose line is not flowing (static)
and what happens when an outlet is opened and movement begins (kinetic).
The origin of the science of fluids is unknown, but there are historical records
that indicate that man had a working, if not scientific, knowledge of flUids as far
back as 4000 B.C.
Two of the outstanding scientists in the field of hydraulics, Vitruvius and
Frontinaus, issued their work about the year 97 A.D. Very little additional 47
work appeared from this time until the engineer Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519) published his treatise "On the Motion and Measurement of
Water." He introduced a new era when he designed and had constructed the
earliest chambered navigation and metering locks near Milan. This develop-
ment introduced four centuries of canal building.
About 1585, Stevenius of Bruges published a paper that closely followed
the work of Archimedes. The first demonstration of the pressure laws relating
to fluids pressing on the base and sides of a container appeared in this paper.
The principles set forth by Stevenius are:
1. Fluid pressure is perpendicular to any surface on which it acts.
2. The downward pressure of a liquid in an open vessel is proportional to its
depth.
Defining pressure was a very important concept for the early hydraulic scien-
tist, for it allowed mathematical calculations to be made. This, in turn, per-
mitted theories to be changed to practical applications.
In 1730 Henri Pitot invented the tube which bears his name and is used to-
day, in a refined form, for measuring velocities in pipes and open channels.
A method for computing the quantity of flow was developed by G. B. Ven-
turi around 1798. His studies on the behavior of fluids when passing through a
constriction formed the basis for the development of the venturi meter. The
modern venturi meter is used in municipal water works stations, industrial
sites, and as a research tool.
In 1888, John R. Freeman conducted a series of hydraulic studies that had
far-reaching effects on the fire service. He studied the flow of water in ordinary
fire hose of various roughnesses and qualities and experimented with nozzles
under varying pressures and diameters. Freeman noted the characteristics of
the water stream and the heights and distances to which they were carried,
both vertically and horizontally. In addition, he developed a standard nozzle
(the Underwriters playpipe) that could be used as an accurate water meter.
Today, no matter how many pieces of apparatus are on the fireground, and
no matter how many firefighters are available, the problem is still the same-
delivering the water from the source to the fire. Almost any type of carrier,
from a bucket to a hose line, can be used. As far as the firefighter is concerned,
the most frequently used method is the hose line. As soon as movement of
water through a restrained carrier is attempted, a knowledge of the principles
of hydraulics is required.
Maximum efficient of pumpers and appliances is dependent upon the prin-
ciples discussed in this chapter.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall demonstrate the principles of fric-
tion loss as they relate to:
"(a) Internal diameter of hose
"(b) Length of hose line
"(c) Manner in which hose lines are laid
"(d) Physical condition of hose
"( e) Pressure
"(f) Use of appliances
"(g) Use of multiple hose lines
"(h) Use of various nozzles
"0) VelOcity of flow.
"The fire apparatus driver/ operator shall identify the following types of fluid
pressure encountered in the fire service:
"(a) Flow pressure
"(b) Negative pressure
"(c) Normal operating pressure
"(d) Residual pressure
48 "( e) Static pressure.
FIREGROUND HYDRAULICS
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify the following terms that
relate to the basic principles of fire service hydraulics:
"(a) Atmospheric pressure
"(b) Capacity
"(c) Displacement
"(d) Flow (gpm)
"(e) Friction loss
"(f) Head pressure (back pressure)
"(g) Hydrant pressure
"(h) Net engine pressure
"(i) Nozzle reaction
"(j) Pounds per square inch
"(k) Pump discharge pressure
"(I) Vacuum
"(m) Velocity
"(n) Water hammer.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a series of fireground situations
and using the written formulas specified by the authority having jurisdiction,
shall determine:
"(a) Nozzle or pump discharge pressures when the length and size of hose,
and size of nozzle are given.
"(b) Water flow in gallons per minute when the diameter of the orifice and
pressure at the orifice are given.
"(c) The friction loss in the supply and attack lines, used by the authority
having jurisdiction, when the gpm flow is given.
"(d) Friction loss in siamesed lines when size of hose and gpm flow are
given.
"(e) Friction loss in wyed lines when size of hose and gpm flow are given.
"(f) Friction loss in multiple lines when the size of hose and gpm flow are
given.
"(g) An estimated remaining available volume from a hydrant while pump-
ing a given volume.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a series of fireground situations,
shall calculate correct pump discharge pressure, gpm, friction loss, and nozzle
pressure, using mental formulas specified by the authority having jurisdiction.
"The fire apparatus driver/ operator, given a fire department pumper and a
series of fireground situations, shall produce effective hand and master streams
specified by the authority having jurisdiction.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a selection of nozzles and tips,
shall identify the type, deSign, operation, nozzle pressure, and flow in gpm for
proper operation of each."·
PRESSURE
The compressive forces used in the fire service, when referenced to a given
area, are known as pressure. Pressure denotes a force per unit area, with the
measurement of force in pounds and the measurement of area in either square
inches or square feet.
It is extremely important to distinguish between a force and a pressure.
A force is a weight, and whether this weight acts on a small area or a large
area determines the amount of pressure.
'Paragraphs 3-4.1, 3-4.2, 3-4.3, 3-4.8, 3-4.9, 3-6.2, and 3-6.10. Reprinted with permission from NFPA
1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/ Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright© 1982, National Fire Pro-
tection ASSOCiation, Quincy, Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. 49
If a 200-pound weight were placed upright on a 4-square-inch platform

(figure 1), the pressure exerted would be:
pressure = force = 200 pounds 50 psi

unit area 4 square inches
200-POUND WEIGHT
4-SQUARE INCH FLOOR

PLATFORM
200 POUNDS
PRESSURE ON FLOOR = 4 SQUARE INCHES = 50 PSI
/ .r~:ZX1~:,~:n:.
864-SQUARE INCH PLATFORM
7 ,,"0'
PRESSURE ON FLOOR 200 POUIIID.~ = 0.023 P"

864 SQUARE INCHES
Figure 1. Force versus pressure.
Now, if this same weight were to be placed horizontally on an 864-square-inch

platform, the pressure exerted would be:
pressure = force = 200 pounds = .023 psi

unit area 864 square inches
The same force, 200 pounds, is present, but by redistributing it over a dif-
ferent size area, the pressure changes. Sometimes, in a sort of slang expres-
sion, pressure is referred to only as pounds. Remember, when this happens,
the square inch area is understood, even if it is not mentioned.
Types of pressure
Within the fire service, there are several types of pressure that are used
consistently:
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure caused by the weight of the air. This
pressure will vary depending upon the elevation at which it is being measured.
If a 1-square-inch section of the atmosphere were cut out from sea level to
outer space where it ends and then weighed, the air would weigh 14.7 pounds
(figure 2A). In areas below sea level, there is a higher column of air and so the
atmospheric pressure would be greater (figure 28). On a mountain top, at-
mospheric pressure would be less (figure 2C). The pump operator must be
familiar with the characteristics of atmospheric pressure for drafting operations,
which are explained in Chapter 15.
Table 1 shows atmospheric pressures for various altitudes. However, a good
rule of thumb is to use a l/z-pound-per-square-inch decrease in pressure for
each 1000-foot increase in altitude.
Gage pressure is the pressure read on the gage. However, atmospheric
pressure is always around, yet gages on fire apparatus read 0 psi. Gages,
therefore, have been adjustea to read disregarding atmospheric pressure. To
indicate that a reading does not account for atmospheric pressure, the ab-
50 breviation psig (pounds per square inch gage) is used.
SPACE
- -,,,- ~,- -- -
UPPER LIMIT OF ..............
,/ ATMOSPHERE ",,-
/ ,
A
EARTH'S SURFACE
;t.\i;.t;~t1t\8;~.;tf;\\;;\\;{;;;\tt1~;I&I;ill~ AT SEA LEVE L
-- --- ---
SPACE..... .,....".... -
1" -..
UPPER LIMIT OF ...................
,/ " ATMOSPHERE "
B EARTH'S SURFACE
AT SEA LEVEL
--,-;:----
SPACE ".... UPPER LIMIT OF ....................
/'
/' ATMOSPHERE "
/
/
c ABOVE SEA
LEVEL 500 FEET
«wd.liiiiiili~ AT SEA LEVEL

EARTH'S SURFACE
Figure 2. Atmospheric pressure.
TABLE 1. Atmospheric Pressure Versus Altitude

Altitude Pressure Altitude Pressure Altitude Pressure
feet psi feet psi feet psi
-1000 15.2 2500 13.4 6000 11.8
-500 15.0 3000 13.2 6500 11.5
0 14.7 3500 12.9 7000 11.3
+500 14.4 4000 12.7 7500 11.1
+ 1000 14.2 4500 12.4 8000 10.9
1500 13.9 5000 12.2 8500 10.7
2000 13.7 5500 12.0 9000 10.5
Absolute pressure is the sum of gage pressure and atmospheric pressure.
The abbreviation for absolute pressure is psia. Mathematically, the definition
can be stated:
psia = psig + atmospheric pressure
At a 500-foot elevation, the absolute pressure when the gage reads 118 psig is:
Absolute pressure = gage pressure (118 psig) +

atmospheric pressure (14.4 psi)
Absolute pressure = 118 + 14.4 = 132.4 psia
Back pressure or head pressure is the pressure created by a column of water

due to elevation. As in atmospheric pressure, back pressure is created by the
weight of the water above the measurement point. Methods for calculating 51
back pressure are explained in this chapter.

Positive pressure is pressure above atmospheric pressure. Since a 0 psig
reading on the gage indicates atmospheric pressure, any reading above 0 on
the gage would be a positive pressure.
Negative pressure is pressure above atmospheric. This pressure then, is a
partial vacuum (absence of air) until at 0 psia there would be a perfect vacuum.
The relationship between positive and negative pressures is shown in figure 3.
o PSIG
~~~+<::~"M~~:-+<H-o~~ 14.7 PSIA
-14.7 PSIG
"""-'~........"-'-.....................,......,.~................~ 0 PSIA
PERFECT VACUUM
Figure 3. Positive and negative pressures.
Static pressure is the pressure when the water is not moving. It is energy that
is available but not being used. For example, suppose a pumper connects to a
hydrant, opens the hydrant, and supplies water to the pump. The intake gage
on the pumper reads 60 psig. With no water being discharged from the pump,
the 60-psig reading is a static pressure reading.
Residual pressure is the pressure remaining once water has begun flowing.
Using the preceding example, the static pressure reading is 60 psig. Now if
water is discharged, the intake reading will drop. This new reading, which
might be 54 psig, is called residual pressure. The difference between the static
reading and the residual reading is due to losses required to overcome friction
and elevation.
Flow pressure is the pressure available to move water from one point to
another.
Normal operating pressure is the pressure which has been established by a
fire department for specific, commonly encountered fireground situations. The
normal operating pressure for a 11/z-inch, 200-foot hand line with a fog nozzle
is 160 psig.
Pump discharge pressure is the pressure read on the master discharge gage,
read in psi, and indicating the amount of pressure being created by the pump.
Hydrant pressure is the pressure available from a hydrant under flowing
conditions. It is also used to denote a hand line that is connected directly to the
hydrant and operating only from the pressure availble from the hydrant.
Net engine pressure is the pressure that is actually produced by the pump. It
is the difference between the intake pressure and the discharge pressure. For
example, if a hydrant is supplying 60 psi pressure and there is a discharge
pressure of 150 psi, the pump is actually producing only 90 psi, which is the
net engine pressure.
FRICTION LOSS
Movement of fluids through a conduit causes a loss of energy. The amount
of energy applied by the pump and recorded as engine pressure will not be the
amount of energy reaching the nozzle. There will be energy losses due to many
factors, but these losses are generally combined together and called friction
52 loss.
FIRE GROUND HYDRAULICS
The factors that influence friction loss are:

1. The type of flow - laminar or turbulent.
2. The quantity of water being pumped.
3. The diameter of the hose.
4. The length of the hose.
5. The quality and age of the hose.
6. Appliances attached to the hose stretch, i.e., siamese and wye.
Laminar and turbulent flow

As water flows through a pipe or a hose line, it can be either turbulent or
laminar. In laminar flow, the water moves along in straight lines. This move,
ment would appear to be layered, with one layer of water stacked on top of
another, all moving along together (figure 4A). Only a small amount of water
would be in contact with the wall of the conduit.
Since the layers of water at the edge of the conduit (water layers 1 and 7) are
touching the wall, they will move slower than the layers just next to them
(water layers 2 and 6). This will cause layers 2 and 6 to slow down. Now,
layers 3 and 5 will move just a little faster, since they are only in contact with
other water layers. The center layer, 4, will move the fastest. (It is important to
remember that these layers are extremely thin and cannot actually be seen.) A
graph of the velOcity at a point in the hose line is shown in figure 4B. Layer 4 is
shown as having the greatest velocity, least friction, by using the longest arrow.
RUBBING
7 ~
6 f-.
5 ~
4 f-.
3 ~
2 f.-+.
1 I-
RUBBING
A - LAMINAR FLOW
1 -_ _~~\
2------t~\
\
3----..-1
4-----.1
5-------'
6-----<7~
7-------1--1
1
B - VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION DURING LAMINAR FLOW
C - TURBULENT FLOW
Figure 4. Water flow in a conduit. 53

As pressure increases, the water stops moving in nice, even layers and
begins to swirl around, moving in one general direction. The SWirling action
(figure 4C) starts at the surface of the conduit and then affects the interior
layers. This type of flow is called turbulent flow.
Quantity of water flowing

With a given size hose, the greater the quantity of water pumped, the higher
the friction loss. Flow is measured in hundreds of gallons per minute and is
usually represented with the letter Q (Q = gpm + 100). Mathematically, friction
loss will increase approximately as the square of the discharge (Q2). Again, this
is an approximate figure because the formula is not exact. In addition to the
quality of the hose, water flow also depends on the type and size of the nozzle,
and the friction loss will vary as nozzle, hose and pressure factors change.
Example: If the flow through a hose line went from 200 to 600
gpm, how much would the friction loss increase?
Since the flow has tripled, friction loss will increase Q2 or 3 2= 9 times over
what it was when only 200 gpm were flowing.
Diameter of hose
The larger the diameter of the hose, the less the friction loss will be with the
same quantity of water flowing. Mathematically, it can be stated that friction
loss varies inversely as the fifth power of the diameter.
friction loss =.1..S

d
Example: If the diameter of a hose is tripled, how much would the

friction loss decrease with the same quantity of water flowing?
The friction loss will decrease as the fifth power:
friction loss = _ _----:1=--_ _ = _1_

3x3x3x3x3 243
So, if the original friction loss had been 243 psi and the hose diameter was
tripled, the new line would have a friction loss of
_l_x 243 = 1 psi

243
for the same quantity of water flowing.

Another way of reducing the friction loss is to increase the number of lines.
This, in effect, increases the diameter of hose available to carry the water.
Length
The length of the hose line directly influences the amount of friction loss.
The longer the hose line, the greater the friction loss. If the length is increased
three times, the friction loss also triples, if the discharge remains constant.
Example: If the friction loss in 400 feet of hose is 60 psi, what will
be the friction loss in 500 feet of the same size hose flowing the same
54 amount of water?
A proportion can be formed:
400 = 500
60 X
400X = 500 x 60
X= 500 (60)
400
X= 300
4
X= 75 psi
Also with this area, friction loss is affected by the manner in which the hose
lines are laid. The more bends, the greater the friction loss. The fireground
calculations take this fact into consideration, so it is only necessary to use the
length of the lay.
Quality and age of hose

New polyester hose jackets with rubber lining will have a different friction
loss than jackets made of cotton and lined with rubber. Even if the material for
the jackets is the same, the tightness of the weave will affect friction loss.
As pressure increases in a hose line, the ruEber lining is forced into the wov-
en jacket (figure 5A). The rubber liner then assumes the shape of the jacket
weave, the looser the jacket weave, the rougher the inner liner under pressure.
This increased roughness causes an increase in friction loss. Increased pressure
also tends to elongate the hose (figure 58). The elongation provides a different
shaped surface, thereby increasing friction loss.
As hose ages, the rubber liner tends to get rougher. In addition, as the hose
is used, foreign objects in the water supply system cause deterioration of the
liner.
ELONGATION CAUSES A
CHANGE IN SHAPE,
WHICH INCREASES
A FRICTION LOSS
RUBBER LINER FORCED INTO
WEAVE OF INNER JACKET
Figure 5. Water hose under pressure.
Appliances
Appliances such as siameses, wyes, and ladder pipes all add to the total fric-
tion loss because they restrict the waterway and disturb the smooth flow. The
amounts of friction losses added by these devices are discussed later in this
chapter. 55
Additives
Additives such as Rapid Water, a development of the Union Carbide Cor-
poration, reduce the friction loss in hose. These chemical additives tend to
change the flow characteristics in such a way that friction loss is reduced. Tests
have shown that 1 gallon of Rapid Water injected into 6000 gallons of water
will increase water delivery by 35 to 45 percent. The optimum injection is 1
gallon added to 3000 gallons of water, resulting in an increased delivery of 50
to 65 percent. Naturally, calculations and formulas assume no additives in the
water.
HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS
The entire objective of hydraulic calculations is to permit the pump operator
to determine the necessary engine discharge pressure for operating at the
scene. The basic equation for this is:
EP = NP + FL ± E, where
EP engine pressure in psi
NP nozzle pressure in psi
FL = friction loss in psi
+E = elevation in psi necessary to overcome pressure exerted
by height of discharge above the pump
-E = reduction in pSi, where the discharge is below the pump
So, the pump operator only needs to calculate each of these values. The
techniques for accomplishing these calculations are explained in the following
sections.
Nozzle pressure
Depending on the type of nozzle and its intended use, there are three main
nozzle pressures that must be considered. All fog nozzles, 1112, 21/2 and master
stream, can be considered to operate at maximum efficiency at 100 psi nozzle
pressure (figure 6). Smooth bore nozzles used as hand lines should be
operated at 50 psi, while smooth bore nozzles used for master streams are
designed to operate at 80 psi (figure 7).
A. 1 Yo-inch, 100-gpm, 100-psi B. 2Yo-inch, 240-gpm, 100-psi C. Master stream, 1 OOO-gpm,

Elkhart Brass. Elkhart Brass. 100-psi Elkhart Brass.
Figure 6_ Fog nozzles.
Friction loss calculations for 2 1/2-inch lines

Now, with the knowledge on how to calculate flow, values of friction loss
can be determined. There are two basic formulas used for calculating friction
56 loss in 2 1h-inch hose lines, the basic size used in hydraulic calculations.
A. Elkhart Brass smooth-bore hand nozzle. B. Elkhart Brass smooth-bore master stream
50 psi nozzle pressure. Nozzle diameter is nozzle. 80 psi nozzle pressure. Nozzle diameter
changed by changing tip. is changed by changing tip. .
Figure 7. Smooth-bore nozzles.
FL = 2Q2 + Q, where
FL friction loss in 100 feet of 2 1/2-inch hose
Q flow in gallons per minute divided by 100
Presently, there is some disagreement within the fire service concerning the
accuracy of this formula. Some proponents claim that too high a figure is ob-
tained if this formula is used. However, in tests recently conducted, it has been
my experience that this formula still approximates the friction loss in 2 1/2-inch
hose. New hose did show somewhat less loss, but the same brands that were a
few years old again had a friction loss that approximated this formula. In addi-
tion, some allowance must be made for the manner in which the hose lines are
laid. Friction loss calculations in this book will use this equation.
Equation: What is the friction loss in 400 feet of 2lj2-inch hose

flowing 300 gpm?
Step 1. Select the proper equation when flow is known and above 100
gpm:
FL = 2Q2 + Q
Step 2. Determine the formula values:
Q=300 3
100
Step 3. Solve the equation:
FL = 2(3)2 + 3
FL = 2 (9) + 3
FL = 21 psi/IOO feet
FL = 21 x 4 = 84 psi/400 feet
Friction loss calculations for small flows

The formula for calculating friction loss for flows that are less than 100 gpm
is:
FL = 2Q2 + l/2Q, where

FL = friction loss in 2 1/2-inch hose per 100 feet
Q = flow in gpm divided by 100 57
Example: What is the friction loss in 300 feet of 2lj2-inch hose

flowing 80 gpm?
Step 1. Select the proper equation for a flow less than 100 feet:
FL = 2Q2 + l/2Q
Q =~=.8
100

FL = 2(.8)2 + 1/2(.8)
FL = 2(.64) + .4
FL = 1. 68 psi/ 100 feet
FL = 1.68 x 3 = 5.04 psi/300 feet
Friction loss for 1 1/2, 3, 3 1/2 and 4-inch hose

One of the easiest ways to calculate the friction loss in hose other than
21/2-inch is the following:
Step 1. Calculate the friction loss as if the hose were 2 1/2-inch.
TABLE 2. Friction Loss in Fire Hose

3-inch
GPM 3/4-inch 1-inch 1 Yz-inch 1 %-inch 2-inch 2Yz-inch 2Yz-inch 3-inch
Coupling Coupling
10 13.5 3.5 .3
15 29.0 7.2 .7
20 50.0 12.3 1.7
25 75.0 18.5 2.6
30 105.0 26.0 3.7
35 142.0 35.0 4.8
40 44.0 6.2
45 55.0 7.6
50 67.0 9.4
60 94.3 13.1 4.3 2.2
70 126.0 17.5 5.9 3.1
80 22.5 7.6 3.9
90 27.8 9.0 4.6
100 33.5 11.1 5.7 2.5 1.2 1.2
110 37.6 13.4 6.8 3.0 1.4 1.4
120 45.5 15.3 7.8 3.6 1.6 1.6
130 54.5 20.7 10.2 4.3 1.9 1.8
140 26.3 13.1 5.2 2.1 2.0
150 31.5 16.2 5.8 2.5 2.3
160 36.4 18.5 6.6 2.9 2.6
170 41.2 20.8 7.4 3.2 2.9
180 45.2 22.9 8.3 3.6 3.2
190 49.0 25.0 9.2 3.8 3.5
200 53.0 27.2 10.1 4.0 3.8
210 29.6 11.1 4.4 4.2
220 32.0 12.0 4.6 4.6
230 35.2 13.0 5.3 5.0
240 38.2 14.1 5.8 5.4
250 40.8 15.3 6.2 5.9
260 16.4 6.8 6.3
270 17.5 7.3 6.7
280 18.7 7.8 7.2
58 290 19.9 8.4 7.7
FIRE GROUND HYDRAULICS
TABLE 2. Friction Loss in Fire Hose continued

3-inch
GPM 2%-inch 2%-inch 3-inch Siamese 3%·inch 4-inch 5-inch
Coupling Coupling 2% &3
300 21.2 9.0 8.2 3.7 2.2
310 22.5 9.7 8.7 4.0 2.5
320 23.8 10.3 9.3 4.2 2.6
330 25.3 10.9 9.9 4.4 2.7
340 26.9 11.6 10.5 4.7 2.8
350 28.4 12.3 11.0 5.0 2.9
360 30.0 13.0 11.5 5.2 3.2
370 31.5 13.7 12.2 5.5 3.2
380 33.0 14.4 12.8 5.8 3.3
390 34.6 15.2 13.4 6.0 3.5
400 36.2 16.0 14.1 5.9 6.3 3.7
420 40.0 17.7 15.4 6.5 6.8 4.0
440 43.8 19.4 16.8 7.1 7.4 4.4
460 47.2 21.3 18.2 7.7 8.0 4.7
480 51.1 23.1 19.7 8.3 8.7 5.1
500 55.0 25.0 21.2 9.0 9.5 5.5 2.0
525 23.2 10.5
550 25.2 11.4
575 27.5 12.4
600 29.9 12.7 13.4 7.7 2.6
625 32.0 14.4
650 34.5 15.5
675 37.0 16.6
700 39.5 16.8 17.7 10.3 3.5
725 42.3 18.9
750 45.0 20.1
775 47.8 21.4
800 50.5 21.5 22.7 13.2 4.4
825 53.5 24.0
850 56.5 25.4
875 59.7 26.8
900 63.0 26.7 28.2 16.4 5.8
950 31.2
1000 34.3 19.9 6.7
1050 37.8
1100 41.0 23.8 8.0
1150 44.6
Step 2. Multiply the 21/2-inch friction loss by the following factors:

11h-inch - 11
3-inch with 3-inch couplings - .38
3-inch with 2 1h-inch couplings - .4
31f2-inch - .17
4-inch - .091
Step 3. Multiply the friction loss of step 2 by the length of the hose line in
hundreds of feet.
Example: What is the friction loss when 300 gpm is flowing in 300
feet of Ilj2-inch hose and 4-inch hose?
Step 1. Calculate the friction loss for 21f2-inch line:
FL = 2Q2 + Q
FL = 2(3)2 + 3
FL = 21 psi
Step 2. Multiply by the conversion factors: Ph-inch - 11; 4-inch - .091:
21 x 11
231 psi/ 100 feet
21 x .091
1.9 psi/lOa feet 59
Step 3. Multiply by the length:

FLl'/2 231 x 300
100
693 psi/300 feet
1.9 x 300
100
6 psi/ 300 feet
As with many other calculations in hydraulics, friction loss can be deter-

mined in advance. Table 2 contains the common friction losses encountered
in the fire service. These values are more accurate than those calculated on the
fireground because of the inaccuracies introduced into the formulas in order to
simplify them.
Friction loss in unequal lengths of hose
Sometimes when dual lines are laid, they will be of unequal lengths. When
this happens, friction loss calculations can be based on the average length of
the hose lay. For example, if one line is 200 feet long and the other is 300 feet,
use the average length in calculating friction loss.
200 + 300 = 500 = 250 feet

2 2
So, if friction loss per hundred feet is 21 psi, the loss in 250 feet is
21 x 250 = 21 x 2.5 = 52.5 psi/250 feet

100
Friction loss in devices
Water flowing through large appliances such as ladder pipes and deck guns
will produce additional friction losses. These friction losses will vary with the
type of device, amount of water flowing, manufacturer, and age.
Each fire department should run flow tests to determine the friction loss in its
large-gallonage devices. For purposes of problem solving use 10 psi loss for
ladder pipes, deck guns and wagon pipes; use 5 psi loss for each siamese and
wye inserted in the line.
For elevating platform streams, the friction loss is dependent upon the pipe
size from the manifold to the basket. For friction loss in this pipe size refer to
table 3.
Friction loss in parallel lines
Friction loss in parallel lines can be determined by dividing the water equally
in the hose lines, provided the hose lines are of the same diameter, and then
calculating the friction loss for a single line. For example, if the flow through
two 21/2-inch lines is 600 gpm, then the flow through each 21/2-inch line is 300
gpm. The friction loss can then be calculated based upon 300 gpm flowing
through a single 21/2-inch line.
Another method for calculating friction loss in parallel lines is to calculate the
friction loss as if the entire amount of water was flowing through a single
21/2-inch line and then multiply the answer by the following factors:
two 21f2-inch lines - 1/4
three 21fz-inch lines - 1/8
one 21f2-inch and one 3-inch line - 1/6
60 two 3-inch lines - 1/9
TABLE 3. Friction Loss in Pipe

Pipe Size Flow Friction Loss per 100 Feet
4·inch 500 5.6
600 S.7
700 10.S
SOO 14.1
900 17.7
1000 21.S
5·inch 500 1.S
600 2.6
700 3.4
SOO 4.4
900 5.6
1000 6.S
6·inch 500 0.7
600 1.0
700 1.4
SOO 1.7
900 2.2
1000 2.7
Example: What is the friction loss in each of three parallel2lj2-inch

hose lines of 700 feet each, if the total flow is 800 gpm?
Step 1. Calculate the friction loss for 21/2-inch hose:

FL = 2Q2 + Q
FL = 2(8)2 + 8
FL = 2(64) + 8
FL = 136 psi/100 feet
Step 2. Multiply by the conversion factor 1/8:
F~_21h = 136 x 1/8

17 psi/ 100 feet
Step 3. Multiply by the length:

17 x 700
100
119 psi/700 feet
Friction loss simplification for the fireground

For ease of operation, a simple method of calculating friction loss in 100 feet
of 21/2-inch hose has been developed. This method, known as the hand
method, is shown in figure 8. Starting with the thumb, each finger is given an
odd number starting with 3 (3, 5, 7, 9 and 11). Again, starting with the thumb,
give each finger a discharge in hundreds of gallons per minute. For example, 1
for 100 gpm, 2 for 200 gpm, etc.
Now, using this method, for a flow of 400 gpm, the friction loss in 100 feet
of 21/2-inch hose would be 9 x 4 = 36 psi. Using this method, friction loss for
21/2-inch hose is:
Flow FL/I00 Feet

100 gpm 3 psi
200 gpm 10 psi
300 gpm 21 psi
400 gpm 36 psi
500 gpm 55 psi 61
Figure 8. Hand method for computing friction loss in 21/2-inch hose.

For 3-inch lines with flows up to 500 gpm, the operator can use:
This yields:
Flow FL/IOO Feet
100gpm 1 psi
200 gpm 4 psi
300 gpm 9 psi
400 gpm 16 psi
500 gpm 25 psi
Elevation
One of the laws of physics states that the pressures exerted by water at any
point in an open vessel is dependent upon its depth. This pressure can be
calculated by using several formulas and the physical fact that 1 cubic foot of
fresh water weighs 62.5 pounds.
If 1 cubic foot of water were divided into square inches (figure 9), there
would be 144 columns of water (12 by 12), each 1 foot high. Each column
would also have a base area of 1 square inch (1 inch by 1 inch). The pressure
at the base is solely dependent upon the weight of the water.
Since 1 cubic foot of fresh water weighs 62.5 pounds, then one of the col-
umns, 1 square inch at the base and 1 foot high weighs
__6_2_.5~p,"-0.:..u_n......:d......:s_ = .434 pounds per square inch

144 square inches
The significance of this value can best be shown in the following examples:
Example: What is the pressure at the bottom of a 100-foot-deep
&esh water lake, allowing that water is not compressible?
For each foot of depth, water exerts a pressure of .434 pounds. At 100 feet,
the pressures would be 100 times as great, so that
Pressure 100 feet x .434 psi
=
1ft
Pressure = 43.4 psi
Example: The water level of a reservoir Is 200 feet above a fire
62 hydrant. What Is the static reading at the hydrant?
Lake
1
Gage
Hydrant
The pressure exerted by water that is elevated is again equal to .434 psi for
every foot of elevation. For 200 feet of elevation the pressure would be:
Pressure 200 feet x .434 psi

1ft
Pressure 86.8 psi
Note that in neither of these examples was the amount of water nor the area
of the water mentioned. This is because the pressure is only dependent upon
the height, and with everything being referenced to 1 square inch, the area is
not needed.
For fireground operation, the value .434 psi per foot of elevation can be
rounded off to .5. This means that 112 psi per foot can be used. For a ladder
pipe elevated 60 feet in the air, back pressure can be estimated to be 112 x 60
= 30 psi.
This rule of thumb can also be used for standpipe calculation. A value of 5
psi per story above ground level can be used for back pressure in a standpipe
system. A connection four stories above ground level would have a back
pressure of 4 x 5 = 20 psi.
0.434 POUNDS
Figure 9. Pressure-height relationship. 63

Quantity of water flowing

On the fireground, the amount of water flowing is arrived at by means of
educated guesses. With certain types of nozzles, the flow can be determined by
calculation or from table 4. The flow is based upon the formula
Q= 29.7 x d 2 x VP X c, where
Q= flow in gpm
d = diameter of a smooth bore nozzle
p= nozzle pressure in psi
c = coefficient of discharge that varies
with the device (hydrant, nozzle)
TABLE 4. Discharge of Smooth Nozzles, Gpm
~
Q) ~
-m
:::tm Nozzle Size, Inches
o~
ZIl. 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1·1/8 (iMi:~t/
20 2.1 8.3 18 33 52 74 101 132 167 206
22 2.2 8.7 19 35 54 78 106 139 175 216
24 2.3 9.0 20 36 56 81 111 145 183 226
26 2.4 9.3 21 38 59 85 115 151 191 235
28 2.5 9.7 22 39 61 88 120 157 198 244
30 2.5 10.0 22 40 63 91 124 162 205 253
32 2.6 10.5 23 42 65 94 128 167 212 261
34 2.7 10.7 24 43 67 97 132 172 218 269
36 2.7 11.0 25 44 69 100 136 177 224 277
38 2.8 11.2 25 45 71 102 140 182 231 285
40 2.9 11.7 26 47 73 105 143 187 237 292
42 3.0 12.0 27 48 74 108 147 192 243 299
44 3.0 12.2 27 49 76 110 150 196 248 306
46 3.1 12.5 28 50 78 113 154 200 254 313
48 3.2 12.7 29 51 80 115 157 205 259 320
ifM/ 3.2 13.0 29 52 81 118 160 209 265 ')i_)'
52 3.3 13.2 30 53 83 120 164 213 270 333
54 3.4 13.5 30 54 84 122 167 217 275 339
56 3.4 13.7 31 55 86 124 170 221 280 345
58 3.5 14.0 31 56 87 127 173 225 285 351
60 3.5 14.2 32 57 89 129 176 229 290 357
62 3.6 14.5 32 58 90 131 179 233 295 363
64 3.7 14.7 33 59 92 133 181 237 299 369
66 3.7 15.0 34 60 93 135 184 240 304 375
68 3.8 15.2 34 61 95 137 187 244 308 381
70 3.8 15.2 35 61 96 139 190 247 313 3$6
72 3.8 15.5 35 62 97 141 192 251 318 391
74 3.9 15.7 36 63 99 143 195 254 322 397
76 4.0 16.0 36 64 100 145 198 258 326 402
78 4.0 16.2 37 65 101 147 200 261 330 407
80 4.1 16.5 37 66 103 149 203 264 335 413
82 4.1 16.7 38 67 104 151 205 268 339 418
84 4.1 16.7 38 67 105 152 208 271 343 423
86 4.2 17.0 38 68 107 154 210 274 347 428
88 4.3 17.2 39 69 108 156 213 277 351 433
90 4.3 17.5 39 70 109 158 215 280 355 438
92 4.3 17.5 40 70 110 160 218 283 359 443
94 4.4 17.7 40 71 111 161 220 286 363 447
96 4.5 18.0 41 72 113 163 222 289 367 452
98 4.5 18.2 41 73 114 165 225 292 370 456
100 4.6 18.5 41 74 115 166 227 295 374 461
105 4.7 19.0 42 76 118 170 233 303 383 473
110 4.8 19.2 43 77 121 174 238 310 392 484
115 4.9 19.7 44 79 123 178 243 317 401 495
120 5.0 20.2 45 81 126 182 249 324 410 505
125 5.1 20.5 46 82 129 186 254 331 418 516
130 5.2 21.0 47 84 131 190 259 337 427 526
135 5.3 21.5 48 86 134 193 264 343 435 536
140 5.4 21.7 49 87 136 197 269 350 443 546
145 5.5 22.2 50 89 139 200 273 356 450 556
64 150 5.6 22.5 50 90 142 202 278 363 458 565
TABLE 4. Discharge of Smooth Nozzles, Gpm (continued)

Cl)
Cl):;
-til
NtIl
NCl)
0 ...
Zil. 1·3/8 1·1/2 1·5/8 1·3/4 1·7/8 2 2·1/4 2·1/2 3
20 250 298 350 407 468 532 674 832 1198
22 263 313 367 427 490 557 707 874 1258
24 275 327 384 446 512 582 739 913 1314
26 286 340 400 464 533 606 769 947 1368
28 297 353 415 481 554 629 799 987 1420
30 307 365 429 498 572 651 826 1021 1468
32 317 377 443 514 591 673 854 1055 1518
34 327 389 457 530 610 693 880 1088 1565
36 336 400 470 546 627 713 905 1118 1610
38 345 411 483 561 645 733 930 1150 1652
40 354 422 496 575 661 752 954 1180 1700
42 363 432 508 589 678 770 978 1213 1740
44 372 442 520 603 694 788 1000 1236 1783
46 380 452 531 617 710 806 1021 1261 1819
48 388 462 543 630 725 824 1043 1290 1856
50 396 472 554 643 740 841 1065 1316 1892
52 404 481 565 656 754 857 1087 1342 1930
54 412 490 576 668 769 873 1108 1370 1970
56 419 499 586 680 782 889 1129 1397 2004
58 426 508 596 692 796 905 1149 1421 2040
60 434 517 607 704 810 920 1168 1445 2075
62 441 525 617 716 823 936 1187 1467 2110
64 448 533 627 727 836 951 1206 1489 2145
66 455 542 636 738 850 965 1224 1512 2179
68 462 550 646 750 862 980 1242 1533 2210
70 469 558 655 761 875 994 1260 1555 2240
72 475 566 665 771 887 1008 1278 1577 2272
74 482 574 674 782 900 1023 1296 1599 2302
76 488 582 683 792 911 1036 1313 1621 2336
78 494 589 692 803 924 1050 1330 1643 2365
80 500 596 700 813 935 1063 1347 1665 2395
82 507 604 709 823 946 1076 1364 1685 2425
84 513 611 718 833 959 1089 1380 1705 2455
86 519 618 726 843 970 1102 1396 1725 2480
88 525 626 735 853 981 1115 1412 1745 2510
90 531 633 743 862 992 1128 1429 1765 2540
92 537 640 751 872 1002 1140 1445 1785 2570
94 543 647 759 881 1012 1152 1460 1805 2598
96 549 654 767 890 1022 1164 1476 1825 2625
98 554 660 775 900 1032 1176 1491 1845 2654
100 560 667 783 909 1043 1189 1506 1860 2679
105 574 683 803 932 1070 1218 1542 1908 2745
110 588 699 822 954 1095 1247 1579 1948 2805
115 600 715 840 975 1120 1275 1615 1995 2870
120 613 730 858 996 1144 1303 1649 2035 2929
125 626 745 876 1016 1168 1329 1683 2080 2995
130 638 760 893 1036 1191 1356 1717 2120 3051
135 650 775 910 1056 1213 1382 1750 2160 3114
140 662 789 927 1076 1235 1407 1780 2198 3168
145 674 803 944 1095 1257 1432 1812 2240 3225
150 686 817 960 1114 1279 1456 1843 2278 3280
Reprinted with permission from The Waterous Company, St. Paul, Minn.
The 21/2-inch discharge butt of a fire hydrant will have a c value of from. 7 to
.9, depending upon the construction of the hydrant (figure 10). Smooth bore
nozzles will have a c value ranging from .96 to .99. Since the values .96 and
.99 are about 1. 0, the coefficient is sometimes deleted from the calculations for
smooth bore nozzles.
Example: How much water will be delivered from a 2lj2-inch

discharge of a hydrant with a .85 coefficient of discharge and an 8-psi
discharge pressure? 65
Q = 29.7 = d2 x vP X c
d = 2.5 inches
P = 8 psi
c = .85
Q 29.7 x (2.5)2 x VB x .85

Q = 29.7 x 6.25 x 2.83 x .85
Q 446.5 gpm
Example: How much water will be delivered from a 1 1/4-lnch

smooth bore nozzle if the nozzle pressure is 50 psi?
Q = 29.7 x d 2 X v'P X C
d = 1.25 inches
P = 50 psi
c = 1
Q 29.7 X (1.25)2 x v'5O x 1

Q 29.7 x 1.56 x 7.07 x 1
Q = 327.55 gpm
HYDRANT DISCHARGE
::. "
PROJECTION
INTO STREAM
ROUND CORNERS C=0.7
C=0.9
.....: .::'
::,..:: .... ...:.:.....::..
WATER FILLS
ENTIRE DIAMETER
SMOOTH NOZZLE
C = 0.96 TO 0.99
66 Figure 10. Coefficient of discharge.

Since the standard size nozzles available for the fire service are well known,
the flow from these nozzles at various pressures can easily be calculated using
the formula. Table 4 contains these calculations for nozzles from 1/8 to 3-inch
diameters, at pressures from 20 to 150 psi.
As an example in using the table, find the flow from a 11/4-inch nozzle at 50
psi discharge pressure. Read down the 11/4 column and read across the 50
row. At the point where they intersect, read the value 326 gpm. Note that this
value varies slightly from the flow calculated in the previous example. The
discrepancy is due to the use of a coefficient of discharge for the nozzle, which
reduces the value somewhat. The variation is less than .4 percent.
On fog nozzles, flow will also vary with nozzle pressure, but the nozzle
pressure is difficult to measure. In addition, various manufacturers with differ-
ing models will have different flows for the same size nozzle at the same nozzle
pressure. For this reason, when calculating using a fog nozzle certain standards
can be set.
11/2-inch nozzle - 100 psi nozzle pressure - 100 gpm

21fz-inch nozzle - 100 psi nozzle pressure - 240 gpm
Master stream nozzle - 100 psi nozzle pressure - 500 to 1000 gpm
If the.rated flow is known, then table 5 can be used to calculate the flows
from that particular nozzle. For example, suppose a 21fz-inch nozzle is rated at
240 gpm at 100 psi. What will this nozzle flow at a 70 psi nozzle pressure?
Locate the 240 gpm row in the left-hand column of table 5. Read across to
the 70 psi column. At 70 psi, this nozzle will flow 201 gpm.
Simplified fireground flow calculations

The formula Q = 29.7 X d 2 x vp X c can be simplified to Q = 30 X d 2
X VP, with c = 1 for smooth bore nozzles. With the three nozzle pressures
most used in the fire service (50, 80 and 100 psi). the calculations for the P can
be simplified to V50 = 7; v'8O = 9; V100 = 10.
For a 1-inch nozzle at 50 psi nozzle pressure, this calculation becomes:
Q = 30 X (1)2 X V50
Q=30x1x7
Q = 210 gpm
ENGINE PRESSURE CALCULATIONS

All of the material discussed so far in this chapter provides the background
information necessary for calculating engine pressure. A pump operator must
determine the proper engine pressure in order to deliver water in the most effi-
cient manner possible. The basic equation for engine pressure is:
EP =NP + FL ± E, where
EP =engine pressure in psi
NP =nozzle pressure in psi
FL =friction loss in psi
+E =elevation in psi, where the discharge
is above the pump
- E = elevation in psi where the discharge
is below the pump
Example 1: What should the engine discharge pressure be to sup-

ply 400 gpm through a 200 foot 2 1/2-inch line whose fog nozzle is
located 60 feet above the pump? 67
Step 1. Select the proper equation:
E.P. = NP + FL + E
NP fog nozzle 100 psi

FL (2 1h-inch) 2Q2 + Q
2(4)2 + 4
36 psi/ 100 ft
36 x 200 = 72 psi/lOa ft
100
+E = 60 x .434 = 26.04 psi
TABLE 5. Discharge of Fog Nozzles, Gpm
Rated
Flow of
Nozzle Nozzle Pressure in Pounds per Sq In
at 100 30 40 50 60 ::rr1:grm:: 80 90 100
psi (gpm) U.S. Gallons per Minute
9 5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
12 6.5 7.5 8.5 9 10 11 11.5 12
14 7.5 9 10 11 11.5 12 13 14
15 8 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13 14 15
18 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18
20 11 12.5 14 15 17 18 19 20
21 11.5 13 15 16 18 19 20 21
23 12.5 14.5 16 18 19 21 22 23
24 13 15 17 19 20 22 23 24
27 15 17 19 21 23 24 26 27
28 15 18 20 22 24 25 27 28
32 18 20 23 25 27 29 30 32
34 19 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
42 23 27 30 32 35 38 40 42
47 26 30 33 36 39 42 45 47
50 27 31 35 39 42 45 47 50
51 28 32 36 40 43 46 48 51
54 29 34 38 42 45 48 51 54
55 30 35 39 43 46 49 52 55
60 33 38 42 46 50 54 57 60
61 33 39 43 47 51 55 58 61
65 36 41 46 50 54 58 62 65
78 43 49 55 60 65 70 74 78
90 49 57 64 70 75 80 85 90
92 50 58 65 71 77 82 87 92
95 52 60 67 73 79 85 90 95
96 53 61 68 74 80 86 91 96
100 55 63 71 77 84 89 95 100
106 58 67 75 82 88 95 100 106
107 59 68 76 83 89 96 101 107
108 59 68 77 84 90 97 102 108
118 65 75 83 91 99 106 112 118
120 66 76 85 93 100 107 114 120
125 68 79 88 97 105 112 119 125
140 77 89 99 108 117 125 133 140
154 84 97 109 119 129 138 146 154
jjUllFr 131 152 170 186 r:ggi}} 215 228 240
250 137 158 177 194 209 224 237 250
280 153 177 198 217 234 250 266 280
400 219 253 283 310 335 358 379 400
500 274 316 354 387 418 447 474 500
700 383 443 495 542 586 626 664 700
1000 548 632 707 775 837 894 949 1000
1350 739 854 955 1046 1129 1207 1281 1350
68 2000 1095 1265 1414 1549 1673 1789 1897 2000
TABLE 5. Discharge of Fog Nozzles, Gpm (continued)

Rated
Flow of
Nozzle Nozzle Pressure in Pounds per Sq In
at 100 110 120 130 140 150 400 600
psi (gpm) U.S. Gallons per Minute
9 9.5 10 10.2 10.5 11 18 22
12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 24 29
14 14.5 15 16 16.5 17 28
15 16 16.5 17 18 18.5 30
18 19 20 20.5 21 22 36
20 21 22 23 24 24.5 40
21 22 23 24 25 26 42
23 24 25 26 27 28 46
24 25 26 27 28 29 48
27 28 30 31 32 33 54
28 29 31 32 33 34 56
32 34 35 36 38 39 64
34 36 37 39 40 42
42 44 46 48 50 51
47 49 51 53 56 57
50 52 55 57 59 61
51 53 56 58 60 62
54 57 59 61 64 66
55 58 60 63 65 67
60 63 66 68 71 73
61 ..e4 67 69 72 75
65 68 71 74 77 80
78 82 85 89 92 95
90 94 99 103 106 110
92 96 101 105 109 113
95 100 104 108 112 116
96 101 105 109 113 117
100 105 110 114 118 122
106 111 116 121 125 130
107 112 117 122 127 131
108 113 118 123 128 132
118 124 129 135 140 144
120 126 131 137 142 147
125 131 137 142 148 153
140 147 153 160 166 171
154 161 169 175 182 189
240 252 263 274 284 294
250 262 274 285 296 306
280 294 307 319 331 343
400 420 438 456 473 490
500 524 548 570 592 612
700 734 767 798 828 857
1000 1049 1095 1140 1183 . 1225
1350 1416 1479 1539 1597 1653
2000 2098 2191 2280 2366 2449
Reprinted with permission from Akron Brass Company, Wooster, Ohio
EP = 100 + 72 + 26 = 198 psi
Example 2: What engine pressure is necessary to deliver 200 gpm

through 200 feet of 21f2-inch hose to a fog nozzle on level ground?
r ~
fog nozzle
200gpm
~__p_u_m_p_er____~ 2oo-ff-e-et----------~
69
Step 1. Select the proper equation with a known flow:
EP=NP+FL+E
NP = fog nozzle = 100 psi

FL = 2Q2 + Q
2(2)2 + 2
10 psi/ 100 ft
10 x 200 = 20 psi/200 ft
100
E = 0 (level ground)
EP = 100 + 20 +0
EP = 120 psi

to a deck gun with a fog nozzle, through two 3-inch lines over a
300-foot distance? The deck gun is 20 feet higher than the pumper.
3 inch
300 feet
EP = NP + FL + E with flow being known'

NP = 100 psi
FL21h = 2Q2 + Q
Q = 3 (each line carries 300 gpm)
FL = 2(3)2 + 3
FL21h = 21 psi/100 ft
FL3 = 21 x .4 = 8.4 psi/100 ft
8.4 x 3 = 25.2 psi/300 ft
FL (deck gun) = 10 psi
FL = 25.2 + 10 = 35.2 psi
+E = 20 x .434 = 8.68 psi

EP = NP + FL + E
EP = 100 + 35.2 + 8.68
70 EP = 144 psi

to a deck gun with a 1-5/ 8-inch tip through 200 feet of 2-1/ 2-inch
and 200 feet of 3-inch parallel lines? The deck gun is 10 feet below
the pumper.
200 feet
-.-
2112 inch
10 feet
-'-
Step 1. Select the proper equation, with flow being known:
EP=NP+FL-E
NP = straight tip, master stream = 80 psi

Fl:!lh = 2Q2 + Q
Fl:!1f2 = 2(7)2 + 7
FL21f2 = 105 psi! 100 ft
FL21f2 + 3 = 105 x 1/6
17.5 psi! 100 ft
Fl:!lh +3 = 17.5 x 200
100
= 35 psi! 200 ft
FLDG = 10 psi
FL = 35 + 10 = 45 psi
-E = -10 x .434 = -4.34
EP= 80+45-4
EP = 121 psi
Example 5: What engine pressure is necessary to supply the setup

shown in the illustration:
T80
feet
1 71
Step 1. Select the proper equation with flow being known:
EP=NP+FL+E
NP = 100 psi for a fog nozzle
From siamese to nozzle

FL:!'h = 2Q2 + Q
= 2(5)2 + 5
55 psi/ 100 ft
F~ = 55 x .4 = 22 psi/100 ft
From pumper to siamese

Q = 500 = 250 gpm in each line
2
FL:W2 = 2(2.5)2 + 2.5
15 psi/100 ft
15 x 300 = 45 psi/300 ft
100
FLsiam = 5 psi
FLLP = 10 psi
FL = 22 + 45 + 5 + 10 = 82 psi
+E = 80 x .434 = 34.72
EP = 100 + 82 + 35 = 217 psi
Example: What engine pressure is necessary to supply the setup

shown in the illustration?
T
60
feet
Step 1. Select the proper equation, with flow being known:
EP=NP+FL+E
NP = fog nozzle = 100 psi

72 FI"iPe = 21.8 (table 3)
Q= 1000 500 gpm

2
FL211z 2Q2 + Q
2(5)2 + 5
55 psi/ 100 ft
FL3 55 X .4 = 22 psi/IOO ft
FL3 = 22 x 300 = 66 psi/300 ft
100
FLLP = 10 psi
FLmani = 5 psi
FL = 66 + 10 + 5 + 22 103 psi
+E = 60 x .434 = 26 psi
Step 3. Solve the equation.
EP = 100 + 103 + 26 = 229 psi
Example 7: What engine pressure is necessary to supply to

200-foot 2lf2-inch hand lines, supplied from a 300-foot length of
3-inch line, with a I-inch nozzle tip at 50 psi nozzle pressure?
1 inch tip,
200 feet 2 1/2 inch 50 psi NP
Pumper },._--.,,--~,: fee" ~ .::
200 feel 2 1/2 Inch 1 inch tip,

50 psi NP
Step 1. Select the proper equation, when flow is unknown:
Q = 29.7d 2 vP c
After flow is calculated:
EP = NP + FL + E
Q= 29.7 X (1)2 x V50 x 1

29.7 x 7.07
210 gpm in each 21/2-inch line
NP = 50 psi, straight tip, hand line
From wye to nozzle:
FL211z 2(2.1)2 + 2.1
10.92 psi/IOO ft
11 x 200 = 22 psi/200 ft
100
FLwye = 5 psi 73
From pumper to wye:

FL21h = 2Q2 + Q
Q = 210 + 210 = 420 gpm
F~lh = 2(4.2)2 + 4.2
39.48 = 39 psi/lOO ft
39 x .4 = 15.6 = 16 psi/lOO ft
16 x 300 = 48 psi/300 ft
100
E= o
FL = 22 + 5 + 48 = 75 psi
EP = 50 + 75 + 0 = 125 psi
74
Chapter 7
Introduction to
Pump Operation
The progress in the dE?velopment of pumps was closely tied to the progress
made in the field of hydraulics. Limitations caused by lack of sufficient, easily
accessible water supplies created the need for a mechanical device that could
move water from one location to another for firefighting use. One of the
earliest mechanical devices, or pumps, was developed about 200 B.C. by
Ctesibius. This pump consisted of two brass cylinders with carefully fitted
pistons that drew water through valves at the base and discharged it through
outlet valves into a chamber.
In other areas of the world, even cruder devices were being used as pumps.
Marco Polo reported that professional firefighters in Cathay used hand-
operated siphons as pumps and crude hose fashioned from oxen intestines
about 1300 A.D.
Leather hose with brass fittings was first made in Holland in 1672. This hose
was made from the finest cowhide, with the seams carefully sewn together.
Sleeves, for drafting water from the source to the pump, were made of heavy
sailcloth with stiff paint, reinforced with metal rings to prevent them from col-
lapsing when subjected to a negative pressure by the pump. A brass strainer
was lowered into the water source. This helped to keep the hose and pump
free from dirt.
Firefighting in this country began with the Dutch in New Amsterdam (New
York). In the early 1600s, they established a night fire watch and required that
each household have a leather bucket for use in fighting a fire. In 1679, Boston
Figure 1. A 1731 Newsham hand pumper from New York City. 75

purchased the first fire engine - a small, hand-drawn, hand pumper. In 1731,
New York City received its first two hand pumpers, built in England by Richard
Newsham (figure 1). With 10 men operating. on each side, this pumper could
deliver enough water for a single stream. The pumper had a small built-in re-
servoir called a cistern, that had a capacity of 170 gallons. However, since the
pumper didn't have drafting sleeves, the engine could not lift water into the cis-
tern, and water had to be supplied by buckets carried by hand. To speed up the
process of filling the cistern, a multiple bucket carrier was developed (figure 2).
Figure 2. A multiple bucket carrier.

While hose had been developed in Europe, it had not yet come into use in
America. Lines did not exist that could be brought into a building to fight fires.
A stream of water was directed from the nozzle or pipe which was firrrily at-
tached to the pumper.
In the 1820s, the gooseneck engine evolved as a distinctly American-style
engine. It was large and bulky and required 12 men to pull it to fires. Hose was
developed that could be attached to this apparatus so that rarely operations
from the water source to the fire could be set up. Also, this unit carried sleeves
for drafting water into the pumper as well as hose which could be attached to it.
Firefighters were now able to move the nozzle from the engine and stretch it
closer to the fire. The hose that went from the engine to the fire was called the
discharge hose. It was made of leather, came in 50-foot lengths with brass
couplings, and weighed about 90 pounds per length.
Although rubber-treated hose was introduced in 1827, and woven-cotton
and linen hose was used prior to 1827, these more practical materials did not
begin to replace leather hose until late in the 19th century. In some of the
smaller fire departments, the use of leather hose persisted until the 1900s.
As stated before, a pumper was only as good as the water supply available.
While technology indicated that larger pumps, with greater capacity, could be
built, the development of suitable water systems did not grow at the same
pace.
One of the early water supply conduits was developed in Boston in the early
1800s to bring water from the outskirts to the downtown area in order to sup-
ply water for fire department use. The system consisted of a 15-mile length of
pitch pine logs with 3 or 4-inch bores. Every half block, a wooden plug (or·igin
of the term "fire plug" for hydrant) was inserted into the pipe. This plug could
be removed in case of fire and water could be withdrawn from the log at this
point. Unfortunately, the flow was so weak that very little water could be with-
drawn. Since this system was unsatisfactory, water had to be taken from wells
and cisterns; reservoirs were strategically located and supplied from these wells
sunk in the vicinity. Of course, this method required long relays of pumping
engines to bring the water from the source to the fireground. This was a time-
consuming procedure to set up, especially because of the time it took for many
of the pumpers to arrive.
Relays, of course, were limited in length by the amount of hose carried on
the apparatus. Additional hose was carried to the fire on the shoulders of the
76 firefighters, but the 90-pound hose made this method ineffective. The solution
INTRODUCTION TO PUMP OPERATION
to this problem was the development of a two-wheel, box-like cart, that carried
50-foot, coiled lengths of hose." When fire companies demanded still more
hose, the two-wheel hose reel known as a jumper, leader cart, or tender was
developed. This device carried 600 feet of hose and could be hand-drawn, or
pulled by attaching it to the tail hook of the engine (figure 3).
Figure 4. Hose carriage belonging to Weiner

Figure 3. A two-wheeled hose reel. Hose Company 6, Kingston, N.Y.
Separate hose companies were formed because the number of people
needed to lay hose could not be spared from the engine companies. The hose
companies, desiring distinctive apparatus, developed the four-wheel hose car-
riage that usually carried 1000 feet of hose and weighed between 1200 and
1500 pounds (figure 4). To wind the hose on the drum, a winch handle
operated a series of gears that turned the drum.
Many different types of hand-operated pumpers were developed during the
1800s. The Philadelphia-style engine was an end-stroke type with the pump-
ing mechanism located in the front and back of the apparatus. Some of these
engines had two sets of pumping handles (double-decker brakes), so that more
water could be pumped (figure 5).
Another type of hand pumper, which appeared about 1850, was the piano
or squirrel tail pumper. This apparatus had a permanently attached drafting
hose which was swung up over the top of the engine when not in use and se-
cured by a large brass pipe. The walking beams or cross arms of the pumping
device were slotted so that leverage could be altered without changing the
depth of stroke. The pumping handles (brakes) could also be folded when not
in use.
Figure 5. A 1853 Philadelphia-style hand pumper. 77

Figure 6. First steamer in the United States, 1853, Cincinnati, Ohio.

The first steam fire engine was built in 1829 in London. When the steam
pumper was introduced, the volunteer firefighters refused to accept or use it
because they felt it threatened their firefighting jobs. They even went as far as
to refuse to supply water to any steamer on the fireground. The steamer, how-
ever, did have arithmetic working in its favor. For example, it could take the
place of 12 hand pumpers, with a resulting manpower saving of from 50 to 75
men per pumper. It was obvious that this manpower savings would cause
many municipal governments to favor the steam pumper over the hand
pumper.
The City of Cincinnati put the first steamer in the United States in operation
in 1853 (figure 6). Weighing over 22,000 pounds and propelled by steam with
the aid of four horses, it was also able to pump six hose lines at the same time,
a feat that was impossible with a hand machine. Even though steel and brass
began to replace the cast iron construction of the steamer so that it was lighter,
horses still were needed to pull the apparatus.
Early steam fire engines, like their predecessors the hand pumpers, were
piston-type pumpers. However, as the steam era progressed, rotary-type
pumpers gradually replaced the piston types.
While firefighters were reluctant to accept the horse-drawn steamer, they
were even more resistant to accepting gasoline engines. In 1906, Wayne, Pa.,
acquired a gasoline-driven engine. Other attempts at gasoline power involved
replacement of the horses with a completely self-contained, two-wheeled
engine. This two-wheel tractor could be dismounted from the steamer and
replaced with another tractor whenever the motor needed repairs (and that
78 Figure 7. Gasoline engine drives both pump and engine.

was frequently). By 1910, gasoline engines that would both drive the ap-
paratus and operate the pump were developed (figure 7).
The development of the gasoline engine was paralleled by the progress
made with the centrifugal pump. This was a major step because the gasoline
engine could drive the centrifugal pump at high revolutions per minute, thus
permitting greater discharge, at higher pressures, for a more efficient
operation.
Pumpers have progressed to the point where they can deliver 2000 gallons
per minute, carry 1000 gallons of water in a booster tank, and have 2000 feet
of 3-inch hose (figure 8). The Super Pump System of the New York City Fire
Department can pump 8800 gpm at a pressure of 350 pounds per square
inch. This means that the pumper could supply 30 hose lines or from 10 to 20
small-bore deck guns with a total of more than 37 tons of water a minute
(figure 9).
The fire service has come a long way since Ctesibius invented the piston
pump. From the hand pumps which required 50 men to operate, pumping 60
to 120 strokes per minute, to the steamer with its rotary pump, the fire service
pumpers have evolved to modern apparatus and centrifugal pumps. Industrial
development, high-rise buildings, suburban sprawl, new materials, and large
crowded cities will continue to force technological advances in the field of
pl,lmps and pumpers. As the future unfolds, many new innovations will be
introduced.
Figure 8. 1969 Barton American pumper in the Berlin, Md., Fire Department.
Figure 9. Overview of the New York City Fire Department's Super Pumper. 79
Chapter 8
Positive Displacement
Pumps
With the field of pumps and pumpers expanding, and new innovations and
technologies being developed, "The fire apparatus driver/operator shall dem-
onstrate how to operate the different types of fire department pumpers used by
the authority having jurisdiction."·
One type of pump used by the fire service is positive displacement, which in-
cludes piston and rotary pumps. One of the rules of hydraulics states that
pressure from the outside, when applied to water in a confined area, will be
distributed to all parts of the area without decreasing in value. It is on the basis
of this rule, the fact that water is incompressible, that a positive displacement
pump works.
Positive displacement means that the volume of space within the pump will
be the amount of water that the pump can deliver on one stroke or revolution.
A mechanical method of increasing the volume, causing a pressure drop,
brings the water into the pump. Then, when the volume is decreased, the in-
creasing pressure forces the water out. The two major types of positive dis-
placement pumps are piston and rotary pumps.
PISTON PUMPS
As discussed in the previous chapter, water pumps were known thousands
of years ago. These early pumps were positive displacement pumps, more par-
ticularly, piston pumps (figure 1A).
Piston pumps for firefighting today are being used for high-pressure applica-
tions (figure 18) and on apparatus for combatting brush and woods fires.
The quantity of water that can be delivered from a piston pump is deter-
mined by:
1. The size of the piston,
2. The length of the stroke,
3. The number of strokes per minute (rpm), and
4. The number of cylinders.
Lift pump
The most basic type of piston pump is the lift pump. The lift pump will only
discharge water under a small amount of pressure. The major components of
Paragraph 3-6.4. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Profes-
sional Qualifications, Copyright© 1982, National Fire Protection AsSOCiation, Quincy, Massachusetis 02269. This reprinted
material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the
80 standard in its entirety.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
Figure lAo Early piston pumper. Figure lB. John Bean high-pressure piston pump.
Figure Ie. Ahrens-Fox piston pumper.

the lift pump (figure 2A) are: the inlet to bring water into the lower chamber;
the inlet valve for allowing water into the pump cylinder; the piston for moving
the water; the piston valve for allowing the water to pass into the upper
chamber; and the discharge for allowing water to leave the upper chamber.
The pump operates as follows:
Step 1. The piston begins operation at the bottom of the pump cylinder.
With no movement of the piston, both the inlet and piston valves are closed
(figure 2B). At this time, the pump cylinder is filled with air, the lower chamber
has no volume, and the upper chamber has all the volume.
Step 2. Now the piston is moved upward (figure 2C). As the piston moves
upward, the volume in the lower chamber increases. This results in a decrease
in pressure. Atmospheric pressure on the water is greater than the internal
pressure of the lower chamber and water is pushed up into the lower chamber,
opening the inlet valve. In the upper chamber, the rapid decrease in volume
causes a temporary increase in pressure (temporary because the discharge is
open to the atmosphere), which keeps the piston valves closed. At the max-
imum height of the piston, the lower chamber is filled with water.
Step 3. When the piston starts down again, the increased pressure in the
lower chamber closes the inlet valve (figure 2D). Since water is incompressible,
it goes into the upper chamber by opening the piston valve.
Step 4. The piston now starts its upward movement again (figure 2E). The
lower chamber volume increases, pressure decreases, the inlet valve opens,
and water enters the lower chamber. The water in the upper chamber, being
incompressible, has no place to go as the volume is made smaller. The piston
valve closes and the water is forced or lifted out the discharge.
Step 5. The procedure is repeated with water being discharged with each
upward movement of the piston.
This pump is a positive displacement pump because the amount of water 81
MECHANICAL
t--_ _ _ OPERATING
DEVICE
NO MOVEMENT
1 - - - - PUMP CYLINDER
OF PISTON
. . . . ; - - - - UPPER CHAMBER
- ....~-- PISTON
BOTH
VALVES
INLET VALVE CLOSED
INLET
A. MAJOR COMPONENTS B. STEP 1
1 PISTON
MOVING
UPWARD
PISTON
MOVES
DOWNWARD
PISTON PISTON
VALVE VALVE
CLOSED OPENED
PISTON
VALVE
CLOSED
INLET INLET
INLET VALVE VALVE
VALVE CLOSED OPENED
OPENED r""""'++""""""""
C. STEP 2 D. STEP 3 E. STEP 4

Figure 2. Lift pump.
pumped is directly dependent upon the volume of water that the pump
cylinder will hold. (It is also dependent upon other factors which will be dis-
cussed later in this chapter.) This type of pump is also known as a single-acting
pump because water is pumped only on one strike (1/2 stroke cycle).
Note that the pump starts by being filled with air and then the air is replaced
by water. No other devices are necessary to remove the air from the pump. All
positive displacement pumps are, therefore, considered self-priming.
Pressure pump
The pressure piston pump is a device that uses the piston to force water out
the discharge. By regulating the amount of force applied by the piston, the
pressure under which the water is discharged can also be regulated (figure 3A) .
This pump operates as follows:
Step 1. As the piston begins its upward movement, the increased volume of
the lower chamber causes reduced pressure (figure 3B). Water is then pushed
upward into the lower chamber. The lower pressure inside the lower chamber
also keeps the discharge valve closed.
Step 2. When the piston moves downward, the increased pressure closes
the inlet valve and opens the discharge valve (figure 3C). Water is then forced
out the discharge under pressure. The amount of pressure at the discharge
82 opening depends on the size of the opening.
MECHANICAL
OPERATING
DEVICE
UPPER
DISCHARGE
VALVE
CLOSED
INLET
A. MAJOR COMPONENTS
B. STEP 1
DISCHARGE VALVE
OPENED
INLET VALVE
CLOSED
C. STEP 2
Figure 3. Pressure pump.
Step 3. The procedure is repeated with water being discharged with each
downward movement of the piston.
This pump is also a positive displacement, single-acting and self-priming
pump.
Both the lift pump and the pressure pump will deliver water only during one
stroke. This means that the firefighter on one end of the line would experience
a spurt of water and then nothing while the piston was on its return stroke. This
is not acceptable for firefighting.
Air chamber for piston pumps

To overcome this difficulty, an air chamber is connected to the discharge
side of the pump. Figure 4 shows the air dome on an Ahrens-Fox piston
pumper. The air chamber (figure 5A) operates as follows:
Step 1. As the piston moves upward, the increased volume of the lower
chamber causes reduced pressure (figure 5B). Water enters the lower chamber
as the discharge valve slides shut.
Step 2. When the piston moves downward, the increased pressure closes
the inlet valve and slides open the discharge valve (figure 5C). Water is then
forced out the discharge piping and into the air chamber. Since the nozzle
diameter is much smaller than the discharge piping diameter, water that cannot 83
Figure 4. Piston pump air chamber.
AIR ~ MECHANICAL
CHAMBER OPERATING
DEVICE
PUMP
-CYLINDER 1 PISH)r,
M()VIN()
UPWARU
UPPER
CHAMBER
,...-~~
PISTON
DISCHARGE
DISCHARGE~
VALVE
CLOSED
PIPING
INLET
DISCHARGE ~__~~__~~VALVE
VALVE OPENED
INLET
A. MAJOR COMPONENTS B. STEP 1
RESTORED
TO
ABOVE
ATMOSPHERIC
!
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
PISTON
MOVING
DOWNWARD PISTON
( MOVING
UPWARD
DISCHARGE
VALVE CLOSED
INLET INTAKE
VALVE VALVE
CLOSED OPENED
C. STEP 2 D. STEP 3
84 Figure 5. Operation of a piston pump with air chamber.

be discharged out the nozzle is forced into the air chamber. The air within the
chamber is now compressed by the water increasing the air pressure above
atmospheric.
Step 3. Now the piston begins its upward movement again, and there
should be no discharge (figure 50). However. with the discharge valve closed,
the air pressure in the air chamber causes the water to flow out the nozzle
under pressure. Thus. on the nonpumping stroke, water continues to flow,
smoothing out the pump discharge.
Step 4. The procedure is repeated. with water being discharged during both
strokes of the piston.
It should be remembered that the flow with this type of pump is still not very
smooth. A comparison of what the discharge might look like is shown in
figure 6A.
The piston pump without the air chamber will have a period without any
water being delivered during the return stroke (figure 6B); with an air chamber,
this gap is filled in with water being supplied. Note, however, that a smooth,
constant amount of water is still not being delivered.
The size of the air chamber is determined by the amount of water to be
pumped. The larger the pump. the larger the air chamber that is needed.
RETURN AIR
STROKE CHAMBER
TIME---_~ TIME---_
..
A. WITHOUT AI R CHAMBER B. WITH AIR CHAMBER
Figure 6. Discharge of piston pumpers.
Double-acting piston pump

One way to smooth out the delivery of a piston pump (and also increase its
output) is to use a double-acting pump. A double-acting pump takes in water
and pumps on both the forward and return strokes. In order to accomplish
this, a dual set of intake and discharge valves are necessary (figure 7 A). The
pump operates as follows:
Step 1. As the piston moves upward (figure 7B), the volume increases, the
pressure decreases, a the water from. the intake opens intake valve 1 (IV 1).
Water that is already in the piston's upper chamber forces IV 2 to close and
opens discharge valve 2 (OV2).
Step 2. As the piston starts its downward movement, (figure 7C), IV 1 and
OV2 are forced closed. IV 2 opens to allow water into the upper chamber and
OVI opens to allow water to be discharged.
Step 3. '[he procedure is repeated with water being discharged during both
strokes of the piston.
Now, if an air chamber were added to a double-acting piston pump, the
discharge might appear as shown in figure 8. The water delivery is still
somewhat uneven.
Multiple-cylinder piston pumps

The final method for smoothing out the discharge is to use multiple
cylinders, each discharging at a slightly different time interval. Both single-
acting and double-acting piston pumps can be used with multiple cylinders.
Single-acting pumps are usually arranged so that they change directions at 85
INTAKE VALVE 2
DISCHARGE VALVE 2
INTAKE
I
UPPER CHAMBER
DISCHARGE
PISTON
A. Major Components
IPISTON
MOVING
UPWARD
IPISTON
MOVING
DOWNWARD
IV2 CLOSED DV 2 CLOSED IV 2 OPENED DV 2 OPENED
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
IV 1 OPENED DV 2 CLOSED IV 1 CLOSED DV 1 OPENED
B. Step 1 C. Step 2
Figure 7. Double-acting piston pump.
PISTON TRAVEL UPWARD
1
QUANTITY
PISTON TRAVEL DOWNWARD
TIME
Figure 8. Discharge of a double-acting piston pump with air chamber.
staggered intervals. This not only smooths out the water delivery curve, but
helps to balance out the pump.
Double-acting pumps, with multiple cylinders, must be arranged in pairs.
Again, the change in direction of travel is staggered so that a smooth discharge
is achieved and balance of the pump is maintained.
Slippage
In the construction of piston pumpers, it is extremely important that very
close tolerances be used between the wall of the cylinder and the piston. These
86 close tolerances are necessary to prevent water from slipping back to the intake
side of the piston from the discharge side. However, because some space is
necessary, a small amount of water does get back. This backward movement
from discharge to intake is called slippage. As the piston wears, the amount of
slippage increases until the piston head has to be replaced.
ROTARY PUMPS
Rotary pumps for firefighting were developed long after the piston pump.
Although they reached their peak of use as main fire pumps during the era of
the steamer, they were adapted to the gasoline-powered engine. While their
use as a main fire pump has declined, their self-priming ability makes them
useful on modern-day apparatus as priming pumps. In addition, rotary pumps
make excellent auxiliary pumps.
The quantity of water that can be delivered from rotary pump is determined
by:
1. The amount of space between gear teeth,
2. The number of revolutions per minute.
While the number of pistons used in a piston pump affects the quantity
delivered, increasing the number of teeth of a rotary pump does not produce
more water. Of sole importance on a rotary pump is the amount of space be-
tween the teeth.
Rotary pumps can be divided into three general categories: rotary gear,
clover leaf, and eccentric rotary vane.
Rotary gear and clover leaf

Rotary gear and clover leaf types of rotary pumps operate in thea same man-
ner, except for a differing number of gear teeth. The rotary gear design usually
has eight gear teeth (figure 9), although other amounts can be found; the
clover leaf always has three teeth (figure 10). These pumps operate as follows:
Step 1. Water or air enters the intake and is picked up between the teeth of
the gear. Either of the gears may be driven (rotated by a power source) or
sometimes both gears can be driven.
Step 2. As the teeth rotate, the water is moved toward the discharge
opening.
Step 3. As the space between teeth reaches the discharge opening, water or
air is forced out. The water or air has no place to go due to the meshing of the
gear teeth, and is, therefore, forced out the discharge. Pressure is built up as
DISCHARGE
Figure 9. Gasoline-powered rotary gear pump. 87

DISCHARGE
Figure 10. Clover leaf pump.
Figure 11. Clover leaf pump with wear rod.
the rapidly turning teeth force more water out the discharge. The meshing of
the gear teeth also prevents water from returning to the intake side of the
pump.
As in the case of the piston pump, slippage occurs, with one of the biggest
causes being wear. To overcome this deficiency, a clover leaf pump with wear
rods was designed (figure 11). The rod is kept against the housing by a spring
to provide a better seal and to reduce slippage. As the rod wears down, the
spring pushes it out further to continue to seal the housing. When the wear has
exceeded the available limits, just the wear rod must be replaced rather than
88 the whole clover leaf assembly.
Rotary vane
To operate, the rotary vane pump uses only a single rotor, which is off-
center (figure 12). The pump operates as follows:
Step 1. Water or air enters the intake because the increasing space between
the vanes causes a pressure drop. The vanes are kept against the housing by
INTAKE
DISCHARGE
Figure 12. Rotary vane pump.
centrifugal force and sometimes a spring is used to assist in keeping the vanes
in place.
Step 2. As the vanes rotate, the water is moved toward the discharge
opening.
Step 3. As the water or air nears the discharge opening, the space narrows
because the rotor is off center. The water or air, having no place to go, is
forced out the discharge, thus building up pressure.
As with the other rotary pumps, slippage occurs due to water being by-
passed around to the intake side of the pump.
Air chamber for rotary pumps

Rotary-type pumps deliver a fairly steady stream of water. This is ac-
complished by gearing the teeth so that as one space finishes discharging, the
opposite gear has a space that is just beginning to discharge. However, as
pump size and flows increase, 750 gpm or higher, an air chamber is needed.
This air chamber does not have to be quite as large as that for a piston pumper,
but it operates in the same manner.
89
Chapter 9
Centrifugal Pumps
While a positive displacement pump discharges a definite volume of water
for each cycle, a non-positive displacement pump discharges a volume of
water based upon its inherent resistance to movement. The force exerted on
the water depends on the speed at which the pump is operating.
One type of non-positive displacement pump operates on the theory of a
rapidly spinning disk to create a force known as centrifugal force. This is the
most common type of pump used in the fire service and is known as a
centrifugal pump.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify the operating principles of
single stage and multiple stage centrifugal fire pumps.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given pump models or diagrams, shall
identify the major components and trace the flow of water through single stage
and multiple stage centrifugal pumps.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a fire department pumper with a
multiple stage pump, shall demonstrate the use of the volume/pressure
transfer valve under actual pumping conditions." *
While the principles of operation for all centrifugal pumps are the same,
each major manufacturer varies the method of moving the water. After a
general discussion applicable to all pumps, we will cover the individual dif-
ferences of the major manufacturers.
Centrifugal force
If a small amount of water were placed at the center of a rotating disk, the
water would be thrown outward (figure 1). The rotating effect moves the water
from a standing position by imparting a horizontal velocity. If the speed of rota-
tion were increased, the water would be thrown farther. The force that makes
rotating bodies move away from the center of rotation is known as centrifugal
force.
Another way of demonstrating centrifugal force is to attach a string to a
paper cup half full of water. Begin to swing the string and cup in an ever-
increasing arc until finally completing a full circle. The water remains within the
cup due to centrifugal force. This force applies a pressure on the surface of the
liquid in the cup much greater than the force of gravity and atmospheric
pressure combined.
'Paragraphs 3-1.2, 3-1.3 and 3-6.7. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982. Standard for Fire Apparatus
Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright@1982, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
90 ject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
I _ _ _ HEIGHT REACHED
WH EN R EVOL VI NG
_ _ _ORIGINAL LEVEL
OF WATER
Figure 1. Centrifugal force from a Figure 2. Conversion of centrifugal force from

rotating disk. velocity to pressure.
Now to show the conversion of velocity to pressure, place a glass of water on

a revolving disk (figure 2). As the disk turns, the water will be thrown to the
sides, but because it is confined within the walls, the level will rise. In the
previous chapter, height of water was shown to be directly related to pressure
head. So, by confining the liquid as it is rotated, the centrifugal force can be
changed to pressure head. The height of the liquid within the container
depends on the speed of rotation.
The three factors that regulate the effectiveness of a centrifugal pump -
pressure, speed and quantity - are all interrelated. If pressure is kept con-
stant, then an increase in speed will increase the quantity. If the quantity is kept
constant, an increase in speed will cause an increase in pressure. With speed
kept constant, an increase in pressure will cause a decrease in quantity:
speed
= quantity
pressure
Pump components
The major components of a centrifugal pump (shown in figures 3 and 4) are:
Impeller - The impeller is the major component of the centrifugal pump,
because it provides the velocity to the water. The impeller is mounted on a
shaft which is rotated by some type of motor power (figures 3, 4 and 5). (The
various methods of driving the impeller are covered in Chapter 10.)
Water enters the rapidly revolving impeller at the intake or eye (figures 4 and
5), and is confined by the sides, called shrouds, and by the vanes inside the im-
peller. As explained, confining the water forces it toward the outer edge at
increased pressure.
Additional pressure is created because the outer edge of the impeller is
rotating faster than the eye due to the increased diameter at the edge. This
means that water travels a greater distance near the discharge than at the in-
take, and a greater pressure results.
The vanes guide the water from the inlet to the discharge and minimize the
turbulent effect that spinning water produces. The vanes are curved away from
the direction of rotation so that the natural movement of the water will carry it
to the edge.
Figure 6 traces a drop of water from the eye of the impeller to the discharge
outlet. Note that in step 7 of the figure, just as the drop reaches the outer edge, 91
Figure 3. Cross section of a centrifugal pump.
Figure 4. Impeller shaft components.
92 Figure 5. Impeller components.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
PUMP BODYy ~
SINGLE DROP OF WATER
-:'t"T-"rl-+-- SUCTION EYE

OF IMPELLER
,___-IMPELLER VANES
WATER LEAVING SUCTION EYE OF IMPELLER WATER INSIDE VANES
@ @)
{ (
BEGINNING OUTWARD TRAVEL PICKING UP OUTWARD SPEED
@ @
( (
BEGINNING TO ROTATE WITH IMPELLER REACHING OUTSIDE EDGE OF IMPELLER
(j) @
( (
WATER BEING HURLED OUT OF IMPELLER PATH TAKEN THROUGH PUMP BODY
AND OUT DISCHARGE PASSAGEWAY
Figure 6. Operation of a centrifugal pump. 93

the maximum opening of the vane is at the discharge. The impeller is also posi-
tioned off-center so that the discharging tube is at its widest at the pump outlet.
The gradually increasing discharge allows a gradual shift by reducing velocity
and increasing pressure. The gradually increasing discharge is known as the
volute.
Impellers can be either single-suction or double-suction, depending on the
flows and pressures required. On the single-suction type, water enters on the
one side with the eye, while a double-suction impeller has two eyes, with water
entering from both sides.
One of the factors that affects the capacity of the pump is the size of the im-
pellers. However, the pump is rated from a draft condition, which means a
negative pressure at the eye of the impeller. When operating from a pressure
source such as a hydrant, the pump can discharge greater quantities of water
than its rated capacity. One of the major advantages of centrifugal pumps over
the positive displacement pump is that it takes advantage of incoming
pressure. For example, if hydrant pressure to the pump is measured at 50 psi,
and the centrifugal pump is rated at 150 pSi, it is then able to apply the 150
pounds to the incoming supply at 50 pounds and discharge a maximum of 200
psi. A high volume of water under sufficient pressure may allow the pump to
deliver up to 200 percent of its rated capacity.
Wear or clearance rings - As the water leaves the discharge, it is
necessary to prevent it from returning to the eye of the impeller. Centrifugal
pumps use a wear or clearance ring at the eye of each impeller to prevent this
leakage (called slippage in a positive displacement pump). (See figures 3, 4
and 5.)
This ring usually has a clearance of about .006 inch. This small opening will
increase as the pump is operated, and the ring is designed for replacement.
However, if the pump should be run without water or without discharging
water, the pump will overheat, the rings will expand, and damage to the pump
and the drive mechanism can occur.
Bearings - The bearings provide support and alignment for the impeller
shaft so that a smooth rotation under the dynamic stress of water flow can
occur (figures 4 and 5).
Packing - Pump packing is the device that allows the impeller shaft to pass
from the outside of the pump to the inside while maintaining an airtight seal
(figures 3 and 4). At each entrance or exit of the shaft, packing and a packing
gland are installed. The packing material is designed to be lubricated by pump
water. The packing gland should, therefore, not be tightened too tightly for the
packing material will dry out, crumble, and cause pump damage. Another way
of causing the packing material to dry out is to keep the pump dry for long
periods of time during the winter months. If the pump is kept dry to prevent
freezing, then at least once a week the pump should be charged with water to
lubricate the packing.
Flinger ring - Since water is designed to keep the packing material wet, a
method is needed to keep the water from continuing to travel the impeller shaft
to the gears and ball bearings. This is accomplished by a flinger ring, which
throws water off of the impeller shaft.
Stages - The number of impellers mounted on a common shaft determine
the number of stages of a pump. The additional stages allow some versatility in
operating the pump at various pressures and flow, while keeping the drive
motor operating in a manageable range.
Single-stage pumps have been developed that will deliver the same range of
volume and pressures as a two-stage pump. Improvement in engine design
and ease of operation (no transfer valve) make the single-stage pump a
94 popular design.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 4 shows a two-stage pump with two impellers mounted on the same
shaft. Figure 7 is a cut-away view of a four-stage pump.
The two-stage pump can handle large quantities of water at low pressures,
or small quantities of water at high pressures at approximately the same engine
speed.
Just as clearance rings are needed at the eye of each impeller, an interstage
seal is necessary to prevent water from the discharge of one impeller entering
the other impeller (figures 3 and 4).
Transfer valve - To make maximum use of the versatility of a multistage
pump, a transfer valve is used. This is a two-position valve that allows the im-
pellers to be operated either in parallel (volume) position, or series (pressure)
position.
When the transfer valve is placed in the parallel (volume) position, each im-
peller receives water independently. In effect, it acts as two separate pumps.
In figure 8, the transfer valve has been set for parallel. There is a 20-psi
pressure at the inlet to the pump, with each impeller delivering 500 gpm. With
the tranfer valve set, the 20-psi pressure forces the flap valve open so that the
eye of each impeller has this pressure. Each impeller now builds up the
pressure by 150 psi, so that the discharge from each impeller is now 170 psi.
The 500 gpm delivered from each impeller reaches the discharge where the
total amount of water being supplied by the pump is 1000 gpm at 170 psi.
Now, if the transfer valve were changed to series (pressure), only the first im-
peller would receive water from the intake (figure 9). The 20-psi intake
Figure 7. Four-stage pump.

TRANSFER VALVE DISCHARGE
~~~__~__~ •.~__3_20_P_SI
{r 500GPM
INLET
INTAKE
Figure 8. Two-stage centrifugal pump Figure 9. Two-stage centrifugal pump
set in parallel. set in series. 95
pressure at the eye would be increased by 150 psi at impeller 1, so that 500
gpm at 170 psi would flow into the eye of impeller 2. The pressure differential,
170 psi versus 20 psi, would keep the flap valve closed. The 170-psi, 500-QPm
flow would be increased at impeller 2 by another 150 psi, so that the discharge
would be 320 psi at 500 gpm.
One of the most frequent questions is: When should the transfer be made?
Generally, the pump should be operated so that engine rpm is kept within the
most optimum range. While for gasoline engines this means at the lowest
possible rpm, for diesel engines this might not be the best procedure to follow.
Optimum operating rpm for a diesel engine is usually higher than for an
equivalent gasoline-driven engine. The pump operator should follow the
manufacturer's recommendation whenever possible.
However, as a general guideline, transfer to the parallel position if the pump
has to deliver more than 50 percent of its rated capacity. This would be 500
gpm for a 1000-gpm pumper and 625 gpm for a 1250-gpm pumper.
The details of how each manufacturer achieves the series-parallel operation
follow:
American LaFrance
The American LaFrance pump is a series-parallel centrifugal type with a
volute-shaped discharge. The fire pump is mounted midship on the pumper,
behind the engine (figure 10).
The impeller shaft is supported by a floating bearing at the forward end,
which is cooled by pump water passing through the clearance spaces and
returning to the first-stage suction (figure 11). The rear of the shaft is supported
by two ball bearings.
Figure 10. American LaFrance pump mounted on a chassis.

There are two impellers mounted on the shaft between the two sets of bear-
ings (figure 12). On the rear of the shaft are five ring-type shaft packings. Be-
tween the two inboard and the three outboard packings is a latern ring that acts
as a grease seal (figures 11 and 12).
The hydraulic transfer valve is operated completely by water pressure from
the pump, with the position of the valve being controlled by pressure dif-
ferences in the cylinder and within the header (figures 13 and 14). The valve
travels between and seats against valves seats A and B, with corresponding
movement of the piston, which is integral with the valve. A selector valve on
the pump panel (figure 15) is arranged to admit either pump inlet or discharge
pressure into the outer end (area 5 of figure 13) of the transfer valve.
In parallel operation, the selector valve is set at the CAPACITY-PARALLEL
position and pump discharge pressure is admitted into the cylinder. Assuming
96 that the transfer valve is at the midpoint of its travel, water at discharge
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 11. Cross section of American LaFrance pump.
Figure 12. Cutaway of American LaFrance pump. 97

L E F T - RIGHT
SELECTOR
VALVE
FROM ON PANEL
PUMP
SUCTION
Figure 13. American LaFrance hydraulic transfer valve.
Figure 14A. Cross section of American LaFrance transfer valve.
98 Figure 14B. Cross section of American laFrance transfer valve.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 15. Selector valve on pump panel.
pressure is now flowing through areas 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 of figure 13.

However, the area on the face of the piston at area 5 is much larger than the
face of the other piston. With the pressures the same, the force in pounds per
unit area will be greater at the larger piston, and the piston will move to the left
until the valve seats against A (figure 16). Areas 1 and 2 (figures 13 and 16)
will be at inlet pressure, while areas 3,4 and 5 will be discharge pressure. Due
to the difference in area, an even greater force is created to hold the valve in
the capacity position.
For series operation, the selector valve is set at the PRESSURE-SERIES
position and cylinder 5 (figures 13 and 16) is opened to the pump intake line.
Discharge pressure in chambers 3 and 4 will then cause an unbalanced force,
due to the difference in area between the valve head and the piston. This un-
balanced force starts the valve moving to the right.
A. Capacity·Parallel 8. Pressure..series
Figure 16. Schematic diagram of American LaFrance transfer valve. 99

SWING CHECK VALVE OPEN

SWING CHECK VALVE OPEN
Figure 17. Water flow in the American LaFrance pump.
Now water under discharge pressure (figures 13 and 16) will enter chambers
land 2, increasing the force. The valve completes its travel, seating against
seat B.
Figure 17 shows that in series position, there ale three chambers at different
pressures. Chambers 1, 2 and 3 are at first-stage pressure, chamber 4 is at
second-stage pressure, and chamber 5 is at intake pressure. Through dif-
ferences in the area on which they act, these three pressures combine to form
an unbalanced force to hold the transfer valve in the series position.
A. Cutaway view of pump B. Impeller arrangement
Figure 18. American fire pump.
American
The American Pump Company is the only major manufacturer producing a
multistage pump which contains two different size impellers, each mounted on
100 a separate shaft (figure 18). The valve is arranged so that the larger impeller
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 19. American transfer selector.

can deliver a large volume, while the smaller impeller produces reduced flow
in the area of 200 psi. The two impellers can then be operated in series for
pressures of 250 psi or higher.
When the pump selector (figure 19) is set in the series S position, both im-
pellers are engaged. Water enters the first impeller, the pressure is increased,
and the water is discharged into the second impeller (figure 20A). The in-
creased pressure forces the flap valve closed. Impeller 2 increases pressure and
discharges it into the manifold, thus forcing open poppet valve 2. Poppet valve
1 is kept closed by the difference in discharge and intake pressure.
When the selector is set to the P Rosition, for pressure operation, only the
pressure impeller turns (figure 20B) . 'Since impeller 1 is not turning, the intake
pressure forces the flap valve open. Impeller 2 increases the pressure, which
forces open poppet valve 2 and permits the water to flow into the discharge
manifold. Poppet valve 1 is kept closed by the pressure difference between
discharge and intake.
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
A. Series operation B. Pressure operation C. Capacity operation
Figure 20. Operation of the American transfer control. 101

By setting the selector to C, for capacity operation, only the capacity im-
peller turns (figure 20C). Intake pressure enters impeller 1, pressure is in-
creased, and water is discharged into the manifold, forcing open poppet valve
1. The discharge from impeller 1 also is used to keep the flap valve closed.
Poppet valve 2 is kept closed by the pressure differences between discharge
and intake.
The poppet valves (figure 21) are necessary to prevent water under pressure
from the discharge from flowing back into the other impeller. These valves also
allow the priming of the pump with the discharge valves open.
Figure :n. A.merican pump poppet valve.
Darley
The Darley type S or SH pumps (figure 22) are either two stages or three
stages and are mounted midship. Water flow through the pump (figure 23) is
directed from the pump panel by a rod which controls the transfer valve. When
the rod is out, the valve is in the volume position.
In the parallel position, the transfer valve allows water to flow to both im-
pellers while blocking the crossover (figures 23 and 24). This is actually a brass
valve in a brass sleeve.
When switching to series, the output of the first-stage impeller is blocked
from going to the discharge and instead is routed to the intake of the second
impeller (figure 25). In addition, the increased intake pressure to the second
102 Figure 22. Darley pump.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
THR[£~STAGE
DISCHARGE
SINGLE~STAGE
DISCHARGE
SUCTION SUCTION
PUMP IN PARALLEL PUMP IN SERIES
Figure 23. Flow diagram of Darley Champion fire pump.
Figure 24. Darley transfer valve.

impeller closes the first-stage check valve. This valve (figures 26 and 27) is
forced open during parallel operation.
The Darley transfer valve can also be operated by vacuum or air-powered
devices as an option.
Hale
The Hale two-stage pump is designed so that the discharge from each im-
peller occurs on opposite sides and supplies opposing volutes (figure 28).
To control flow, Hale uses both a manual and power transfer valve. The
transfer valve uses the water developed within the pump to perform the 103
Figure 25. Darley transfer valve.
Figure 26. Darley check valve open.
104 Figure 27. Close up of Darley check valve in the open position ..
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 28. Hale two-stage pump.
A. Schematic diagram
375 GALLONS
o # PRES.
3000 R.P.M.
PUMP SHAFT
TRANSFER VALVE SET

FOR PRESSURE OPERATION
B. Cutaway drawing
Figure 29. Hale pump in pressure position. 105
transfer. A four-way valve (figures 29A and 29B) has a supply line from the
pump discharge and one from the intake. It also has two lines connected to a
power cylinder, one to each end of the water chamber. Figures 29A and 29B
show the pump operating in the pressure mode, with the discharge pressure
keeping the cylinder in position.
To transfer the pump, the four-way valve is switched to the volume position.
This reverses the position of the pressure lines to the power cylinder (figures
30A and 30B). With the discharge pressure at the bottom and only intake
pressure at the top, the power cylinder moves up and the transfer occurs. The
transfer valve will only operate if water is flowing.
If for any reason this valve will not operate, it can be turned manually, either
by using a wrench on the hexagonal shaft (figure 31) or by inserting a 3/8-inch
rod in the hole provided in the shaft. The shaft can then be turned until the in-
dicator shows the desired position.
Several variations on this power system have been developed by Hale.
Some pumps are supplied with power operations th9t use compressed air from
the apparatus air brake system to accomplish the transfer. In these cases, a
valve similar to the one in the hydraulic transfer is used, but it is supplied with
DI
750 GALLONS
0# PRES.
3000 R.P.M.
PUMP SHAFT
PUMP IN PARALLEL (VOLUME) OPERATION
B. Cutaway drawing
106 Figure 30. Hale pump in volume position.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
air pressure on one side and atmospheric pressure on the other. This pressure
difference, usually about 90 psi, will cause the piston to move as described
above.
In another variation, some Hale pumps use a vacuum-type transfer (figure
32). This 'system uses the supply of vacuum from the intake manifold of the
truck. The pressure or volume button is depressed, and the engine vacuum
line is interchanged with atmospheric pressure between the ends of the
cylinder, causing the transfer to occur.
Water flow in the series and parallel positions is shown in figures 33 and 34.
The Hale single-stage pump delivers the required water by using a double-
suction, single impeller (figure 35). Because it has only one impeller, no
transfer valve is required. Flow through the single-stage pump is shown in
figure 36.
The single-stage pump also uses the opposed discharge volute cutwaters to
ensure radial hydraulic balance (figure 37).
Figure 31. Hale pump panel transfer valve indicator.
Figure 32. Hale pump panel vacuum transfer valve.
Seagrave
The Seagrave fire pump is a two-stage, pressure-volume type, with two im-
pellers mounted on the same shaft. By operating a transfer valve, the pump
can be used to supply rated capacity at reduced pressure or to supply reduced
capacity at high pressures (figure 38).
The pump shaft is supported by three water-lubricated bearings and a ball
bearing at the drive end to take any unbalanced end thrust. 107
I
375 U. S. GALLONS WATER
A
0" PRESSURE STATIONARY
FIRST STEP IN SERIES OPERATION

375 U. S. GALLONS OF WATER ENTER PUMP AT LEFT, FLOWING THROUGH
SUCTION CHANNEL #1. THIS WATER IS COLORED GRAY. GRAY WATER IS
DRAWN INTO FIRST IMPELLER (MARKED AI THROUGH OPENING "Y",
THE EYE OF THE IMPELLER.
375 U. S. GALLONS
125~ PRESSURE
125~ PRESSURE
x TRANSFER VALVE SET FOR A
SERIES OPERATION
(PRESSUREI
SECOND STEP IN SERIES OPERATION

AS WATER ENTERS FIRST IMPELLER A, WE COLOR IT 1:::::::::::::\
!:::·:·:·:;:;:·IWATER LEAVES IMPELLER A AT EDGE OF IMPELLER AND ENTERS
UPPER CHANNEL #2 AT 125 LBS. PRESSURE. TRANSFER VALVE X IS SET
FOR SERIES OPERATION. WATER PASSES DOWN THROUGH VALVE X AND
ENTERS LOWER CHANNEL #3 ON FAR SIDE OF PUMP. CHECK VALVES C
AND D ARE CLOSED BY PRESSURE OF WATER. G:m;JWATER ENTERS SECOND
IMPELLER B, SHOWN IN [m
TRANSFER VALVE SET FOR 375 U. S. GALLONS

SERIES OPERATION 125" PRESSURE
(PRESSURE)
THIRD STEP IN SERIES OPERATION
AS WATERS SECOND IMPELLER B, WE COLOR IT~
~ WATER LEAVES IMPELLER B AT TOP EDGE AND ENTERS CHANNEL
#4 WITH PRESSURE DOUBLED, I.E., AT 250 LBS.
THE WATER (375 GALLONS AT 250 LBS.I LEAVES PUMP AT EITHER END
OF CHANNEL #5, THROUGH DISCHARGE VALVES.
Figure 33. Hale pump operating in series.
The transfer valve is operated hydraulically by pump pressure. A four-way

valve connects from the pump discharge and pump intake to a water-operated
cylinder which connects to an arm of the transfer valve (figure 38). The two
flap valves, one on each side of the pump at the inlet to the second-stage im-
peller, operate automatically (figure 39).
When the transfer valve is set to the pressure position (figure 40A) , the
discharge pressure is connected to the cylinder at the right side. This pressure is
higher than the intake pressure on the left side, so that the cylinder moves to
the left. This connects the discharge of impeller 1 to the intake of impeller 2.
The valve which accomplishes this is shown in figure 40B.
108 To transfer to volume, the valve is switched. This places the high discharge
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
FIRST STEP IN PARALLEL OPERATION

750 U. S. GALLONS OF WATER ENTER CHANNELS #1 AND #3, 375 GALLONS
INTO EACH CHANNEL. CHECK VALVES C AND D OPEN. WATER COLORED
GRAY. WATER SHOWS ON ENTERING IMPELLERS A AND B FROM
CHANNELS "1 AND #3 AT SAME TIME.
SECOND STEP IN PARALLEL OPERATION

WATER SHOWS !;:;:;:;:;:;::I ON LEAVING EDGES OF IMPELLERS A AND B. WATER
SIMULTANEOUSLY ENTERS UPPER CHANNEL #2 FROM IMPELLER A AND
UPPER CHANNEL #4 FROM IMPELLER B.
TRANSFER VALVE "X" IS SET FOR DIRECT·THROUGH FLOW, FOR PARALLEL
OPERATION. A TOTAL OF 750 U. S. GALLONS AT 125 LBS. PRESSURE CONTINUES
OUT OF EITHER END OF THE CHANNEL, THROUGH DISCHARGE VALVES.
Figure 34. Hale pump operating in parallel.
Figure 35. Hale single-stage pump.
pressure on the left side and the low intake pressure on the right side (figure
41A). The cylinder moves to the right and now both impellers are connected
to the intake. The valve which accomplishes this is shown in figure 41B.
Water flow from the Seagrave pump is shown in figure 42. For ease of un-
derstanding, the diagram only shows inlet on one side and discharge on the
other. There are actually inlets and discharges on both sides of the pump.
Waterous
While Waterous manufactures many different kinds of pumps, from single-
stage to four-stage, the most popular one for fire service use is the eM-series.
This series is a two-stage pump with a transfer valve (figures 43 and 44) de- 109
FLOW OPERATION
1000 GALLONS OF WATER ENTERS SUC-

TION CHANNELS A AND B. WITH 500
GALLONS INTO EACH CHANNEL. WATER
COLORED GRAY. WATER TURNS g. ON
ENTERING DOUBLE SUCTION IMPELLER
FROM 80TH SUCTION CHANNELS A AND B.
1000 GALLONS OF WATER PASS THROUGH

THE IMPELLER AND DUAL VOLUTE,
CHANGING FROM SUCTION PRESSURE TO
DISCHARGE PRESSURE. DISCHARGE
WATER COLORED []I. THEN ENTERS
CHANNEL C AND EXITS THROUGH THE
DISCHARGE VALVES.
Figure 36. Water flow through the Hale single-stage pump.
110 Figure 37. Opposed-discharge volute cutwaters on a Hale single-stage pump.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Figure 38. Seagrave fire pump.
Figure 39. Seagrave flap valve.
Figure 40A. Schematic diagram of a Seagrave pump operating in pressure. 111

Figure 408. Water control valve on a Seagrave pump operating in pressure.
INTAKE
HIGH
PRESSURE
B. Water control valve

112 Figure 41. Seagrave pump operating in volume.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
DISCHARGE
SUCTION
DISCHARGE
A. Volume position
SUCTION
CLAPPER VALVE
CLOSED
B. Pressure position
Figure 42. Seagrave pump water flow.
Figure 43. Waterous two-stage pump.
Figure 44. Waterous impellers. 113

signed for midship mounting . Figures 3 and 4 show the components of the
Waterous eM pump .
Transfer is accomplished by an electric transfer valve actuator (figure 45) . As
an optional feature, a manual control can be connected for operation in case of
electrical failure . When the switch is held in pressure position, the cylinder rod
extends, rotating the transfer valve (figure 46). This connects the discharge of
impeller 1 to the intake of impeller 2 and also forces the flap valve closed
(figure 47 A) . When the valve has completed the transfer, a pressure lamp
switch is closed , lighting the pressure lamp (figures 45 and 46).
Figure 45. Waterous transfer valve switch.
114 Figure 46 . Waterous transfer in pressure position.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
A. Closed
B. Open
Figure 47. Waterous flap valve.
INTAKE
ELECTRIC
MOTOR
Figure 48. Waterous transfer in volume position. 115
To transfer to volume, the switch is'held down. The cylinder rod retracts,
rotating the transfer valve (figure 48). This connects the discharge of both im-
pellers to the manifold of the pump. The flap valve opens due to reduced
pressure and the eye of each impeller receives water from the intake (figure
478). When the valve has completed the transfer, a volume lamp switch is
closed, lighting the volume lamp (figures 45 and 48).
Water flow for the volume and pressure positions of the transfer valve is
shown in figure 49.
TRANSFER VALVE
SECOND STAGE IMPELLER
DR IVEN PIN ION -..-flUI1IIII
PARALLEL (VOLUME)
[@N HIGH PRESSURE
EACH IMPELLER PUMPS HALF OF THE TOTAL VOLUME BEING
DELIVERED. EACH IMPELLER DEVELOPS THE SAME PRESSURE. ~~~::::::j INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE
THE TRANSFER VALVE ROUTES WATER FROM THE FIRST
STAGE IMPELLER DIRECTLY TO THE PUMP DISCHARGE. /;:;::::3 SUCTION
TRANSFER VALVE
SECOND STAGE IMPELLER
SERIES (PRESSURE)
EACH IMPELLER PUMPS ALL OF THE TOTAL VOLUME BEING

DELIVERED. EACH IMPELLER DEVELOPS HALF OF THE TOTAL
PUMP PRESSURE. THETRANSFER VALVE ROUTES WATER FROM
THE FIRST STAGE IMPELLER TO THE SECOND STAGE SUCTION.
SUCTION FLAP VALVES ARE CLOSED BY THIS PRESSURE.
AT A CONSTANT IMPELLER SHAFT SPEED, WHERE CHANGING FROM
PARALLEL TO SERIES OPERATION, PRESSURE IS DOUBLED AND
VOLUME HALVED.
Figure 49. Waterous water flow.
116
Chapter 10
Pump Drives
Now that we've discussed the two types of pumps (positive displacement
and centrifugal) and how they operate, let's concern ourselves with getting
them the power needed to operate.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify three methods of power
transfer from the vehicle engine to the pump. . .
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a fire department pumper used
by the authority having jurisdiction, shall demonstrate the method(s) of power
transfer from vehicle engine to pump."·
Engines used in fire department pumpers are generally those that have been
designed for commercial service; although a few manufacturers utilize com-
mercial developments to produce motors exclUSively for fire service use.
However, no matter what the origin of the motor design, the engine must be
chosen to provide the correct torque to drive the apparatus as well as the
pump. These engines can have from six to 12 cylinders.
HORSEPOWER
The amount of power or work that can be produced by an engine is
measured in terms of the unit horsepower. (While the terms "work" and
"power" are not synonymous in scientific terms, they will be used interchange-
ably in this book.) Horsepower is defined as the amount of work necessary to
move 33,000 pounds a distance of 1 foot in 1 minute. This can be shown with
the equation:
1 horsepower 33,000 pounds x 1 foot

=
1 minute
The common rating for the amount of power which an engine can deliver is
brake horsepower (BHP). There are normally two measurements for BHP
given for each motor - gross brake horsepower and net brake horsepower.
The gross brake horsepower rating, while determined by actual tests, does
not accurately reflect the amount of work which the engine can deliver. This is
due to the folloWing test adjustments:
1. Temperature at carburetor is corrected to 60°F.
2. Air pressure is corrected to 29.92 inches of mercury.
'Paragraphs 3-5.1 and 3-6.1. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus
Driver/Operator ProfeSSional Qualifications, Oopyright©1982, National Fire Protection ASSOCiation, Quincy,
Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced sub- 117
ject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.
3. Engine is run without fan alternator or generator, air cleaner, governor,

or air compressor.
4. Exhaust system altered for more efficient removal of gases.
Each of these changes eliminates items that will decrease the amount of
horsepower available for driving the pump. For this reason the net brake
horsepower more accurately reflects the amount of power that can be pro-
duced by a particular engine.
-
..
BASIC AND NET ENGINE PERFORMANCE
MODEL BY 71N N70 INJECTORS FIRE TRUCK APPLICATION
866 LB. FT.

~.JQJ. -
900
800 LB. FT. 850
800
360 766 LB. FT.
6J8 1lsl. h 750
700
650
340 CERTIFIED PERFORMANCE
AT CONDITIONS SHOWN FOR ... 350 BHP
AMERICAN LA FRANCE
32 0
H.l{.F~
H.U. FUHRMANN, 2/24/66 ". ~
300
.o$!
28 0
/1 o~",,. 2~7 IsJp
". ,..-I-~ "I .....r
260 .,'1' A
AATED POWER OUTPUT
240 GUARANTEED WITHIN 5% AT
NET ENGINE PERFORMANCE--
22 0 AIR TEMP 85°F. ELEV. 500 FT.
.- _fRr AIR DEN~:I~O~~~I~~j~:
200
AIR INLET TEMP GO°F.
BAR. (DRY) 29.92 HG
180 (SEA LEVElj
~ ACCESSORIES'
16 0 FAN-26" GSl x 3 J{ P.W. 520
"":-' 1.2:1 DRIVE RATIO
~~Ei~A2~5~O~~~NEO - 500
480
460
440
- FUEL CONSUMPTION
'1""1-1-1""'
420
400
380
'200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400

ENGINE SPEED-RPM
Figure 1. Engine performance curves.
Figure 1 shows an engine performance curve for a Detroit Diesel model

8V-71N engine as modified for fire truck application. The gross brake
horsepower for this engine is shown as 350 BHP, while the net brake
horsepower is 297 BHP. While the horsepower curves stop abruptly, this does
not mean that above 2300 rpm no power is produced. What it does mean is
that the engine is governed at 2300 rpm, which is a point slightly below peak
power. Above peak power the curve would ~all off rapidly, so that an increase
in rpm would cause a decrease in brake horsepower.
When only gross BHP ratings are given, an accurate estimate of net perfor-
mance can be made by subtracting 15 percent of the gross amount from the
entire gross amount. This can be expressed as
Net BHP = Gross BHP - .15 (Gross BHP)
Example: If the gross brake horsepower is 280 BHP, what is a

workable estimate of the net brake horsepower?
Step 1. Determine the correct equation:
Net BHP = Gross BHP - .15 (Gross BHP)
Gross BHP 280

.15 (Gross BHP) 280 x .15
118 42
PUMP DRIVES
Net BHP = 280 - 42 = 238 BHP

One other interesting point is the origin of the term "brake" horsepower. In
order to measure the horsepower, a scientific instrument called a dyna-
mometer was used to measure force. One of the dynamometers was called the
Pony Brake. From the name of this instrument came the term brake
horsepower.
TORQUE
A second method of specifying power developed by the engine is called
torque. This is the ability of the engine to produce rotation at a given speed.
The relationship between torque and horsepower can be expressed as
Torque (lb/ft) = Horsepower x 5252

rpm
The torque curves in figure 1 show that· 800 pounds/feet of torque is

developed for the maximum gross BHP, while 678 pounds/feet of torque is
developed for the maximum net BHP. Note that the maximum torque is devel-
oped at 1600 rpm.
Example: Using the curves of figure 1, calculate the torque at 1800
rpm, using the net brake horsepower curve.

Torque = Net BHP x 5252
rpm

Net BHP = 260 (figure 1)
RPM = 1800
Torque =
260 BHP x 5252
1800
Torque = 758.6 lbs/ft
Step 4. Check the results on the curve:
For 1800 rpm, the torque curve shows approximately 760 pounds/feet, us-
ing the scale on the right side of the curve.
WATER HORSEPOWER
Just as brake horsepower is an indication of the amount of work available
from an engine, water horsepower (WHP) is the amount of work that can be
performed by a pump.
The basic horsepower equation states that
1 HP = 33,000 pounds x 1 foot

1 minute 119
If it takes 33,000 pounds to move 1 foot in 1 minute to equal 1 horsepower,

it will take 1/33,000th of the original value to move 1 pound, 1 foot in 1
minute. The general equation for the amount of horsepower developed for
each minute of work can then be expressed as
HP = 1 x pounds x feet
33,000
Every gallon per minute pumped weighs 8.34 pounds, and each psi of
pressure developed in equivalent to 2.31 feet. The equation can now be
written
WHP = (8.34 lbs x gpm) (2.31 ft x lbs)

33,000
WHP = gpm psi x 8.34 x 2.31
X
33,000
gpm x psi x 19.27
WHP =
33,000
WHP = gpm x psi
33,000
19.27
gpm x psi
WHP =
1713
The efficiency of the pump depends on many factors. It is impossible for all
of the horsepower being developed by the engine to produce work by the
pump. Losses can be caused by mechanical action and hydraulic friction loss.
The mechanical points of contact (drive gearing, shaft bearings, pump pack-
ing, and impeller mounting on the shaft) cause a loss of efficiency, while fric-
tion loss at the various internal parts of the pump (impeller eye and intake pip-
ing) cause additional losses.
The usual efficiency for a fire department pump operating at rated capacity is
about 60 to 70 percent. This value is arrived at by calculating the theoretical
value and then measuring the actual value being produced. Efficiency can then
be determined as
Efficiency (%) = WHPout

BHPln
To find what brake horsepower (BHPin) is needed to produce a particular

water horsepower out (WHPout) for a given pump with a known efficiency, the
equation can be rewritten as
BHPIn = WHPout
Efficiency
Example: What brake horsepower is needed to drive a 1000-gpm

120 pump at 150 psilf it is assumed to be 70 percent emcient?
PUMP DRIVES
BHPln = WHPout
Efficiency
psixgpm
BHP = 1713 x efficiency
Pressure = 150 psi

Flow = 1000 gpm
Efficiency = 70%
BHP = 150 x 1000

1713 x .7
150,000
1199.1
125.1
SINGLE·STAGE VERSUS TWO·STAGE PUMPS

A typical efficiency curve for a single-stage pump is shown in figure 2. Max-
imum efficiency of 71 percent at 150 psi is obtained with 900 gpm flowing. As
previously explained, there are losses in efficiency due to water flow at the eye
of the impeller and at the intake piping. Since a single-stage pump with a
single-suction impeller has only one impeller eye, there is less loss. It is
estimated that at 250 psi about 12 hp is saved. In addition, the larger intake
piping required for a single-stage pump means less internal friction loss and the
larger volute helps reduce the friction.
80
70 -
t-
15 60
150PSIy--
~~
200P~ 7
(J
a: 50 00
/~ ~
w .... 250 PSI
"-
>= 40
(J
z
W 30
/$' '300 PSI
~~
U
~ 20
W
W
10
o
200 400 600 800 1000
CAPACITY. GPM
Figure 2. Single-stage pump efficiency curve.
The two-stage pump (figure 3) covers a wider range of pressures more effi-
ciently than does a single-stage pump. Two sets of curves are shown because in
reality it is two separate pumps. As shown on the two-stage curves, the
average efficiency over the entire operating range is high. Because the general
overall operating efficiency is higher for the two-stage pump, less horsepower
is needed to cover the range of operation. This becomes especially important
during booster line operation where the high pressure and small flow are need- 121
7or----,---,,---,----,----,---
f- 60
z
UJ
u 50~--~~-+77~r
a:
w
0.. 40 ~--T!J'T.
>-'
~ 30~~~~~~--~--~----~--
w
o 1L.---~2==00:--~40~0-----::'60~0-----::'80;:;::0--1~0:::00:--
CAPACITY, GPM
Figure 3. Two-stage pump efficiency curve.

Copyright by "Fire Engineering" Dun-Donnelley Corp, New
York, N.Y. March 1962. (Reprinted with permission)
ed. The single-stage pump would need a higher rpm, which means that a
greater loss occurs within the pump, thus resulting in the heating of the internal
parts of the pump. Since the two-stage pump operates more efficiently at the
lower flow and higher pressure, less heating will occur.
PUMP SPEED
Pump speed is determined by holding a counter at the pump speed connec-
tion at the pump panel. However, this is not always the most practical method
of determining pump speed. The speed can be determined mathematically by
multiplying the engine rpm (as read on the tachometer) by the engine-to-pump
gear ratio.
The gear ratio selected enables a particular pump to be matched to a par-
ticular engine and have the pump rotate so that it will deliver the flow required
over the pressure range necessary. Typical gear ratios range from 1.4 to 2.1
Example: Suppose a 1000-gpm pumper is delivering 750 gpm at

150 psi with an engine to pump ratio of 1:1.86 and an engine speed
of 1690 rpm. What pump speed will be necessary for the pump to
deliver 1000 gpm at 150 psi?
Step 1. Determine the flow to speed proportion:
750 gpm flow 1000 gpm flow

speed at 750 speed at 1000
Flow at 750 = 750 gpm

Speed at 750 = 1690 rpm
Flow at 1000 = 1000 gpm
750 1000
1690 speed at 1000
Speed at 1000 = 1690 x 1000
750
122 = 2253 rpm
PUMP DRIVES
Pump speed = engine speed x gear ratio

= 2253 x 1.86
= 4190 rpm
TRANSMITTING POWER TO PUMP

There are four basic ways of supplying power to the pump. Each has advan-
tages and disadvantages, depending on the use of the pump, its location on
the truck in relation to the engine, and the pump ratings needed. The four
methods are:
Operation from a separate engine,
Operation from the front of the crankshaft,
Operation from the drive shaft,
Operation from a power take-off (PTO) from the engine.
Separate engine - Separate engines are usually used to power small,
portable pumps (figure 4). However, they are also found on tankers, small
brush vehicles, and airport crash trucks.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Pump can be carried to a water 1. Limited capacity and pressure.
source that is inaccessible to the 2. Additional engine to maintain.
truck. 3. Carry an extra supply of fuel.
2. Pump speed independent of vehi-
cle speed. Can pump and drive at
the same time.
Figure 4. Separate engine powered pump.
Front of the crankshaft - Pumps mounted on the front of a chassis can

be driven through a clutch arrangement from the front end of the crankshaft. A
typical clutch arrangement is shown in figure 5. To shift the clutch, most pumps
use a lever that engages the clutch (figure 6) and provides power to the pump.
1. Simple linkage. 1. Pump subject to freezing and
2. Simplified controls. damage because it is out front.
3. All operations in front of truck. 2. Size of pump limited.
4. Independent of drive system to 3. While moving, pump discharge
rear wheels. Can pump while depends on engine speed.
moving. 4. Clutch can slip.
123
Drive shaft operation - The most common type of pump drive is the
one for midship-mounted pumps. In this type of drive, the pump transmission
is inserted in the drive line between the engine and rear wheels. When
Figure 5. Front-mount clutch arrangements.
124 Figure 6. Front-mount pump shift.

PUMP DRIVES
operating on the road, power is supplied to the rear wheels via the drive shaft.
To drive the pump, the power is redirected from the rear wheels and is
switched to the pump.
The shifting can be accomplished manually, electrically, or with a vacuum.
The method used depends on the individual manufacturer. The transmission
must be in direct drive, usually fifth gear, to operate the pump.
One method for transferring the power is through a sliding collar. When the
collar is in the road position (figure 7A), the teeth on the coupling shaft
transmit the full engine power to the rear wheels. When shifted to pump, the
collar moves forward and engages with the pump drive gear, transmitting the
engine power to the impeller shaft (figure 78).
A. Road position B. Pump position
Figure 7. Sliding collar drive.
One engine manufacturer uses an oil lubricated chain drive to rotate the
pump (figure 8A). When in the road position, the engine drives the rear
wheels, bypassing the chain drive (figure 88). When shifted to pump (figure
8C), the chain drive is rotated, thus turning the pump drive. The manufacturer
states that there is less loss in the chain arrangement than in the gear drive, so
that more usable hors.epower is transferred to the pump.
1. Full power of engine is available 1. Power to drive wheels is dis-
for pumping. connected.
2. Can be used for large size pumps. 2. Relatively complex mechanical
operation.
3. Manual override is necessary for
electric shift operation.
Another manufacturer has developed a method of powering the rear wheels
as well as the midship pump. Mounted on the chassis drive line, the gear case
is capable of transmitting the engine torque, as multiplied by the transmission,
to the rear axle for road operation. With the transmission in direct drive, the
gear case can transmit engine torque to the impeller shaft for stationary pump- 125
B. Road position
A. Overall view
C. Pump position
Figure 8. Chain-driven drive.
126 Figure 9. Power takeoff pump drive with automatic transmission.

PUMP DRIVES
ing. With the transmission in low (first gear), the gear case can transmit torque
to the pump impeller shaft as well as to the rear axle for pump and motor
operation.
Power take-off - Another common pump drive for a brush truck is a fly-
wheel power take-off operation. This PTa unit is inserted between the engine
and transmission and runs at a constant speed with the engine. This type of
PTa is usually capable of handling full engine torque so it is also used to drive
full-size pumps. Like the front-mount pump, a clutch is required for engaging
and disengaging the pump. For a brush truck, it is desirable that this clutch be
operable from both inside the cab and from the pump panel while the engine is
running at pumping speeds.
A truck with a midship pump and automatic transmission must be driven by
a power take-off from the transmission. The Allison HT-70 transmission (figure
9) has a PTa aperture available with torque capacity to drive a major pump.
This PTa is a flywheel type and is not affected by shifting of the transmission.
This makes it suitable for pumping while moving.
1. Can pump in motion. 1. For some engines, a limited
2. Simple linkage. amount of power is available.
3. Can be used to drive large
pumps.
127
Chapter 11
Pump, Cab, Body

Components
For the operator of a fire department pumper to produce the necessary
quantity of water at the desired pressure, he must have a knowledge of all the
controls in the apparatus cab and at the pump panel, as well as a working
knowledge of the equipment carried on the pumper. The difference between a
lever puller who opens the lower left valve one turn every time and the pump
operator who opens the auxiliary cooling valve one turn while watching the
engine temperature gage can be the difference between success and failure on
the fireground.
"The fire apparatus driver/ operator, given a fire department pumper, shall
identify all gages and demonstrate their usage.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify the auxiliary cooling
systems, and show their furiction ...
"The fire apparatus driver/ operator, given a fire department pumper, shall
locate, identify, and demonstrate the operation of all equipment carried on or
attached to that pumper.
"The apparatus driver/ operator shall identify the characteristics and limita-
tions of hard suction and soft suction pumper supply hose (see Chapter 16
also) ...
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a fire department pumper, shall
demonstrate the operation of the auxiliary cooling system." *
Correct operation of a pumper requires a complete understanding of how
the controls operate and when to use them. Failure in this area can endanger
rescue operations and fellow firefighters.
Motor gages
Every time an operator drives the pumper, he should carefully observe all
the motor gages in the cab. These gages provide information on the condition
and ability of the engine to get the apparatus to the scene and to power the
pump. In addition, before leaving the cab at the fireground, the operator
should again scan each of the motor gages. Troubles noted at this time can
avoid an emergency shutdown situation when firefighters are inside the
building .
• Paragraphs 3-5.4,3-5.5,3-6.8,3-6.9 and 3-6.12. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982. Standard for Fire
Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright©1982, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
PUMP, CAB, BODY COMPONENTS
Figure 1. Cab components.
Each apparatus builder has a standard method of locating the cab gages
based upon the particular chassis. A typical layout is shown in figure 1. Each
operator must become familiar with the gage location for this particular
apparatus.
Speedometer - The speedometer indicates the speed of the apparatus in
miles per hour. In addition, for pumps that are operated with the shift in gear,
the speedometer will read while pumping. Operators should become familiar
with the reading for their apparatus so that a quick check can be made to deter-
mine if the pump is being operated in the wrong gear.
Contained within the speedometer is the odometer which records the
distance traveled in miles. Again, for pumps operated in gear, the odometer
continues to function while pumping.
Tachometer - The tachometer indicates the speed of the engine
crankshaft in revolutions per minute. The operator should watch the
tachometer while driving because it provides an indication of when to shift
gears.
When pumping, the tachometer shows how well the pump is being
powered:
1. By indicating when the engine is in the wrong gear;
2. By indicating if the transfer valve is in the wrong position;
3. By indicating when there is water slippage from the discharge back to the
intake;
4. By indicating when the engine has reached governed rpm;
5. By indicating if there is impairment in the water supply.
Engine hours meter - The engine hours meter records the total time that
the engine has been operated. This meter provides an accurate estimate of
when preventive maintenance should be performed on the engine.
Fuel gage - The fuel gage records the amount of gas or diesel fuel remain-
ing in the tank. Whenever the gage shows a reading of three-fourths or less,
the tank should be filled to ensure that a sufficient amount of fuel will be
available if a prolonged pumping operation is necessary.
Oil pressure - The oil pressure gage measures the amount of pressure in
the lubricating system. It is important to remember that the gage does not in-
dicate the quantity of oil in the lubricating system. As long as there is oil in the
system, there will be a pressure reading. Operators should be familiar with the
recommended readings for their particular apparatus, so that abnormalities can
be readily recognized. 129
If the engine is running at less than 1000 rpm, the gage will normally read
less than its recommended value. However, if the gage rises and falls intermit-
tently, this is an indication that the quantity of oil is dropping. If this condition
occurs, or if the pressure drops completely, the engine must be stopped im-
mediately (consistent with the hose lines operating in the building) before
damage occurs.
Water temperature - The water temperature gage indicates the
temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) of the water in the engine cooling system.
This gage is a metallic thermometer element inserted permanently in the cool-
ing space surrounding the engine cylinders. It is important that the engine
operate at the correct temperature (about 160 to 190°F) for maximum
efficiency.
Too low a temperature can be caused by:
l. Too large a cooling system;
2. Thermostat or shutters remaining open;
3. Circulator or auxiliary cooler valve open too wide;
4. Radiator fill valve open.
Too high a temperature can be caused by:
1. Water level in the radiator too low;
2. Leak in the cooling system;
3. Thermostats or shutters not opening;
4. Auxiliary cooling system not functioning.
A description of the auxiliary cooling system and the associated valves is
covered later in this chapter.
Air pressure - Apparatus equipped with air brakes contain a gage that
shows the pressure available in the brake lines. When the pressure falls below a
certain minimum amount, usually 90 psi, the compressor automatically ac-
tivates to refill the tank. Should the pressure continue to drop below 60 psi,
most brakes will automatically lock and an audible warning device will be
sounded, indicating a dangerous situation. Some apparatus have a reserve air
tank, that can be manually activated to increase the pressure and release the
brakes.
The air horns on apparatus should only be operated by the driver so that he
can watch his air pressure gage and discontinue blowing the horn if the
pressure should drop.
Ammeter - A properly operating ammeter can indicate how the electrical
system is operating and, to some extent, the system's condition. The ammeter
indicates how much current is flowing into (charge) or out of (discharge) the
battery. In most cases, all electrical equipment except the starter, which draws
too much current for the ammeter to handle, is connected through the
ammeter.
After a battery has taken as much charge as it can, the voltage regulator cuts
off the generator/alternator output, turning it on briefly to peak the battery at
frequent intervals. This results in a small pulsation of the ammeter pointer from
zero to charge and back again.
The experienced operator recognizes that charge readings can mean:
1. The generator/alternator is charging the battery and supplying enough
current to run the electrical equipment as well; or
2. The regulator is not operating properly, which can damage the battery,
the generator/alternator, and the electrical equipment in use.
Discharge readings can mean:
l. Insufficient generator/alternator speed due to low motor speed or slip-
ping belt;
2. Generator/alternator inoperative due to burnout, broken drive belt, bad
130 brushes, etc.;
3. Low generator/alternator output due to loose connection, bad brushes;

open winding, etc.;
4. Inoperative or improperly operating voltage regulator; or
5. Electrical overload, beyond capacity of generator/alternator to supply,
due to short circuit or possible mechanical overload, or more equipment than
the system was designed to operate.
As a vital part of the total operating system, the electrical parts should be
checked frequently to ensure reliability and safety.
Specific gravity readings of a full charged battery should be within .02 of the
manufacturer's specification; a difference of .025 between cell readings calls
for replacement of the battery.
Pump gages
Two gages necessary for proper pump operation are provided with all fire
pumps. One is a compound gage for the intake side of the pump, either
positive or negative (vacuum) pressure, in the pump intake chamber (figure 2).
The second gage is a pressure gage that registers pump discharge pressure. For
a centrifugal pump, the second gage may be compound type, or it may be a
pressure type without the stop at the pressure position (figures 2 and 3), Omis-
Figure 2. Pump gages.
Figure 3. Master discharge pressure gage. 131

sion of the stop pin is necessary when using the pressure gage due to the
negative pressure (vacuum) throughout the pump during the priming opera-
tion. (The centrifugal pump is a continuous waterway.)
Both gages are activated by a hollow curved tube known as a Bourdon tube
(figure 4). When a vacuum is being created in the pump, as during a priming
operation, the curve of the Bourdon tube decreases, and this movement is
transmitted through the linkage to register the vacuum. The vacuum reading is
shown on the gage in inches of mercury from 0 to 30 (figure 2).
When a positive pressure (above atmospheric) exists in the pump, the Bour-
don tube tends to straighten. The movement will then be proportional to the
positive pressure and will be registered by the indicator on the dial, as pounds
per square inch pressure. Remember that a 0 psi reading on the gage is really
14.7 psi absolute pressure at sea level.
This gage is standard for fire service use. It is reasonably rugged, but it can be
thrown out of calibration and damaged by improper control of the fire pump
and by freezing. Fast shutoff of nozzles while the pump is discharging induces
shock loading in the pump, causing water hammer which affects the pressure
gages. This often happens when operatinq from water mains where the
residual or inlet pressure is in the 10 to 20-psi range.
Figure 4. Internal construction of a gage.

Freezing of the gage usually results in permanent deformation of the Bour-
don tube. The tube curvature is reduced, resulting in a higher pressure being
indicated, and the needle does not return to the zero setting when the pump is
shut down. A slight deformation can be tolerated, provided that the excess
reading is not greater than 5 psi. This error in reading will not be constant over
the operating range of the gage, and any error greater than 5 psi should be cor-
rected by recalibration (figure 2). Some gages can only be recalibrated by reset-
ting the needle and using a gage tester to check. A new gage should read
within ± 3 psi at all pressures.
Some gages are the nonrepairable type, and damage to the Bourdon tube
requires gage replacement.
Because of the problems associated with the freezing of pumper gages, a
new type of gage has been developed (figure 5). In this type, the face of the
gage is completely filled with a low-temperature liqUid, usually glycerine or
silicone.
The advantages of filling the face of the pressure gage with a liquid include:
Reducing freezing problems;
Reduction of needle vibration which makes gages difficult to read;
Reducing corrosion and vibration wear on the gage parts, as well as
lubricating the internal parts; and
Reduction of condensation problem on the inside of the gage bezel because
132 the gage is completely sealed.
Figure 5. Liquid filled pressure gage.

Another option available with this type of gage is to have it filled with oil and
then completely sealed. The water then acts on the oil to produce a pressure
reading on the gage. This option provides the additional advantage of
eliminating the freezing problem for the gage's working parts and eliminating
corrosion and blockage problems by keeping dirty water out of working parts.
Flow meters - The major objective of the pump operator is to provide the
required flow of water for the particular nozzle and hose layout being utilized.
To produce the correct flow, calculations must be accomplished to produce the
necessary engine pressure. The techniques for making these calculations are
included in Chapter 6.
Now, however, a new device has been developed that directly reads flow.
Since the pump does not create water, the flow out of a discharge is the same
as the flow out of the nozzle. Therefore, if a flow meter replaced the standard
pressure gage, the pump operator would not need to do any calculations
(figure 6).
Remember, as explained in Chapter 6, a discharge pressure reading of 150
psi does not indicate what the flow will be at the nozzle end. The actual flow
depends on the specific size and type of the hose, its length, the nozzle size,
and the elevation difference between the nozzle and the pump. The flow meter
can eliminate all those manual calculations.
Differential flow meter - The differential-type flow meter operates by
Figure 6. Auto Scan digital flow meter (right) aids operator in obtaining correct
flow for fire stream operations. Also foam system is additionally monitored for
correct flow. 133
placing two tubes with small holes in the flow line. One of the tubes faces into
the direction of the flow and the other faces with the direction of the flow. The
tubes measure the pressure in each tube, calculate the difference between
them, and then convert the differential into a flow reading.
Turbine sensor flow meter - The turJ,ine-type flow meter places a tur-
bine propeller into the middle of the flow. The movement of the turbine is
translated by mechanical means to a flow reading and thus a gage reading. The
problem with this technique is that the turbine inserted in the stream causes a
pressure drop, and damage to the turbine can result if it is struck by debris. In
addition, large flows, as experienced in the fire service, are not accurately
measured.
Paddle wheel flow meter - In the paddle wheel flow meter, the wheel is
inserted on the edge of the flow. The rotation of the paddle wheel is converted
into electrical signals that are then transmitted to a gage. Also, instead of the
regular needle-type gage, digital readouts can be provided. Because the pad-
dle wheel is out of the center of the flow, the possibility of clogging is lessened,
and there is less danger of debris in the line striking the paddle wheel.
Intake gage at draft - The intake gage, when operating from draft, will
indicate the amount of vacuum in inches of mercury. The exact reading will
depend on the amount of lift from the static source, with approximately 1.1
inches of mercury equaling 1 foot of lift when no water is being discharged. As
water is discharged, the reading will increase due to friction loss in the hard
sleeves.
When water is flowing, a high vacuum reading usually indicates a blockage
of the intake strainer. A low vacuum reading usually indicates an air leak some-
where in the system.
Intake gage at positive pressure - When operating from a water source
supplied under pressure, and with no water flowing, the intake gage will read
positive static pressure in pounds per square inch. As discharge lines are
opened and water begins flowing, there will be a drop in the reading caused by
the friction loss due to water flow. The resultant pressure, called residual
pressure, provides the pump operator with an indication of how many more
lines can be supplied from the source. As additional lines are supplied. there
will be a further drop in the gage reading. The operator must maintain a
reading of at least 5 psi on the intake gage at all times.
Discharg~ gages - The discharge gage is a positive pressure gage that
records the pressure being pumped to individual hose lines. This type of gage
is sometimes known as a line gage. There should be a gage for every discharge
on the apparatus. The amount of discharge pressure is determined by the
amoul)t of water flowing, the size of the hose, nozzle in use, and the length of
the line. A drop in the reading of the line gage can be caused by:
1. Reduction of water,
2. Opening another nozzle,
3. Burst section of hose, or
4. Changing nozzles.
A sharp increase in readings of this gage can be caused by:
1. A shutdown of a hose line,
2. A reduction in nozzle size, or
3. A change in pattern in certain fog nozzles.
Needle valve - The needle valve for each gage should be closed to a point
where the gage gives a steady reading without vibration (figure 2). If a gage
needle does not move, check that the valve is not closed all the way.
Auxiliary cooling
134 As explained earlier, the operating temperature of the engine is extremely
important. An engine operating too hot will be damaged, while one operating
too cold will cause sludge deposits within the engine.
The normal apparatus cooling system may be inadequate to keep the engine
from overheating, especially while operating hard on the fireground with no
ram air passing through. For this reason, an auxiliary cooling system is added
to the pumper. This system (figure 7) acts as a heat exchanger. Cool water
from the pump circulates through a coil, with the water from the radiator on
the outside of the coil. Heat is transferred from the engine cooling water to the
pump water.
FROM
RADIATOR -====~
AUXILIARY
COOLING
VALVE
!
RADIATOR
FILL VALVE
- !
!- TO PUMP
SUCTION
TO RADIATOR
Figure 7. Typical auxiliary cooling valves.
Water from the pump enters the coil by opening the auxiliary cooling valve
(figures 7 and 8). Note that the pump water does not mix with the radiator
water when the auxiliary cooling valve is opened. Open the auxiliary cooling
valve slowly so that the optimum operating temperature can be obtained
without cooling the engine too much.
The radiator fill valve admits pump water directly to the radiator (figure 8).
This is an emergency device only and should be used with care. Since the in-
coming water is from the pump discharge under pressure, opening the valve
wide will allow a large flow of water to enter the radiator (figure 7).
Figure 8. Typical auxiliary cooling valves. 135

The overflow piping of the radiator may not be sufficient to handle the in-
coming water from the pump. If the pressure in the radiator builds up, bursting
can occur. It is necessary, therefore, to remove the radiator cap before opening
the valve. Exercise extreme caution when removing the cap because the
original problem was the excess temperature, and as the cap is removed,
steam under pressure could be released. Before removing the radiator cap,
open the radiator fill valve a small amount, or open the radiator fill valve until
water comes out of the overflow piping. Then, the valve is shut and the
temperature is checked, eliminating the need for removing the radiator cap.
Discharge and intake valves

Discharge and intake valves regulate the water entering and leaving the
pump. They contain a locking device so that if reduced flow from an individual
discharge is desired, the valve can be locked in position.
One type of valve is designed for push-pull operation. It consists of a sliding
gear-tooth rack that engages a sector gear connected to the valve stem (figure
9). By twisting the T-handle 90 degrees, it is locked in position.
Another type of valve is the quarter-turn valve. As the valve is rotated, the
ball rotates from being in-line with the waterway to being 90 degrees to the
waterway (figure 10). This valve may be locked in position by twisting the knob
on the handle.
Figure 9. Push-pull valve.
136 Figure 10. Quarter-turn valve.

Drains
Each intake and discharge line should be equipped with a drain. Opening
the drain before uncoupling will relieve the pressure in the line and make the
task easier. In addition, where freezing is a problem, water must be drained
from all the piping.
One simple way to facilitate draining is to use a master drain. Figure 11
shows multiple 1/4-inch ports that are opened by pulling on one plunger.
Figure 11. Master drain arrangement.
Water tank
Almost all fire department pumpers currently being manufactured have a
water or booster tank. To get water from the tank to the pump, the tank valve
must be opened. To allow water to flow from the discharge piping to the
pump, the tank fill valve must be opened (figure 12). In addition, most
MANUAL FILL
AND OVERFLOW
DISCHARGE TANK
PIPING FILL VALVE
TANK
Figure 12. Water tank valves. 137

pumpers have an access port directly to the tank for filling pumpers without
having to go through the pump.
When using the tank fill valve to refill the water tank, care must be exercised
to be sure that the overflow piping and vent are sufficient to handle the
discharge flow and pressure from the pump. If it is not, then the water tank can
be deformed and even cracked from the excess water and air pressure.
Pump overheat
The centrifugal pump tends to overheat when turning rapidly and discharg-
ing little or no water. To warn the operator that the pump is beginning to heat
up, red flashing lights are used at the pump panel (figure 13).
One way to reduce this heat is to open the tank valve and the tank fill valve.
This will allow water to pass from the tank through the eye of the impeller, to
the discharge piping, through the tank fill valve, back to the tank. This circula-
tion will permit removal of the excess pump heat._
Figure 13. Pump overheat indicator.
Pumper equipment
Pumper equipment varies, based upon the particular needs of individual fire
departments. A rural fire department, without a hydrant system, would carry
additional hard sleeves for drafting, strainers, drafting basin, .as well as addi-
tional hose. The fire department in a major city might carry additional precon-
nect hand lines as well as forcible entry tools. So, while it is difficult to predict
exactly what each pumper will carry, much of the equipment is fairly standard-
ized. This section, therefore, covers the common items carried.
Obviously the main objective of the pumper is to move water from the
source to the incident scene. To accomplish this objective, the pumper carries
hose, nozzles, adapters, control devices, special hose tools.
Hose - Hose varies in size, construction and material. The larger the
diameter of the hose. the less friction loss that is created for the same flow.
Booster line hose is available in 3/4 or I-inch diameter and is made of hard
rubber. This allows the hose to be rolled onto a reel and charged with water
without removing the entire length from the reel. However, flow from booster
hose is extremely limited.
Hand lines come in 1112, 1%, 2 and 2 1h-inch diameters. These lines pro-
vide flows that can be handled with either one, two or three firefighters. The
hose is made of fabric such as cott<m or man-made fibers or plastic. The covers
can be either one or two jackets so that potential use and the ability to with-
138 stand abrasions is determined by the type of hose.
In order to move large quantities of water, large-diameter hose is necessary.

This includes hose that is 21/2, 3, 31/2, 4, 5 and 6-inches in diameter. Small
lengths of 4, 41/4, 5 and 6-inch hose are used to connect a pumper to a
pressure water source. Longer lengths of this hose are used to connect tandem
pumpers, a pumper and the supply source, as well as a pumper to the inci-
dent. These lengths of short hose ensure an ample flow from a pressure
source.
Short lO-foot lengths of 4, 4112, 5 or 6-inch hard sleeve hose are used for
drafting water. The stiffening rings of these hoses prevent the hose from collap-
sing when the inside is under negative pressure during a drafting operation (see
Chapter 15, Drafting Operations). Hard sleeves should not be used· when
operating from a pressure source because the pump operator will not get an in-
dication that the pump is about to cavitate (see Chapter 15).
Nozzles - A pumper carries a wide selection of nozzles to meet various
needs. These nozzles include:
Solid stream - hand and master stream
Fog nozzles - single flow, constant flow, variable flow and automatic flow
Solid stream nozzles have a smooth bore opening that produces a solid
stream with a great reach between nozzle and point of application. Since the
diameter of the nozzle influences the flow (the larger the opening the greater
the flow), the nozzle's reaction for holding the line becomes a factor (see
Chapter 12, Nozzle Reaction). Therefore, hand lines are considered to be solid
stream if they have a tip diameter up to 11/4 inches at 50-psi nozzle pressure.
Master stream tips are 11/4 inches and larger and operate at 80-psi nozzle
pressure.
Single flow fog nozzles are designed to have their most efficient operation at
a specific flow with a 100-psi nozzle pressure. This type of nozzle presents
limitations when more water is needed because an efficient stream cannot be
developed.
A constant flow nozzle produces the specific rated flow, at-lOO-psi nozzle
pressure, regardless of the fog setting selected. This means that as the fog pat-
tern is changed from straight stream to 30° to 60° , the flow remains the same.
This results in the same nozzle reaction, and changing patterns do not throw
the hose lines personnel off balance.
A variable flow nozzle has an adjustment for changing the flow rating.
However, just changing the setting does not mean that more water will be pro-
duced. What it does mean is that at the new setting and with a nozzle pressure
of 100 psi, the rated flow will be produced efficiently. The key is that the pump
operator must know of the change at the nozzle and adjust the discharge
pressure accordingly.
One of the newest designs on the market for nozzles is known as the
automatic flow nozzle. In this case, the nozzle automatically adjusts its opening
to maintain an optimum flow, with a 100-psi nozzle pressure to produce the
most efficient stream. In this way, as flow varies, the nozzle continues to pro-
vide a good stream. Pump operators can therefore begin water movement
qUickly, while using a standard discharge pressure, knowing that the created
flow will produce an excellent fire stream. The nozzle is designed for both hand
lines and master streams.
The easiest way to determine flow with an automatic nozzle is to use flow
meters. However, if they are not readily available, the calculations can be done
as follows:
Step 1. Determine pump pressure.
Step 2. Subtract the known nozzle pressure of 100 psi from the pump
pressure. 139
Step 3. The result is the pressure available to cover friction loss.

Step 4. Divide the pressure by the number of hundreds of feet of hose.
Step 5. Determine the flow for the friction loss for the hose being used.
Example: A pumper Is delivering water to 300 feet of 2lj2-inch hose

with an automatic nozzle. The pump discharge pressure is 208 psi.
How much water is flowing?
Step 1. Determine the pump pressure: 208 psi.

Step 2. Subtract known nozzle pressure of 100 psi:
208 - 100
Step 3. Resultant friction loss is: 108 pounds.

Step 4. Divide the resultant pressure by the number of hundreds of feet of
hose:
108 + 3 = 36
Step 5. Determine flow for 2 1h-inch hose with a friction loss of 36 psi per
100 feet: 400 gpm.
Adapters - Hooking up hose lines may, at times, require adapters. These
include changing the male end of a hose to a female using a double female
adapter. Other adapters may be necessary for mutual aid if the neighboring
department uses different threads.
Control devices - For controlling flow in the hose line, several devices
are carried on a pumper. The siamese devices carried on a pumper take two or
more lines and combine them into a single line. The siamese may have control
gates to shut down flow in the lines without shutting down the pumper.
Another control device is a wye which takes a single line and breaks it down
into two or more lines. The wye can be gated so flow to the divided lines can be
controlled.
Individual gates can also be carried on the pumper. These can be connected
to the hydrant for flow control as well as to the pumper for intake control. The
gates vary in size from 2112 to 6-inch and operate by quarter turn, gates, or
diaphragms.
Special hose tools - There are special hose tools for temporary repairs
to broken hose by jacketing it. The jacket clamps around the hose opening and
makes a seal at both ends, thus allowing the flow to continue.
A rope hose tool can be used to secure the hose to a ladder and to help hold
the hose during times of high flow.
A hose roller can be used to bring the hose over a rough edge without caus-
ing abrasion. It also aids in lifting the hose onto a roof.
Entry, ventilation and salvage equipment - Depending upon the
needs of the local fire department, the pumper may also carry entry, ventila-
tion, and salvage equipment. This would include:
Entry - axe, pry bar, lights
Ventilation - ladders, pike pole
Salvage - smoke ejector, salvage covers, roof coverings
How each of these tools is used is covered in basic firefighting manuals. The
pump operator must be familiar with the portable generator capabilities and en-
sure that the current load from the lights and smoke ejectors does not exceed
the rated amount. In addition, if a separate fllel supply for the generator is
140 necessary, the type and mixture must be known by the pump operator.
Chapter 12
Nozzle Reaction
One of the basic laws of physics, Newton's Third Law, states that for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction. For the firefighter, this means
that water flowing out of the nozzle will cause a backward reaction.
Since the reaction force is dependent upon the amount of water flowing
through the hose, it will therefore depend on the size of the nozzle used and
the nozzle pressure.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a series of fireground situations
involving various operating pressures, shall demonstrate the formula for
calculation of nozzle reaction of hand and master streams used by the authority
having jurisdiction." *
Straight-tipped ground nozzles

The formula for nozzle reaction for straight-tipped solid stream nozzles is:
NR 1.57 x d 2 x P, where
NR nozzle reaction in pounds
d nozzle diameter in inches
P = nozzle pressure in psi at the tip of the nozzle
Example: What is the nozzle reaction resulting from a Ilj4-inch tip

at 50 psi nozzle pressure?
Step 1. Select the correct equation:
NR = 1.57 x d2 x P
d = 1% rnches
P = 50 psi
NR = (1.57) (11/4)2 (50)

= 122.7Ibs .
• Paragraph 3-4.10. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Pro-
fessional Qualifications, Copyright©1982, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts 02269. This
reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only 141
by the standard in its entirety.
Actual tests with varous size nozzles show that a 95-pound nozzle reaction is
about the maximum that a three-man crew can handle for any length of time.
Straight-tipped ladder pipes

The formula for nozzle reaction of a straight-tipped ladder pipe is the same
as for a ground nozzle. However, the pump operator must now be careful to
maintain correct pressures to avoid stress on the aerial ladder. The maximum
recommended nozzle reaction for a ladder pipe, mounted on the top fly of an
aerial ladder, is 400 pounds ..
In addition, the flow from a ladder pipe must always be perpendicular to the
ladder rungs. If a change in the horizontal direction of the stream is necessary,
the ladder should be rotated to avoid placing lateral stress on the ladder.
Example: For a ladder pipe placed on the top fly, can a 2-inch tip
with SO-psi nozzle pressure be used?
NR = 1.57 x d 2 x P
Step 2. Determine the equation values:
d =2 inches
P =80 psi
NR =(1.57) (2)2 x (80)

=1.57 x 4 x 80
=502.4Ibs.
No, this tip should not be used at 80 psi nozzle pressure because the nozzle
reaction exceeds 400 psi.
Fog nozzles
The nozzle reaction for variable-pattern nozzles cannot be based on the stan-
dard formula because the nozzle diameter does not flow a concentrated core of
water. The engineering department of the Elkhart Brass Company has
developed a formula for calculating the nozzle reaction of this type nozzle. This
formula is:
NR = .0505 x Q x VP, where

NR = nozzle reaction in pounds
Q = flow in gallons per minute
P = nozzle pressure in psi, at the base of the nozzle
Example: What is the nozzle reaction for a 1lf2-inch fog nozzle

operating at 100-psi nozzle pressure, flowing 90 gallons per minute?

142 NR = .0505 x Q x Vf5
NOZZLE REACTION
Step 2. Determine the equation values:
Q = 90 gpm
P = 100 psi
NR = .0505 x 90 x v'100
.0505 x 900
45.45Ibs.
Since many fog nozzles have different flows at 100-psi nozzle pressure,
depending on the fog pattern selected, nozzle reaction will vary as the pattern
is changed. The reaction and flow will be greatest at a 30° fog pattern.
Water hammer
One other pr:oblem with water movement is the danger of sudden stops.
Since there is about 25 gallons of water in 100 feet of 2 1h-inch hose flowing
250 gpm and moving at a velocity of about 14 mph, the sudden stopping of
this volume of water causes severe shock loading in the hose, couplings, and
pump. These shock loadings are known as water hammer.
For this reason, nozzles, gates, and valves should always be closed slowly.
Otherwise, the hose may rupture or the pump may be damaged, causing in-
jury, loss of water, and additional property damage.
Water hammer can also damage the water supply system if a hydrant gate is
closed too rapidly. While the hose line can expand and absorb some of the in-
creased pressure due to water hammer, nonflexible, metal pipe, especially that
6 inches or under, has no such elasticity. Broken water mains are a definite
possibility of shutting the hydrant down too quickly.
143
Chapter 13
Pressure Control Systems

To avoid unwanted nozzle reaction and water hammer to protect firefighters
from dangerous pressure rises and still provide sufficient hose streams for fire-
fighting operations, the pump operator must be knowledgeable in pressure
control.
The term pressure control summarizes the responsibilities of the pump
operator on the fireground. The operator must first ensure that optimum
pressure for the set of conditions existing on the fireground is obtained. He
must be sure that the pressure is not too low to deliver sufficient water to the
fireground, nor too high to make the hose impossible to handle. Second, he
must make certain that this optimum pressure is maintained in each individual
line, even though nozzles may be opened and closed.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify the theory and principles
of pumper pressure relief systems and pressure control governors.
demonstrate the operation of the pumper pressure relief system, or the
pressure control governor, or both."·
The method used to regulate the pressure is based on the ways this pressure
is developed within the centrifugal pump. These are:
1. Speed of rotation of the impeller;
2. Volume of water moving through the pump;
3. Pressure being supplied to the intake of the pump.
Since the volume of water moving through the pump directly affects the
pressure, shutting down a nozzle will cause a sudden increase in the discharge
pressure. Even an alert operator will find it impossible to compensate for these
surges in time to protect the nozzleman on another line. For this reason,
automatic devices have been developed to compensate for these pressure
changes.
RELIEF VALVES
Relief valves are used on fire apparatus to prevent excess pressures caused
by changes in fireground situations. A relief valve bypasses excess water from
the discharge side of the pump back to the intake, thus preventing dangerous
pressure surges by changing the volume of water flowing through the pump.
'Paragraphs 3·5.3 and 3-6.11. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus
Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright@1982, National Fire Protection AssOCiation, Quincy,
Some basic properties and facts that apply to all relief valves are:
1. The relief valve should be set whenever more than one hose line is being
supplied by the pump.
2. The relief valve should be set whenever the pump is operating in a relay
operation.
3. Before the relief valve can be set, streams that are going to be used
should be in operation.
4. The relief valve cannot compensate for a decrease in pressure. It only
limits the amount of pressure rise that will be experienced.
5. In order for the relief valve to operate reliably, it must be exercised
frequently.
Simple relief valve

In its simplest form, the automatic relief valve is a valve placed in the line to
eliminate excess water (figure 1). The spring tension can be adjusted by turning
the handle in or out.
ADJUSTMENT
HANDLE
Figure 1. Simple relief valve.

As an example, the spring can be set so that 100 psi is needed to push
against and open the valve. When water pressure in the pipe reaches 100 psi,
the valve opens, bypassing the water and relieving the pressure. However, in
order to bypass more water, it takes more pressure inside the pipe to open the
valve further. The more the spring is compressed by additional pressure, the
more resistance it offers.
One of the problems with this type of valve is the size required for larger
pumps and the resulting spring tensions needed. For example, if the valve in
figure 1 had a surface area of 2 square inches and a spring tension of 100 psi, a
force of 200 pounds would be necessary to open the valve. As flows and
pressure increase, bigger springs and larger valves are necessary. To overcome
this deficiency, the relief valves take advantage of hydraulic action to bypass
the water.
Operation through a pilot valve
By adding two hydraulic cylinders to the simple relief valve, the pressure
relief system is improved (figure 2). A small pressure from hydraulic cylinder 1
will apply the same pressure to a much larger area on top of hydraulic cylinder
2. The small cylinder, known as a pilot valve, provides a big hydraulic advan-
tage in controlling the main valve. This controlling cylinder enables the main
valve to be set to bypass large volumes of water with only a slight rise in
pressure, by reducing the pressure behind the piston in cylinder 2. 145
HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER 2
Figure 2. Pilot valve operation, step 1.

At this point control is manual. To increase pressure in cylinder 2, the piston
of cylinder 1 must b~ pushed in. Conversely, pulling out the piston in cylinder
1 will reduce the pressure in cylinder 2. With this operation, the operator must
continually monitor the control of the pilot valve.
Figure 3 illustrates the ne'St step in the development of an automatic relief
valve. A tube with a narrowing section is connected from the discharge piping
to the relief valve cylinder. If the valve was left in this position, the pressure in
the discharge piping would be the same as the pressure in the relief valve
cylinder. However, because of the larger area of the relief valve cylinder, the
relief valve should stay closed.
DISCHARGE PIPING
RELIEF VALVE
Figure 3. Pilot valve operation, step 2.

For example, if the relief valve cylinder was 4 square inches and the relief
valve was 2 square inches and there was 50 psi in the discharge piping, the
valve would stay closed. The force down is equal to 50 x 4 or 200 pounds,
while the force up is equal to 50 x 2 or 100 pounds.
To allow the system to function, another tube is added so the water can flow
out or dump. This second pipe has a needle valve on it to control the rate of
dump. The needle valve can be set so that water can escape through the
narrowing section.
Now, suppose the needle valve is set so that water is flowing through the
narrow section to the relief valve cylinder at a rapid rate. The faster the water
flows, the greater the pressure drop at the narrow section (venturi effect) and,
therefore, the lower the pressure behind the relief valve cylinder.
By adjusting the needle valve setting, the hydraulic force behind the piston
can be varied so the relief valve will open part way or all the way at any
146 predetermined pressure in the pipe. This system is still manual.
PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEMS
The spring in the relief valve cylinder only plays a small part in the operation
of the relief valve. The hydraulic force behind the main valve does most of the
work, and this force is controlled by the amount of water dumped.
The methods used by each of the manufacturers to autumate the relief valve
are covered below:
American LaFrance
The main parts of the American LaFrance relief valve are the pilot valve
(13), pilot valve spring (7), adjusting screw (4), hand wheel (2), churn valve
(33) and five water lines (figures 4 and 5). Note: numbers in parentheses refer
to parts location in figure 4. The five water lines (figure 4) perform the follow-
ing functions:
BLEED LI N
DISCHARGE HEADER
PRESSURE
RESTRICTED
PRESSURE LI NE
Figure 4. Cross section of an American LaFrance relief valve.

RESTRICTED DISCHARGE
PRESSURE PRESSURE
LINE VALVE
ADJUSTING
SCREWS
Figure 5. Simplified diagram of an American LaFrance relief valve. 147

1. The discharge pressure line runs from the pump discharge to the pilot
valve housing. A strainer is included in this line to prevent foreign material
from entering the pilot valve.
2. The restricted pressure line runs from the pump discharge to the relief
valve. A strainer is included in this line to prevent foreign material from enter-
ing the relief valve or from plugging the orifice located in the tubing.
3. The bleed line runs from the pilot valve to the relief valve.
4. The drain liners) removes water from the pilot valve and dumps it on the
ground.
5. A line which connects the suction side of the pump and the pilot valve.
In normal operation, during discharge, all of the lines are fill~d with water
and the churn valve and pilot valve are closed (figures 4 and 5). This blocks
water flow from discharge to intake.
When a hose line is shut off, there is an increase in pressure in the discharge
pressure line. This causes the pilot valve (13) to move, compressing the pilot
valve spring (7) until the opening in the pilot valve housing is uncovered.
Water is then able to flow through the bleed line and on through the pilot valve
to the pump intake. This reduces the pressure on the pilot valve side of the
churn valve below the discharge pressure on the other side, allowing the churn
valve to move. When the churn valve opens, water is bypassed from the
discharge back to the intake of the pump. The pilot valve and churn valve then
equalize at the point where enough water can bypass to maintain the set
pressure.
When a hose line is opened, the momentary drop in pressure causes the
pilot valve to move back to the closed position, shutting the flow from
discharge to intake. The pressure at the churn valve will increase from the
restricted pressure line.
When the pressure in the chamber equals the discharge pressure, the churn
valve will move to the closed position due to the action of the churn valve
spring, thus eliminating the discharge to intake bypass. This will increase water
volume and increase pressure.
The strainers in the lines between the pump discharge and the relief valve
and pilot valve should be flushed periodically by opening the drain valve while
the pump is operating. The valves should be closed tightly after flushing.
John Bean
The John Bean relief valve operates in a standard manner. When more than
one hose line is flowing, the pilot valve spring is adjusted to maintain the de-
sired pressure. Pressure from the discharge side of the pump keeps the churn
valve seated (figure 6). Pump discharge pressure also goes to the pilot valve.
This pressure is equal to the pilot valve spring pressure and the diaphragm,
therefore, does not deflect. The bleed line to the churn valve remains closed.
INTAKE
CHAMBER
148 Figure 6. John Bean relief valve in closed position.

Now, one of the nozzles is shut down, causing a rise in the discharge
pressure. This increased pressure is transmitted to the pilot valve through the
discharge pressure line, causing the diaphragm to flex as shown in figure 7.
This opens the pilot valve, which allows the increased pressure to move to the
churn valve via the bleed line.
Even though the pressure on both sides of the churn valve is essentially the
same, the valve moves to the left because there is a larger area to the valve face
on the right. When the valve moves to the left, the bypass opening between
the discharge and intake is opened. Pressure is equalized so that just enough
water to maintain the set pressure is bypassed.
When the "nozzle is opened, the pressure causes the diaphragm to
straighten, closes the bleed line, drops the pressure on the right side of the
churn valve, and the combination churn valve spring and the discharge
pressure close the churn valve. The bypass is thus shut off and the pressure
returns to its original valve.
INTAKE
CHAMBER
Figure 7. John Bean relief valve in open position.

Darley
The Darley relief valve is operated by turning the four-way valve handle to
the ON position (figures 8, 9 and 10). The control handle can now be adjusted
by turning it counterclockwise until the pressure drops about 5 psi below the set
point, ~hen slowly turning it clockwise until the gage reads the desired dis-
charge pressure. When the four-way valve is in the OFF position, discharge
W"T£R rl,.ow PATH

THRU PIL.OT C.ONTROL VALve
YI(W rRo,", BAC.K SlOE
* CONNECT
TIiESE DRAlIIIS MUST NOT BE CONNECTED TOGETHER-
TO SEFl'l>RAT't: I\Il..ET TAPS Of I>AJLTlP\..f. OFIAN \!AllIE
ORAiN ~VE MUST BE CLOSED DLAINe. OPERATION
Figure 8. Schematic diagram of Darley relief valve assembly. 149

pressure bypasses the pilot control unit and the relief valve will not operate.
Optional lights (figure 9) can indicate the status of the relief valve. (Note: The
lights mentioned are not detectable in figure 9.)
This pilot control unit has a five-mesh strainer which prevents the entry of
solid material. Opening the strainer flush valve periodically should remove
small accumulations (figure 8 and 10). Should the water supply be so con-
taminated that the screen (figures 8 and 10) becomes plugged, the relief valve
could stay open and prevent normal buildup of pump discharge pressure. In
such an emergency, the relief valve piston can be mechanically closed by turn-
ing the relief valve shutoff control clockWise, all the way in (figure 9). Under
normal operations, the relief valve shutoff must be kept fully open to allow for
full travel of the relief valve.
The relief valve itself is a spring-operated valve (figures 11 and 12) which
allows water to bypass from the discharge back into the intake of the pump.
Figure 9. Control panel on Darley relief valve. Optional lights indicate where it is
in the open or closed position.
150 Figure 10. View of the Darley relief valve.

-
FROM PlNP
DISCHARGE
182215141312121
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the Darley relief valve.
Figure 12. The Darley relief valve is spring-operated.
Hale
The Hale relief valve consists of a churn valve, a pilot valve, a pilot light and
switch, and a control hand wheel (figures 13 and 14).
The churn valve is a double-ended piston with the area of the face on the
pump discharge being smaller than the area on the other face.
The pilot valve contains a small rod attached to a diaphragm, a pilot valve
spring, and an adjusting hand wheel. The end of the rod opposite the
diaphragm is beveled and seats against an opening on the pilot valve housing.
When the diaphragm is flexed by the pressure from the pump discharge, the
rod moves away from the opening, allowing water, under pressure, to go the
churn valve via the bleed line.
With the relief valve set and water flowing, the churn valve is closed. At this 151
point, the pilot valve spring pressure against the diaphragm is equal to the
pump discharge pressure (figure 13). When the control rod is in this position,
the beveled end is seated against an opening within the pilot valve housing.
The beveled end seats in such a manner that it stops the water coming through
the pipe from the pump discharge and keeps it from flowing to the churn
valve. The pump discharge pressure is exerted against one side of the
diaphragm, while an equal pressure is exerted by the pilot valve spring on the
other side of the diaphragm. Therefore, the diaphragm remains unflexed.
:,~=~~~~~~=,i]l:d
\
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION
~ ,
~I
CLOSED
PUMP INTAKE THRU THIS LINE COMES THE

PRESSURE TO OPEN TO VALVE.
Figure 13. Schematic diagram of the Hale relief valve.
Figure 14. Cutaway view of the Hale relief valve.

As soon as the nozzle is closed, the pressure on the discharge side of the
pump exceeds the pressure of the pilot valve spring and the diaphragm is
flexed toward the controlling hand wheel. As the diaphragm flexes, it moves
the rod away from its seat and allows water at pump discharge pressure to flow
to the chamber at the large end of the churn valve.
152 Although water at pump discharge pressure is now acting upon both ends of
the churn valve, the valve opens toward the discharge side of the pump
because of the greater total force exerted on the larger face. With the churn
valve open, water flows from the discharge to the intake, thereby reducing
pressure.
When the discharge'pressure is reduced to the point equal to the pilot spring
pressure, the control rod movement stops, and the churn valve remains in a
partially open position to maintain the pressure for which the relief valve is set.
When the nozzles are reopened, the pump discharge pressure acting against
the diaphragm is reduced. This allows the spring pressure against the
diaphragm to move the diaphragm away from the controlling hand wheel, and
as the diaphragm moves, the beveled end of the rod seats against the opening
from the pump" discharge. This stops the flow of water to the large end of the
churn valve.
The pressure retained in the water chamber at the large end of the churn
valve is relieved through a small hole in the face of the piston (figure 13),
allowing the pump discharge pressure and the churn valve spring to close the
churn valve and stop the flow of water from the discharge to the intake. The
pump pressure again equals the pilot valve spring pressure and the diaphragm
is unflexed. The beveled end of the rod is then firmly seated against the open-
ing in the line to the churn valve, thus assuming the normal operating or closed
position.
The relief valve is equipped with a pilot light, activated by the pilot light
switch on the churn valve (figure 13 and 14). With the churn valve in the
closed position, the pilot light button is depressed by part of the churn valve as-
sembly. When the churn valve opens, the button is released, and an electrical
contact lights the lamp.
While the lamp effectively indicates that the churn valve has opened, it does
not indicate the degree of the opening; hence, it cannot be used to determine if
the valve is opening sufficiently to bypass the necessary amount of water. The
lights remain on until the valve is completely closed.
PILOT VALVE SPRING
I------~~~
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
--lI
HANDWHEEL
1
1
BLEED-Ir===h====~~~2J~~~~:::::ll
LINE )l
DISCHARGE
PRESSURE
LINE
ELECTRICAL_-L~·C)~::c~~
SWITCH Illhr"Jr7TT-,,-;r.....,....--~-..!
GOVERNOR
PISTON
CHAMBER
PUMP
INTAKE
Figure 15. Schematic diagram of a Thibault relief valve. 153

Thibault
The Thibault relief valve consists of an adjusting hand wheel, a pilot valve, a
churn valve, a pilot light and switch, a pilot valve spring, and a churn valve
spring (figure 15).
The churn valve is a double-ended piston with the area on the left side being
larger than the area on the pump intake side.
The hand wheel is adjusted to give the pilot valve spring enough tension to
equal the pump pressure. Water under pressure enters the pilot valve through
the discharge pressure line, and since this pressure equals the pilot valve spring
pressure, the pilot valve remains closed (figure 15).
Discharge pressure is also piped to the pressure chamber of the churn valve
through another discharge pressure line. From this chamber, the pressure
passes through the balancing venturi and builds up discharge pressure in the
piston balancing chamber (figure 15). The piston in the churn valve is now
balanced and remains closed.
When a control nozzle on one of the hose lines being supplied is closed,
pump discharge exceeds the pilot valve spring tension and the pilot valve
opens. As the pilot valve opens, the pressure in the piston balancing chamber
is reduced, because the bleed line is now connected (figure 15).
The balancing venturi is a restricted opening so the pressure goes down in
the piston balancing chamber quicker than in the pressure build-up chamber.
When the pressure in the pressure build-up chamber is greater than the
pressure of the spring, the piston moves to the right and opens the relief valve
outlet. Now, pump water can flow between the discharge and the intake and
relieve the pressure. The churn valve remains in a partially open position to
maintain the pressure for which the relief valve is set (figure 15).
If a nozzle is now open, the pilot valve closes, pressure builds up in both
chambers, and the churn valve spring closes the churn valve, shutting off the
discharge to intake opening.
The relief valve is equipped with a pilot light, activated by a pilot light switch
on the churn valve (figure 15). When the churn valve opens, the switch is re-
8 7 9 6
>,_i":::::::~:~:_~~N~.c::J:(~~lI~~~iiil
FROM PUMP r~~~iM, _1..-'------------------=:::::::',
1"'...
DI~
L.lj~~11
\~~\
...
"
""
""
""
TO PUMP SUCTION ""
CONNECTION FOR DUAL '.1
RELIEF VALVE ASSEMBLY RELIEF VALVE
LEGEND
1. PILOT-VALVE HANDLE
2. FOUR-WAY VALVE HANDLE
3. PUMP CONTROL PANEL (REF)'
4. FOUR·WAY VALVE
5. PUMP TO VALVE TUBE (REF).' (NEAR PORT)
6. RELIEF VALVE TUBE (REF)' (FAR PORT)
7. MAIN VALVE
8. MAIN VALVE SPRING
9. MAIN VALVE CHAMBER
10. PILOT VALVE TO PUMP SUCTION TUBE (REF)'
11. PILOT VALVE
12. PILOT VALVE ORIFICE
13. VALVE PRESSURE CHAMBER
14. PILOT BLABE DRAIN
15. PILOT VALVE ADJUSTING SPRING
16. STRAINER ROD
17. STRAINER
154 Figure 16. Schematic diagram of a Waterous relief valve.

leased, turning on the pilot lamp. When the valve completely closes, the switch
turns off the lamp. The lamp gives no indication of how far the churn valve has
opened.
Waterous
The Waterous relief valve system consists of two units-the relief valve itself
and the pilot valve that controls it (figure 16). The relief valve is spring-loaded,
pressure-activated, and installed between the intake side and the discharge
side of the pump (figure 17).
Figure 17. Waterous relief valve installed.

The relief valve opens and closes in response to directions from the pilot
valve mounted on the pump control panel (figures 18 and 19).
With the pump operating, water enters the relief valve from the pump
discharge manifold at full discharge pressure. Water also enters the four-way
valve (4) through a tube (5) at the same discharge pressure. (Note: Numbers in
parentheses refer to figure 16.) With the four-way valve on, water passes
through the strainer (17) (figure 20) and fills the chamber (13) below the valve
Figure 18. Rear view of the Waterous pilot valve. 155

Figure 19. Front view of the Waterous pilot valve.

(11). Water also passes through the orifice (12), back through the four-way
valve (4), and over through the tube (6) to the relief valve chamber (9).
As long as the load applied to the valve (11) by the pump discharge pressure
is less than the compression load of the spring (15), the valve remains closed,
preventing discharge through the tube (10) back to the pump intake. Under
Figure 20. Waterous pilot valve strainer.

this condition, water pressure is equal on both sides of the main valve (7).
Since the valve diameter is greater at the flange end of the main valve than at
the seating end, the total force applied to the flange end by the water in the
chamber (9) is also greater, and together with the force of the spring (8), it
holds the main valve closed.
If a discharge valve is closed or if the engine is accelerated so that the pump
156 pressure rises until the load from the pressure in the chamber (13) exceeds the
compression load from the spring (IS), the valve (11) unseats. Water then
escapes to the pump inlet through the tube (1O). The orifice (12), through
which the water must flow from the pump discharge to the relief valve, causes
the pressure in the tube (6) and the chamber (9) to be lowered. The force ex-
erted on the small end of the main valve (7) now exceeds that on the opposite
end and the valve opens.
The water being pumped bypasses from discharge back to the intake side of
the pump, reducing the discharge pressure. The relief valve opens just enough
to reduce the discharge pressure to that set by the pilot valve.
When the discharge pressure drops below the compression settng on the
spring (IS), the .pilot valve (11) then reseats and stops the discharge through
the tube (10). Pressure then builds up in the chamber (9) behind the main
valve (7) and closes it. The main valve remains closed until the discharge
pressure again increases beyond the pilot valve setting, at which time the cycle
is repeated.
Turning off the four-way valve (4) deactivates the pilot valve assembly.
Water at discharge pressure then goes directly from the four-way valve to the
relief valve, bypassing the pilot valve. The relief valve closes immediately and
remains closed regardless of the discharge pressure.
Some Waterous relief valves have indicator lights at the pump panel. The
lights are activated by the movement of the relief valve. A green light indicates
that the relief valve is closed and an amber light shows when the valve is open.
Operation
Relief valves are placed in operation by the following procedure:
1. When two or more hand lines supplied by the pump are flowing at the
volume that will be required
2. Set the discharge pressure to the amount necessary for the fireground.
3. Open the relief valve shutoff, if supplied, and set the relief valve control
for the maximum possible setting. Decrease the setting until the discharge
pressure gage indicates a drop or the pilot light indicates the valve has opened.
Increase the setting slowly until the light goes out or the pressure gage returns
to its original value. The relief valve is now set and will operate any time the
pressure exceeds the set value.
4. Flush the line to the relief valve frequently if a flush control is provided.
Otherwise, see that the strainer is kept clean, especially when pumping dirty
water.
5. Exercise the valve frequently to ensure continuous operation.
When operating from draft or from a booster tank, it is necessary only that
the relief valve bypass the same flow that is shut off, so that the torque load on
the engine will be kept the same. This will keep the rpm as well as the net
pump pressure constant; and since the intake pressure will not rise significant-
ly, neither will the discharge pressure.
When operating from a hydrant connected to a high-capacity water distribu-
tion system, the intake pressure may be quite high, but it won't change
significantly when the flow rate changes. Usually the net pump pressure won't
be as high as when operating from draft, so less flow can be bypassed without
causing friction loss through the valve system equal to the net pump pressure.
This means that the system will stabilize when the water flows through the relief
valve and through any open discharge lines. The system also will stabilize
when the net pump pressure (equal to the friction loss through the relief valve
and piping) causes a torque load equal to the torque transmitted to the pump
by the engine. As indicated, there will be some increase in nozzle pressure,
depending on the net pump pressure as well as the number and size of the 157
remaining lines.
GOVERNORS
A pressure governor installed on a pumper is another way to minimize
changes of pressure when volumes of water flow are changed. A governor ac-
complishes this by changing engine speed to compensate for changes in
pressure.
The main part of the pressure governor is a cylinder (figure 21). Within the
cylinder is a piston or plunger mechanically connected to the throttle linkage or
carburetor of the pumper engine. The movement of the piston is under the
control of the pressure being developed by the pump at its discharge and its
relationship to a preset reference. This reference pressure can be established by
an adjustable spring (figure 21), a pilot valve (similar to that on a relief valve),
pressure in an air chamber, or hydraulic fluid.
TO THROTTLE
LINKAGE
TO DRAIN
-'(Slb'
FROM PRESSURE
DISCHARGE
Figure 21. Typical governor.

With the governor valve opened, an increase in pump discharge pressure
over reference pressure will move the throttle linkage to decrease the speed of
the engine. The throttle linkage piston will keep moving in this direction until
the pump rpm and the reference are equal.
If the pump pressure decreases, the piston will move in the opposite direc-
tion to increase the speed of the engine until the discharge pressure again
equals the reference pressure. However, this presents an operating problem
because the loss of the intake source will cause a drop in discharge pressure.
The engine, in turn, will try to speed up to keep the discharge pressure con-
stant. Since there is no intake source, the engine will speed up until it runs
away. One other danger is that cavitation will take plate. Cavitation, in
general, results from trying to pump more water than is being supplied.
(Cavitation is discussed in detail in Chapter 16.)
The drain valve is used to relieve pressure in the lines if the governor valve is
closed while pump discharge pressure is still being applied. It is also necessary
to drain the governor lines during cold weather to prevent water from freezing
in the lines.
American LaFrance
The American LaFrance governor is composed of a balancing cylinder, a
throttle linkage clutch, a reference pressure reservoir, and a control valve
(figure 22). The function of each of these components is:
Balancing cylinder - transmits motion to the engine throttle linkage
158 (figure 22).
Throttle linkage clutch - engages the balancing cylinder rod with engine
throttle linkage after reference pressure has been set. If pump discharge
pressure falls below 50 psi, the clutch will disengage to prevent running away
and cavitation. The clutch is spring-loaded to disengage completely when not
pressurized to allow free movement of the throttle arm during road operation
(figure 23).
Note:
Figure 22. Components of the American LaFrance governor.
Figure 23. American LaFrance governor installed.
Reference pressure reservoir - accumulates the pressure desired from the

fire pump, which is then trapped between the air in the top of the cylinder and
the reference side of the piston in the balancing cylinder (figure 25). The air
compressed in the top of the cylinder acts as a spring to impart movement to 159
the piston and to maintain a balance of reference and pump pressures. An in-
crease in the engine speed occurs when the volume of air is increased. This
volume of air also allows a decrease to the amount of pump pressure set initial-
ly, with a decrease in discharge volume.
Figure 24. American LaFrance governor operating panel.
REFERENCE PRESSURE
CYLlND?
= NO PRESSURE
A. ;:;mz PUMP DISCHARGE PRESSURE
CLUTCH LINE
="-="'" NO PRESSURE = NO PRESSURE
B. ::a:z: PUMP DISCHARGF

PRESSURf c. .=EZ: PUMP DISCHARGE
PRESSURE
- REFERENCE PRESSURE - REFERENCE PRESSURE
Figure 25. Schematic diagram of the American LaFrance governor.
Control valve - controls the operation of the governor system at the pump
panel (figure 22).
The governor systems operates as follows:
160 1. The pump is placed in operation in the normal manner.
2. Open the smallest discharge line that will be used and advance the hand
throttle to obtain a slight pressure. Now, when the clutch is engaged, the balan-
cing piston is at the end of its travel, at the slowest possible setting.
3. Open the governor shutoff valve (figures 24 and 25A). Pump discharge
pressure is now fed to one side of the balancing cylinder.
4. Move the control valve to the set position (figures 24 and 258). This
pressurizes the line through the set circuit (solid area in the illustration) to the
reference pressure reservoir and to the reference pressure side of the piston in
the balancing cylinder.
5. Advance the hand throttle until the desired pressure is obtained on the
reference pressure gage (figures 24 and 258). This raises the pressure in the
entire governor system, with the exception of the clutch line.
6. Move the control valve to run and push the hand throttle closed (figures
24 and 25C). Pump discharge pressure is now connected to the clutch through
the clutch line. This engages the throttle linkage with the balancing cylinder
rod. The hand throttle is closed so that if pump pressure drops below 50 psi,
the engine will drop to idle speed when the clutch disengages.
7. When additional lines are placed in service, pressure will drop in the
pump discharge side of the balancing cylinder. The higher reference pressure
will move the cylinder to the right (figure 25C), increasing engine speed.
8. To shut down the operation, return the control valve to the off position,
open the reference pressure cylinder drain, close the governor shutoff valve,
and open the control valve drain (figure 258).
9. There is a strainer in the line between the pump and the control valve.
This strainer must be checked periodically to ensure that it is not clogged.
American
The American governor consists of an assembly that fits on the carburetor, a
control rod connected to a piston in a water chamber, and a control valve
(figure 26).
Figure 26. American governor components.
The governor operates as follows:

1. Open the control valve all the way. This will allow water to be discharged
faster than it can flow into the water chamber through the restrictor in the line
and keep the governor from operating (figure 27).
2. Hose lines should be established and water should be flowing at the
desired pressure and quantity.
3. Check the position of the governor return valve (figure 27). This valve 161
allows the water to either return to the pump intake or dump on the ground
through the overflow pipe. When operating from a pressure source, the valve
should be opened, but it must be closed when operating from draft. If the valve
is left open when drafting, it will be impossible to establish a prime since there
would be air entering the pump through the overflow pipe. On the other hand,
if the valve is left closed when the pump is fed from a pressure source, the
governor will not operate consistently since the change in pressure in the intake
will change the flow resistance from the return line. This, in turn, will change
the rate of escape for the water and thus the operating value of the governor.
4. The control valve now is closed slowly until the pressure on the discharge
gage begins to drop. The valve now should be opened until the pressure
readings return to the desired·value. Now, if a line is shut down, the increased
pressure on the diaphragm of the piston assembly exceeds the force of the
spring, and the control slows down the engine speed (figure 27).
PISTON
ASSEMBLY
.r.."..--
38' COPPER TUBE.
---==~~=========m:m'~
...__-1J-C'"LJ
~ @."'~'
:' 0 '•'-·1 f f~"" "
DRAIN VALVE 1_, _ ' O O Y SIDE
Ii
A MOUNT STRAINER
r
UNDER HOOD
Figure 27. Schematic diagram of the American governor.
5. If the line is now opened, the intake pressure drops and the spring moves
the control rod to increase engine speed.
6. If the control is kept completely closed, then it will not be possible to
develop more than about 110 psi discharge pressure.
7. There is a strainer in the line between the pump discharge and the piston
assembly (figure 27). This strainer should be cleaned periodically, especially
after pumping dirty water.
8. To prevent freezing, the drain valve should be opened after use of the
governor during cold weather.
Hale
The Hale governor consists of an actuator, throttle, dampener needle, the
air tank, and the carburetor linkage (figure 28). The governor operates as
follows:
1. Hose lines should be open and the water flowing at the desired pressure
"and quantity. Pressure is increased by backing out the throttle knob to obtain
about 10 psi above the desired operating pressure.
2. Wait approximately three seconds to allow the air tank to fill to operating
162 pressure. Then, pull out the actuator all the way to engage the a-ring seal
Figure 28. Components of the Hale governor.
(figure 29). This now seals off the pump discharge pressure so that it only
pushes against side "8" of the piston (figure 29). At the same time, the air
pressure is trapped in the tank, resulting in a constant reference pressure
pushing on side "A" of the piston (figures 28 and 29).
PISTON RETURN SPRING
OPERATOR SIDE PANEL
SPECIAL LOW FRICTION

FLEXIBLE CABLE TO ~_C1~--INSTRUCTION PLATE
CARBURETOR LINKAGE
HAND
THROTTLE
KNOB
OPENS THROTTLE
..
..
'~~~[i{=~
CLOSES THROTTLE
ACTUATOR
PANEL STRAINER
LEGEND
WATER-PRESSURE
~ VARIES WITH
~ PUMPING CONDITION
WATER~TRAPPED
RETAIN REFERENCE
OR ORIGINAL SET
PRESSURE
Figure 29. Schematic diagram of the Hale governor. 163

3. Turn the throttle knob all the way in. The acorn nut throttle linkage will
remain out (figure 29).
4. If a line is shut down, an increase in pressure will raise the pressure on
face "B" of the piston (figures 28 and 29). This will close the throttle.
5. The check valve and adjustable dampener needle valve (figures 28 and
29) minimize the tendency of the piston to override or go into a surging condi-
tion. The check valve opens on rising pump pressure to permit a fast response
of the piston in closing the throttle. When the pump pressure drops (from the
opening of a line for example), the check valve closes and the water leaving
the cylinder is diverted through and around the needle valve. The needle valve
contains a short length of capillary tubing which slows down the rate of throttle
opening and prevents surging.
6. If the throttle knob is difficult to turn, the dampener needle can be
removed and the capillary tube checked for dirt. Be sure to relieve pressure
completely before removing the dampener needle, or the check valve ball may
be blown out the dampener needle hole.
7. If more than three seconds are required for the air tank to fill to operating
pressure, the strainer may be clogged. Remove the strainer cap and pull out
the strainer screen (figure 29). Flush the. metal screen and polyethylene tubing
filter until clear.
8. During freezing weather, the governor and piping require draining.
Open the drain cock on the bottom of the air tank to drain the tank. With the
main pump drains open, move the throttle to its extreme position to help drain
the governor body. Close all drains when finished.
Seagrave
The Seagrave governor is composed of two major assemblies, the hydraulic
remote ·control and the piston assembly (figures 30 and 31). The governor
operates as follows:
1. Hose lines should be opened and the water flowing at the desired
pressure and quantity. Pressure is increased by opening the throttle at least 10
psi above the desired pressure. The governor control handle should be set at its
highest value (figures 30 and 32).
2. Open the governor valve (figures 30 and 32). This permits water under
discharge pressure to enter the piston assembly and exert a pressure on one
side of the diaphragm.
164 Figure 30. Seagrave governor hydraulic remote control.

Figure 31. Seagrave governor piston assembly.

3. Lower the governor setting by slowly turning the dial. Watch the
discharge gage and continue to turn the control handle until the gage reads the
desired discharge pressure. Now, open the throttle a few turns above the
original setting (figures 30 and 32). Since the hydraulic remote control consists
principally of a small automobile brake master cylinder, moving the handle in
forces the piston to compress the spring. This forces the hydraulic fluid out
through the tubing line and into the hydraulic cylinder of the piston assembly
(figure 32). This forces the piston in the slave cylinder forward, compressing
the spring and exerting a pressure on the diaphragm.
4. When a hose line is shut down, the intake pressure increases. This exerts
a pressure on the diaphragm that is greater than the pressure from the slave
cylinder. The diaphragm then moves, closing the butterfly valve which slows
the engine down (figures 31 and 32).
5. The needle valve (figures 31 and 32) has a flattened end to permit a
slight, continuous flow of water back to the intake. This permits the governor to
stabilize and reduce the surging action.
GOVERNOR
VALVE
TO
SIDE
~====4Z41
INTAKE ,;;;;
FROM ll~07m:lf:1ftn
PRESSURE::;:;:
SIDE
BRAKE
MASTER
CYLINDER
GOVERNOR
CONTROL
HANDLE
Figure 32. Schematic diagram of the Seagrave governor. 165

6. If the flow through the needle valve should stop due to clogging, the
obstruction can be flushed out by opening the needle valve a few turns for a
few seconds and reclosing.
7. The water-operated parts of the governor are drained when the pump is
drained. The connection from the remote control to the piston assembly is ac-
complished with hydraulic fluid, so there is no freezing problem.
Waterous
A mechanical-hydraulic engine governor maintains constant pump pressure
at a desired setting by adjusting the engine throttle (figures 33 and 34). The
system consists of a panel-mounted directional flow valve and an on-off valve
which, together with a bladder-type accumulator, control a hydraulic cylinder
connected to the engine throttle linkage (controls to 500 psig).
Three major units comprise the pressure controller system: the directional
flow valve assembly, the actuating cylinder assembly, and an accumulator.
The panel control (figure 33) is used to adjust the system pressure and to place
the controller into the out-of-service mode.
(~~'\
~--~I
~~
i
~'(~y
DAMPER VALVE I~I CONNECTn

TO THIS PORT 1~IlT SHOWN)
NOTES , ALL TUSING (EXCEPT 8 a g) ~UR"'SHEO By CUSTOMER

FLExiBLE HOS~ IN ~IN£S 1,10, Et." fURtI'SHEO
By \'IATEROUS
< THROTTLe CO~TROL !l2! Mil THROTTLE L'N~AGE ('1 a. 20)
FURNISHED BY CuSTOMER
DIRECTIONAL FLOW
VALVE ASSEMBLY
Figure 33. Schematic diagram of the Waterous governor.
To activate the pressure controller system:

1. Accelerate the engine with the hand throttle until the desired discharge
pressure is obtained.
2. Turn the pressure controller on.
3. Pull the hand throttle all the way out.
4. If the pump loses prime or the intake pressure drops below 30 psi, the
controller cuts the engine speed to an idle.
The pressure controller system operates as follows:
1. The actuator cylinder assembly, connected to the engine throttle, con-
trols engine speed in response to the reference pressure.
2. The large, precharged, bladder-type accumulator establishes the
reference pressure for the pressure controller system. When the system is ad-
justed, the reference pressure is stored in the accumulator.
166 3. As pump discharge pressure fluctuates above or below the set pressure,
the reference pressure in the accumulator works through the cylinder to in-
crease or decrease engine speed to compensate for the pressure variation.
4. When the accumulator is installed, it is precharged to 75 psi with air or
nitrogen to provide closer pressure control when the pump pressures change.
A bladder separates the gas from the water in the accumulator to prevent the
system from becoming waterlogged.
Figure 34. Directional control valve assembly mounted on pump control panel
with hand throttle and accumulator.
AUTOMATIC GOVERNOR
A new device for automatic governor operation has been recently
developed. This automatic governor consists of a pump panel mounted con-
trol, a fuel feed control, and a remote control (figures 35 and 36). The gover-
nor operates as follows:
1. Hose lines should be open and the water flowing at the desired pressure
and quantity. The governor control switch is set off (figure 35).
2. The governor control switch can now he set to manual and the discharge
pressure can be regulated by pressing the increase or decrease push switch un-
Figure 35. Automatic governor pump panel control. 167

til the new discharge pressure is obtained. The unit will then maintain this new
pressure (figure 35).
3. If the governor control switch is set to auto, the right-hand pressure
switch can be set to the desired discharge pressure and the governor will
automatically maintain the set pressure (figure 35).
4. When the governor control switch is set to remote, the governor can be
operated from a point near the fire rather than from the truck (figure 35).
5. The controls are all solid state devices (no tubes) so that freezing and
heating action due to hydraulic changes are avoided (figure 36).
Figure 36. Automatic governor fuel feed control.
168
Chapter 14
Priming Devices
A pump operator often has to use a static water source, such as a pond or
lake, to supply water to the fireground. However, since water cannot be pulled
or lifted, it is necessary to push water into the pump with some kind of
pressure.
Under static conditions, the atmospheric pressure being exerted on the sur-
face of the open body of water is used to push the water into the pump. This is
done by creating an airtight waterway from the surface of the water into the
pump, and then lowering the pressure within the pump and waterway. In this
way, the atmospheric pressure on the outside of the pump is greater than the
pressure on the inside and the water is pushed into the pump.
When the water has risen to a height within the passageway so that the
pressures are balanced, the water will stop flowing. When the amount of
vacuum created is sufficient to overcome the pounds per inch back pressure
created by the elevation of the water, a flow can be established. The establish-
ment of this vacuum, then, is the object of the priming system.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify the theory and principles
of pumper priming systems."·
It is important to remember that only centrifugal pumps must be primed in
order to pump water from a static source. Priming is necessary because a cen-
trifugal pump has a continuous waterway from the intake to discharge and,
therefore, cannot pump air. However, once primed, the movement of water
through the pump will exclude air and maintain the vacuum.
On the other hand, a positive displacement pump needs no external priming
device. The movement of this type of pump is such that it will pump air as well
as water. If an airtight waterway can be established from the intake to the water
surface, air will be discharged. Since no air can enter, a vacuum will be
established and water will enter to replace the discharged air.
The three general methods for priming a centrifugal pump are by use of:
1. Positive displacement pump - rotary gear or rotary vane type
2. Exhaust pump - venturi from the exhaust manifold
3. Vacuum pump - suction from the intake manifold.
ROTARY PRIMING PUMPS

Since the positive displacement pump is self-priming, it can purge itself of
air. It can be connected to a centrifugal pump to provide the vacuum that cen-
• Paragraph 3-5.2. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/ Operator Profes-
material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the 169
trifugal pumps are unable to accomplish alone. In this case, the intake side of
the priming pump is connected through a valve to an opening in the pump cas-
ing and the discharge of the priming pump is usually piped to a drain, discharg-
ing on the ground. In most applications, either a rotary gear or rotary vane
type of pump is used for priming (figure 1).
VENT
r.~===FROM PUMP
SUCTION
\---VALVE
DISCHARGE
TO GROUND
.
Figure 1. Rotary vane priming pump .
These primers use an oil supply to seal and lubricate the gears more efficient-
ly and to improve the priming capabilities. The vent in the oil line breaks the
vacuum when priming is complete, so that the oil will not be siphoned out of
the tank.
The primers are usually driven either mechanically from the transfer case or
by an electric motor. If an electric motor is provided, it is common practice to
provide a mechanical arrangement for emergency usage.
Operation of the rotary type primer varies from pump to pump, but the
mechanical type generally operates from an engine speed of 700 to 1500 rpm.
The electric type runs independently of engine speed. With either type, when
the prime is accomplished, water will be discharged from the drain piping.
TO CHANGEOVER
VALV~.
PRIMER PUMP
TO STARTER
SOLENOID
PRIMER
LUBRICATOR OIL SUPPLY TANK LUBRICATOR
170 Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the American LQ.France electric priming system.
PRIMING DEVICES
Although this type of primer does not require much maintenance, it is abso-
lutely essential to keep the oil reservoir filled at all times.
Some basic principles that apply to all rotary type primers are:
1. If the connection from the primer is made to the intake side of the pump
near the impeller, the pump should be turning while it is being primed.
2. If the connection from the primer is made on top of the pump, the im-
pellers should not be turning when it is being primed.
3. The primer should be capable of providing 22 inches of mercury reading
on the compound gage within 30 seconds. Mercury is heavier than water and
a I-inch column of mercury (Hg) is the equivalent of 1.31 feet of water col-
umn. A reading of 22 inches Hg would therefore indicate a negative pressure
in the pump capable of a static lift of 24.86 feet of water (22 x 1.13 = 24.86
feet) .
American LaFrance
The major components of the American LaFrance primer are the lubricator
oil supply tank, the primer control, the primer pump, the water valve, and the
primer switch (figure 2).
The primer operates as follows:
1. The primer control handle is pulled out from the pump panel. The cable
control opens the water valve which opens the passageway between the main
Figure 3. American laFrance primer.
Figure 4. American laFrance oil reservoir. 171

pump and the rotary vane priming pump (figure 2). Pulling the control handle
also activates the priming switch.
2. With the priming switch on, the 12-volt motor turns the rotary vanes of
the primer pump (figure 3).
3. The rotary vane pump creates a vacuum and draws air out through the
water valve from the main pump.
4. When all the air has been removed from the pump, water will flow from
the primer out to the ground.
5. Oil from the reservoir is siphoned to the rotary vane pump (figure 4.)
When priming is stopped, the vacuum in the oil line is broken by the vent hole.
In some models, oil from the reservoir is supplied by manually operating the
primer lubricator control (figure 2).
Darley
The Darley electric priming pump uses a rotary vane primer (figure 5). This
pump's main components are the lubricator oil supply tank, the primer control,
the primer pump and the water control valve (figure 5).
1. The primer control hanc;ile is pulled out. This activates the switch that
turns on the power to the motor and opens the passageway between the main
pump and the rotary vane pump.
2. The motor turns the rotary vane pump which draws air out through the
water valve from the main pump.
3. When all the air has been removed from the pump, water will flow out
onto the ground through the primer exhaust pipe.
4. Oil from the reservoir (figure 5) is siphoned to the rotary vane pump.
When pumping is stopped, the vacuum in the oil line is broken by the vent
hole (figure 5). The oil reservoir uses SAE 30 motor oil and has a capacity of 6
quarts.
..... -
.- 1 DIUo.IN HOLE
NO. 8Z ORILL \lENT HOL£
\, CONNECT GROUNDING STJlAP TO 5GR[W I..QC.AT£ AaO\I£ VACUUM
~ Ii -18 Ne - POSfTIV£ TERMINAL
"
l! -I NQUotTlNG HOLIES
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the Darley electric priming pump.
Hale
Hale pumps are equipped with either a vacuum/air system or an electric
172 priming system. The major components of these systems are the priming
PRIMING DEVICES
pump, the priming valve, the priming clutch (vacuum/air operation only), and
the control source (figures 6 and 7).
The vacuum/air priming system operates as follows:
1. When the priming button (figure 8) is pushed in, the area on the inside of
the priming valve diaphragm and the outside of the priming clutch diaphragm
are subjected to vacuum from the engine intake manifold (figure 6).
2. In the priming valve, atmospheric pressure on the outside of the
diaphragm pushes the valve open, connecting the priming pump suction to the
main pump intake (figures 6 and 7).
3. The priming clutch is engaged by atmospheric pressure pushing on the
inside of the priming clutch diaphragm, thus driving the gears of the rotary
priming pump (figure 6). Levers are provided on the priming valve and prim-
ing pump clutch for emergency manual operation (figures 6, 8 and 9).
4. When the. priming clutch is engaged, the priming pump (figure 10) is
driven by a gear in the pump gear case. The' speed of the priming pump will be
dependent on the speed of the pump motor. Most pumps are designed for the
TO VACUUM OR
AIR SOURCE
FROM SUCTION
l
OF MAIN PUMP
PRIMING
VALVE
OPEN
[
I
I
U
NOTES
oCD HOLES OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE FOR AIR OPERATION

HOLE-S OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE FOR VACUUM OPERATION
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the Hale vacuum/air primer.

TO MAIN
PUMP
PRIMING VALVE\:-r TO BA!TERY
CONTROL SOURCE
~ '~
SQ
..
~.l·! ''''~\''~
' . ! SO-C~ID
---:-<! .• 1
TO MOTOR
~.
,
TO PRIMING PUMP INTAKE
TO BATTERY _________ . PRIMING PUMP

INTAKE
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the Hale electric primer. 173

motor to be turning approximately 120 rpm during the priming operation. The
priming pump on the Hale pump will not turn unless the main pump is en-
gaged and the road gear is disengaged.
5. The mechanical operation of the priming valve and the priming pump
will be the same for air pressure operation, except that the air will be connected
to the opposite side of the diaphragm (figure 6).
6. The priming pump uses a supply of motor oil to seal the gears and pro-
vide lubrication for the pump.
The electric priming system operates as follows:
1. Pulling the control handle opens the priming valve, which connects the
main pump intake to the rotary gear primer (figure 7) and activates the electric
motor.
2. As the rotor turns, it creates a vacuum on the intake side of the main
pump. At the same time, oil is pulled in from the oil tank for lubricating and
sealing the priming pump.
Figure 8. Hale vacuum primer controls.
Figure 9. Hale priming valve.
Seagrave
The Seagrave rotary vane priming pump is driven by a clutch arrangement
174 when the control rod is pulled (figure 11).
PRIMING DEVICES
The operation sequence for the pump is:

1. When the priming pump is disengaged, the cone clutch is not connected
(figure 12). Now, when the control rod is pulled, the clutch is engaged and the
pump gears drive the rotary vane priming pump (figures 11 and 13).
2. With the rotary vane pump turning, air is pumped out of the main pump.
3. An oil reservoir keeps the vanes lubricated and helps to seal the pump.
Figure 10. Hale rotary gear primer.
PRIMING PUMP CLUTCH
PRIMING PUMP
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the Seagrave primer.
Waterous
The major components of the Waterous primer are the priming valve, rotary
gear priming pump, and control rod (figure 14).
1. Pulling (or pushing, depending on the particular installation) the control
rod opens the priming valve, connecting the rotary gear primer to the first-
stage intake chamber of the main pump (figure 15). At the same time, pulling
the rod activates the electric switch which turns on the priming motor (figure
1~. 175
Figure 12. Seagrave primer with clutch disengaged.
Figure 13. Seagrave primer with clutch engaged.
PRIMING
VALVE
PRIMING
PUMP
176 Figure 14. Schematic diagram of the Waterous primer.

PRIMING DEVICES
Figure 15. Waterous priming valve.
ELECTRIC MOTOR PRIMER GEAR DRIVE (MAY

DRIVE CASE BE USED INDEPENDENT
OF ELECTRIC DRIVE
TO PROVIDE
EMERGENCY
Figure 16. Waterous primer and drive assembly.

2: The priming motor turns the rotary gears, removing air from the intake
side of the main pump and discharging it from the rotary gear pump.
3. Oil from the auxiliary priming tank (figure 14) is siphoned into the rotary
gear pump to provide an airtight seal and to lubricate the rotors.
4. If the primer is equipped with an electric drive, a manual shift for engag-
ing the priming motor with the pump drive can be provided (figures 16 and
17). Then, if the electric motor should fail, the pump primer can be engaged
manually.
VACUUM PRIMER
One of the simplest types of primers, the vacuum primer, makes use of the
fact that any gasoline-powered engine creates a vacuum at its intake manifold 177
Figure 17. Waterous manual primer override.
at all times when it is running. In order to take advantage of the vacuum, a

device can be connected between the pump and the intake manifold so that a
connection can be made when necessary. To do this, the priming device must
include safeguards to prevent two inherent dangers:
1. Water must be prevented from being drawn into the engine.
2. Gases from a backfire must be prevent.ed from being forced into the
pump.
The American and Darley pumps use a vacuum primer which operates as
follows:
1. Pulling the priming handle connects both the intake manifold and the
pump intake to the priming assembly (figures 18 and 19).
2. The vacuum from the engine draws air from the pump intake, through
the main float area, past the lower ball valve, past the safety float and valve,
out through the pressure valve to the engine manifold (figures 18, 19, 20 and
21) .
3. When a sufficient vacuum has been created, water enters the main float
area and raises the float. This, in turn, raises the lower ball valve to shut off the
vacuum to the pump intake. The upper ball valve is also raised so that outside
air goes to the engine manifold (figures 11, 17, 20 and 21).
4. If the main float should fail to rise, the lower ball valve will remain open.
Water then will rise into the upper chamber, raising the safety float and closing
the safety valve. This seals off the engine manifold and prevents the water from
being drawn into the engine (figures 18, 19', 21 and 22).
5. If the engine should backfire while the primer is operating, the increased
pressure will cause the pressure valve to close, thus shutting off the primer
from the engine (figure 18).
6. When the priming handle is released, the engine manifold is discon-
nected from the upper chamber and the lower chamber is connected to the
drain. Now, water in the lower chamber can be drained to prevent freezing and
to lower the main float (figure 18).
7. The maximum vacuum at the intake manifold is created when the engine
is operating at an idle, approximately 800 rpm, with as little load on the engine
as possible.
8. These vacuum primers should be checked frequently. The main float,
linkage, and ball valves should be checked for wear or damage. The cork safe-
ty float should be checked for deterioration. This is especially important
178 because a failure will result in water getting into the engine.
PRIMING DEVICES
1',
I ,
I " PRESSURE
E
I '
I '
I
I
(PRIME)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
~~~====:~~~PUMP
- NTAKE
Figure 18. Schematic diagram of a vacuum primer.
~
DOl&£ fLQAT
PAIMl:A A$¥MRLY
VGAI WQ." puw OPTIONAL

Rep.
PARTS LIST
OPERATE WITH SUWlATE PUSH No. Name of Part
IUTTON SWITCH
Plastic Knob
Spring
Panel Valve Nut
Valve Plug SlOp Pin
D'Ring
Valve Body
Valve Plug
Spring Stop
Stem
Figure 19. Schematic diagram of the Darley priming pump.
EXHAUST PRIMER
The exhaust primer makes use of the venturi principle. The rapidly moving
exhaust gases from the apparatus engine are diverted through a chamber
which connects to an opening in the pump housing. The rapidly moving gases
tend to draw the air out of the pump, creating a vacuum.
This particular type primer requires a very high engine rpm because the
faster the gases are moving, the more pronounced will be the action of the
primer in exhausting the air. 179
Figure 20. Cutaway view of the vacuum primer.
Figure 21. Darley double Ooat primer.

The exhaust primer operates as follows:
1. Pulling the primer handle closes the. butterfly valve, which deflects the
exhaust gases through the exhaust venturi, and opens the priming valve which
connects the pump intake to the primer (figures 2·2 and 24).
2. The exhaust gas is diverted through the venturi, reducing the pressure in
the line from the pump intake. The reduced pressure opens check valve "E"
and air from the pump intake flows to the ground (figure 23).
3. The vacuum created in the line keeps check valve "w" closed.
4. If the priming valve should be aCcidentally opened while connected to a
pressure source, water would enter the exhaust venturi. To prevent this, the
water venturi is installed. Water under pressure, passing through the venturi,
will create a vacuum, thus closing check valve "E." Check valve "w" would be
forced open, thus dumping water on the ground (figure 23).
5. Since this type of primer uses exhaust gases with their carbon deposits,
water, and other waste products, it is more in need of maintenance than some
180 of the other primers. The condition of the truck's exhaust system is critical to
PRIMING DEVICES
the operation of this system. The primer's chamber also requires cleaning at in-
tervals. Operation of some of the valves that are used in diverting the exhaust
gases depends on frequent lubrication and maintenance.
10 PARTS LIST
Rep.
No. Name of Part
I Primer Float Assembly
2 Primer Cover
J Baffle, lower
4 Primer Body Gasket
5 Baffle, Upper
6 IHO-24xY2" Machine Screw
7 Primer Valve Body
8 Primer Shutoff Gasket
13 9 Valve Seat "0" Ring
10 Ball Float Assembly
II Safety Float Housing
12 Ballast Washer
IJ Primer Cover Gasket
14 Primer Valve Body Plale
15 Primer Valve Stem
15
16 Primer Pivot Post
17 Primer Body
18 Clevise Pin
19 /110-24" Yz" Machine Screw & Nut
17 20 Body "0" Ring
~-----------------------------20
Figure 22. Schematic diagram of the Darley double float primer.
r
-;:::::========FROM PUMP
INTAKE
1\ ~H:CK
I V ~~~E ~~~~UST
e
\
EXHAUST
I
I
I
I1 . - - - _ - - - - - .\teL
\'f.::'f.:
BUTTERFLY
VALVE
TO TAIL PIPE
Figure 23. Schematic diagram of an exhaust primer.
__J
PRIMING
VALVE
Figure 24. Thibault exhaust primer. 181

Chapter 15
Drafting Operations
Drafting water is the process of using water from a static source, such as a
pond, lake or basin. Since the water source is static, or at rest, the pump
operabr's job is to have the water forced into the pump so that it can be
delivered to the fireground.
identify the principle of drafting water, and demonstrate a systems check when
the pumper will not draft."·
As explained in Chapter 14, each centrifugal pump is a priming device to
eliminate air from the pump and intake lines. Once the air has been eliminated
and a partial vacuum created, atmospheric pressure pushes water into the
pump (figure 1) through the noncollapsible (hard suction) hose.
Lifting water
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given the necessary information, shall
compute the maximum lift of a fire department pumper."··
For each 1 inch of mercury vacuum created, water will be pushed into the
non collapsible hose (or hard sleeve) a distance of 1.13 feet. Since lift is
measured from the surface of the static source to the center line of the pump, a
perfect vacuum in the pump, at sea level, will allow water to be pushed to a
height of
14.7 psi x 2.304 ft/lb = 33.86 ft, or
29.92 in of mercury x 1.13 ft/in = 33.81 ft
The perfect vacuum necessary for the theoretical lift of 33.9 feet is almost
impossible to achieve even in a laboratory. Additional loss in optimum lift is ac-
counted for due to friction in the suction hoses (a pump may lift 500 gpm
through a 5-inch suction; however, the same pump may lift 500 gpm only
12112 feet when a 3 1h-inch suction is used). Head loss, water temperature, at-
mospheric pressure at the site location and condition of the pump all contribute
to lessening the theoretical height that a pumper may lift water. This limits
practical lifts to 28 feet for an excellent rating; 25 feet for a good rating. Most
pumpers in service lift somewhat less than these figures.
The height of the Iift'is independent of the angle of the hard sleeve. The lift in
both situations of figure 2 is the same. The only distance of importance, as far
'Paragraph 3-6.3. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Pro-
fessional Qualifications. Copyright© 1982. National Fire Protection Association. Quincy. Massachusetis 02269. This
reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject. which Is represented only
b!,! the standard in its entirety.
182 "Paragraph 3-4.11. Ibid.
DRAFTING OPERATIONS
PUMP INTAKE
PUMPER
NONCOllAPSIBlE
HOSE
r TT T
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Figure 1. Drafting operations.
as lift is concerned, is the vertical distance. However, longer hard sleeves re-
quire additional work by the pump to overcome the increased friction loss.
Since the vacuum gage is calibrated in inches of mercury, the atmospheric
pressure is measured in psi, and the lift is calculated in feet (table 1 provides the
conversions between units). Using the table, the 12-foot lift shown in figure 1
requires a vacuum of 10.60 inches of mercury or 5.20 psi. This means that the
TABLE 1. Units of Pressure Conversion Table

Feet of Water Inches of Psi Feet of Water Inches of Psi
(Lift) Mercury (Lift) Mercury
7.00 6.18 3.03 20.79 18.36 9.00
7.93 7.00 3.43 21.00 18.54 9.09
8.00 7.06 3.46 21.53 19.00 9.32
9.00 7.95 3.90 22.00 19.43 9.53
9.06 8.00 3.92 22.66 20.00 9.81
9.24 8.16 4.00 23.00 20.31 9.96
10.00 8.83 4.33 23.10 20.40 10.00
10.20 9.00 4.42 23.79 21.00 10.30
11.00 9.71 4.76 24.00 21.19 10.39
11.33 10.00 4.91 24.93 22.002 10.79
11.55 10.20 5.00 25.00 22.08 10.83
12.00 10.60 5.20 25.41 22.44 11.00
12.46 11.00 5.40 26.00 22.96 11.26
13.00 11.48 5.63 26.06 23.00 11.28
13.60 12.00 5.89 27.00 23.84 11.69
13.86 12.24 6.00 27.19 24.00 11.77
14.00 12.36 6.06 27.72 24.48 12.00
14.73 13.00 6.38 28.00 24.72 12.12
15.00 13.25 6.50 28.33 25.00 12.27
15.86 14.00 6.87 29.00 25.61 12.56
16.00 14.13 6.93 29.46 26.00 12.76
16.17 14.28 7.00 30.00 26.49 12.99
17.00 15.00 7.36 30.03 26.52 13.00
18.00 15.89 7.79 30.59 27.00 13.25
18.13 16.00 7.85 31.00 27.37 13.42
18.48 16.32 8.00 31.72 28.00 13.74
19.00 16.78 8.23 32.00 28.76 13.86
19.26 17.00 8.34 32.34 38.56 14.00
20.00 17.66 8.66 32.86 29.00 14.23
20.39 18.00 8.83 33.00 29.14 14.29
33.90 29.92 14.70 183
partial pressure in the pump can be
14.7 - 5.2 = 9.5 psi

and the pump will still lift the water.
The partial vacuum required under static conditions, with no water being
discharged, is 5.2 psi. It is the minimum vacuum required to do the job of let-
ting water be pushed into the pump. Once the water begins moving, a higher
vacuum will be necessary to overcome the friction loss in the intake hose.
LIFT
SURFACE OF WATER
Figure 2. Measuring lift.
Climatic conditions
Performance of a pump also depends on the climate for drafting operations.
Since the ability to lift 'water depends on atmospheric pressure, the specific
pressure will change with the weather. On clear, fair days atmospheric
pressure is higher than on cloudy or stormy days. The pressure change will
therefore influence the maximum lift.
Even more important than the small weather variation of atmospheric
pressure is the variation due to a change in altitude. The pressure drops ap-
proximately 1 inch of mercury (112 psi) for every 1000 feet of altitude above sea
level. Table 2 provides atmospheric pressure for various altitudes.
Normally, the temperature of the water available for drafting is not warm
enough to cause concern. However, if water is being used from a booster tank
or a test pit, the temperature can have a very noticeable effect. Every body of
TABLE 2. Atmospheric Pressure Versus Altitude
Altitude Pressure Loss of Lift Altitude Pressure Loss of Lift
(feet) (psi) Feet of Water (feet) (psi) Feet of Water
-1000 15.2 1.16 4500 12.4 5.3
- 500 15.0 5000 12.2 5.8
0 14.7 5500 12.0 6.2
500 14.4 .7 6000 11.8 6.7
1000 14.2 1.2 6500 11.5 7.4
1500 13.9 1.8 7000 11.3 7.9
2000 13.7 2.31 7500 11.1 8.4
2500 13.4 3.0 8000 10.9 8.8
3000 13.2 3.5 8500 10.7 9.2
3500 12.9 4.2 9000 10.5 9.7
4000 12.7 4.6
Loss in feet = 14.7 - Alt = X psi
2.31 feet
X x = Loss in feet
184 1 psi
DRAFTING OPERATIONS
water with a temperature in excess of 32°F gives off water vapor. Now, when
the water is confined inside the pump casing, the water vapor given off causes
vapor pressure. As temperature increases, so does the vapor pressure. The
values of vapor pressure at various temperatures are listed in table 3.
Table 3 shows that at 212°F, the vapor pressure equals the atmospheric
pressure and it will be impossible to draft water. Table 4 shows the theoretical
maximum lift for varying temperatures at various altitudes. As an approxima-
tion, for each 1000-foot increase in altitude, deduct 1 foot of lift.
The temperature of the air and the level of humidity affect the performance
of an internal combusion engine. Air is drawn into the cylinder and mixed with
fuel; combustipn, therefore, depends on the amount of oxygen available. Of
prime concern is the weight of the air rather than the volume, because the in-
creased weight means there is more oxygen. The greater the weight for a cer-
tain volume of air, the greater the density. As altitude and temperature in-
crease, air density decreases. In addition, an increase in humidity (water vapor
content) lowers the oxygen content of the air. All of these effects combine to
reduce the efficiency of the engine and its ability to pump water.
The results of climatic conditions can be summarized as follows:
Pumping ability is affected by:
1. Atmospheric pressure;
2. Water temperature;
3. Barometric pressure.
Engine power is affected by:
1. Barometric pressure;
2. Air temperature;
3. Relative humidity.
TABLE 3. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
Temperature Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure
(oF) (psi) (feet of water)*
70 0.36 0.89
80 0.51 1.2
90 0.70 1.6
100 0.95 2.2
110 1.27 3.0
120 1.69 3.9
130 2.22 5.0
140 2.89 6.8
150 3.72 8.8
170 5.99 14.2
190 9.34 22.3
212 14.70 35.4
*The values of vapor pressure in feet of water are slightly higher than those shown in table 1
for the equivalent pressure in psi. This Is due to the decrease in specific gravity of water as
the temperature increases. The specific gravity at 39.2 of Is 1.000 and at 212°F it Is 0.958. The
decrease in specific gravity means that a given volume of water weighs less, and the same at·
mospheric pressure will push It higher.
TABLE 4. Theoretical Lift at Varying Temperatures and Altitudes

Temperature Lift at Altitude Lift at Altitude Lift at Altitude
(OF) of - 800 feet of 0 feet of 3400 feet
32 34.8 33.9 29.8
40 34.7 33.6 29.7
50 34.5 33.4 29.6
60 34.3 33.2 29.4
70 34.1 33.0 29.1
90 33.3 32.2 28.4
110 32.0 30.9 27.0
130 29.9 28.7 24.9
150 26.5 25.4 21.5
170 21.0 20.0 16.0
1~ 1M 1U 8.5
212 6.4 5.4 1.0 185
Operating procedures
To operate a centrifugal pump from draft:
1. Position the pumper as close as possible to the static source of water.
2. Connect the number of hard sleeves necessary to reach the water source
(figure 3). Make sure that soft, pliable gaskets are used. Tighten the couplings
to ensure an airtight seal.
3. Connect the strainer to the end of the hard sleeve (figure 4). Tighten the
strainer so that an airtight seal is obtained at the coupling.
4. Tie a rope to the strainer. The rope will be used to raise the strainer off
the bottom of the water source and will ease the strain on the coupling to the
truck. If a floating strainer is used (figure 4), the rope is still needed to help
handle the hard sleeves.
Figure 3. Drafting sleeves.
Figure 4. Drafting operation.
5. Tie a clove hitch and binder around the hard sleeve where the strainer
and hose connect. Place the hitch so that it straddles the lugs of the hard
sleeve. Tie the short end of the rope through the strainer eye, using a figure-8
knot. Tie another clove hitch around the female end of the first hard sleeve.
The loose end of the rope can now be tied to the pumper, and the sleeve can
be raised or lowered using the rope. Note: Always try to secure to the pumper
in case operations must be secured and the pumper moved in emergency
186 conditions.
DRAFTING OPERATIONS
6. Connect the end of the hard sleeve to the large intake of the truck.
Tighten the coupling to ensure an airtight seal.
7. The strainer and hard sleeves are lowered into the water. If possible,
keep the strainer at least 18 inches off the bottom and 18 inches below the sur-
face of the water. If a floating strainer is used, it will automatically adjust to the
correct angle (figure 5).
8. Close all connections and shut all drain valves to make an airtight seal.
9. Set the transfer valve to the volume position for most centrifugal pumps.
10. Engage the pump.
11. Engage and operate the priming device until the pump is primed. The
vacuum reading on the intake gage should be proportional to the lift, approx-
imately 1 inch for each foot.
12. When primed, there will be a pressure reading on the discharge gage
and water will flow from the priming device. Open one discharge gate slowly,
and at the same time advance the throttle until a steady flow is established. As
the discharge is increased, the vacuum reading on the intake gage will increase
to make up for the friction loss in the hard sleeve.
13. Set the transfer valve, the relief valve, or the governor as outlined in
previous chapters.
14. To shut down the operation, lower discharge pressure slowly, close
discharge gates, disengage pump, and open drains. Opening the drains will
cause a loss of vacuum and drop the water from the hard sleeves.
15. Disconnect the hard sleeve from the apparatus and, using the rope,
raise the strainer from the water source.
16. Return all controls and valves to their normal positions.
DEEP DRAFT -strainer drafts from a few

inches below the surface where water is SHALLOW DRAFT-FLOAT DOCK drafts
cleanest. Note how hose weight tilts down to about five-inch depth and still
strainer while float remains level. no whirl pool or loss of suction.
Figure 5. Floating strainer operation.
Drafting problems
Operating a pumper from draft usually is not a frequent occurrence. For this
reason, and because the pump must be in excellent condition, many operators
experience trouble while trying to draft. It is recommended that frequent drills
in drafting procedures, even in municipal departments, be carried out.
However, if trouble should be experienced, the following trouble analysis will
assist in locating the problem.
1. Air leaks - Any faulty connection or fitting can make it difficult to prime
the pump. All intake hose gaskets should be checked for fit and wiped clean of
sand, pebbles, and any other foreign matter before the hose is attached to the
pump. The main pump packing should be adjusted tightly enough to prevent
air leakage (not water leakage). A test for air leakage is outlined in Chapter 20.
2. Dirt in suction screens - Dirt-clogged suction screens may make it
difficult to prime the pump as well as cause the pump to lose its prime.
3. Priming problems - Problems can be experienced when trying to
prime if engine speed is too low, the primer is not operated long enough, there
is no oil in the priming reservoir, there are improper clearances in the rotary 187
primer, there is excess carbon on exhaust primer valve seats, or there is a

defective priming valve.
4. High point in intake hose - High points in the hard sleeve (caused,
for example, by running the hard sleeve over a railing or fence) create air pock-
ets that can cause a loss of the prime. If the hard sleeve cannot be rearranged,
prime can be obtained by closing the discharge valves immediately when the
pressure drops and then repriming. This procedure usually eliminates the air
pockets which were drawn into the impellers from the high point.
5. Suction lift too high for operating conditions - Too high a lift for
the altitude, weather conditions, and the condition of the pump and ac-
cessories will prevent priming.
6. Strainer not under water - The strainer may be submerged deeply
enough for priming, but when a large volume of water is pumped, a whirlpool
is formed which uncovers the strainer. This allows air to enter the pump.
7. Suction hose collapsed - On defective or old hard sleeves, the inner
liner often collapses when drafting water, thus, restricting the flow of water to
the pump. Collapse of the inner liner is often hard to detect, even when the in-
side of the hose is carefully examined. This is due to the fact that the inner liner
often goes back in place when the vacuum is removed. Refer to Chapter 20 for
a method of testing the hard sleeve.
S. Pump condition - Badly worn wear rings or impeller vanes fouled
with debris will cause difficulty.
9. Insufficient engine power - Engine power can be reduced due to in-
correct timing, fouled spark plugs, burned points, weak condenser or coil,
sticking valves, worn piston rings, worn fuel pump, or poor carburetion.
Cavitation
Cavitation is a condition that occurs internally within the pump. It is caused
by the pump trying to deliver more water than is being supplied. Cavitation can
occur when trying to dr.aft more water than can be lifted for the particular cir-
cumstances, when the strainer becomes clogged, when the hard sleeve liner
collapses, or when the water supply decreases.
As the flow of water to the intake decreases and the impeller rpm remains
constant, pressure at the impeller eye decreases. The decreased pressure
causes an increase in the amount of vacuum. Now, the increased vacuum
lowers the boiling point of the water. For example, at 14.7 psi water boils at
212°F, but at 10 psi it boils at 193.22°F and at 1 psi it boils at 101.83°F.
Some of the water entering the eye of the impell~r encounters the increased
vacuum conditions and flashes into steam or water vapor. These bubbles of
water vapor flow through the impeller where there is an almost instantaneous
change from vacuum to pressure. The water vapor condenses because the in-
creased pressure raises the .QQiling point. As the water rushes in to fill the void
left by the water vapor, there is a tremendous shock. The shock of the water
filling the empty space at a high velocity causes damage to the metal of the im-
peller, and the pump could be made inoperative.
Cavitation can be recognized as the point where an attempt to increase en-
gine rpm does not produce an increase in discharge pressure. If cavitation does
occur, the operator can decrease engine rpm, increase the size of the hard
sleeve, locate an additional source of water, or reduce the height of the lift.
188
Chapter 16
Hydrant Supply and

Operations
One of the greatest assets to the pump operator from a firefighting stand-
point is an ample water supply piped through a distribution system to hydrants.
To efficiently use the water distribution system, pump operators must have a
knowledge of:
1. The operating characteristics of the hydrant,
2. The water distribution characteristics of the system,
3. The pump operating procedures at the hydrant, and
4. The care, maintenance, and testing of hydrants.
Hydrant characteristics
The design of a hydrant varies with the geographical area, the locality within
the state, and even within cities and towns in the same county. Some areas
have two different types of water supply systems - high pressure and regular
distribution - which means that there are two different types of hydrants
within the same area.
"The fire apparatus driver/ operator shall identify the types of hydrants used
within the jurisdiction, including descriptions of:
"(a) Connection size and type of thread of discharge openings
"(b) Construction and operation of drain valve
"(c) Direction of operation of the main valve
"(d) Internal diameter of hydrant barrel
"(e) Maximum friction loss in the hydrant
"(f) Procedures and policies of hydrant locations." *
Most hydrants are equipped with two 21f2-inch discharges and one large
discharge (figure 1). The large discharge is also known as the "steamer
connection. "
For most water systems, the threads used on the hydrant discharges are the
standard 71f2 threads per inch for 2 1/z-inch openings and 4 threads to the inch
for larger openings. The National Standard thread designation is NH.
However, there are still many fire departments that continue to use their own
nonstandard thread designations. This means that neighboring departments
when called for mutual aid must have special adapters to hook up to the
hydrant, which can hinder operations .
• Paragraph 3-2.2. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Profes-
material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the 189
Hydrants can be divided into two major categories, wet barrel and dry
barrel.
Wet barrel hydrant - The wet barrel hydrant is primarily used in those
areas where freezing does not occur, since water is also present in the barrel.
Because freezing is not a problem, the wet barrel type has fewer parts than the
dry barrel. The wet barrel hydrant has an underground section, a top section, a
valve and a valve stem for each discharge, and a cap for each discharge to pro-
tect the threads and shutoff valve (figure 2).
TOP SECTION
4·1/2-INCH
DISCHARGE
"STEAMER
CONNECTION"
UNDERGROUND
f..l----SECTION
Figure 1. Modern fire hydrant. Figure 2. Wet barrel hydrant.

Dry barrel hydrant - The dry barrel hydrant consists of the foot piece, the
barrel, the bonnet, the valve, the valve stem, and the discharge opening
(figures 3A and 3B). The shutoff valve must be located below the frost line to
prevent freezing. This necessitates additional parts, seals, and joints, making
the dry barrel hydrant more complicated than the wet barrel hydrant.
The foot piece or shoe is the inlet for water from the main and contains the
shutoff valve and drain valve (figure 3A). The barrel, which contains the
operating stem, conducts the water from the main to the discharge opening.
The bonnet provides protection to the hydrant and contains the mechanism for
turning the valve. The discharge cover protects the discharge threads and
keeps objects from entering and blocking the barrel.
The main valve of this particular hydrant is kept closed with water pressure,
which acts on the bottom of the valve (figure 4A). This prevents water flow if
the hydrant is struck and the barrel and valve stem damaged. To open the
hydrant, the valve stem is turned at the operating nut, and the valve moves
toward the bottom of the foot piece (figures 3A and 3B). During the first few
turns, the drain valve is open and full water pressure flushes the drain water-
way (figures 4A and 4B). When the main valve is fully opened, the drain valve
closes (figure 4C). When operation from the hydrant is completed, the main
valve can be closed, but the hydrant barrel remains filled with water. During
the last few turns of the operating nut, full water pressure again flushes the
drain valves (figure 4D). With the main valve fully closed, water drains from
the barrel through the drain waterway, keeping the barrel dry (figure 4E).
190 When installing a dry barrel hydrant, it is necessary to place a coarse gravel
HYDRANT SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS
OR SHOE
Figure 3A. Dry barrel hydrant Figure 3B. Dry barrel hydrant
(cross section). components.
Figure 4. Hydrant main and drain valve operation.
bed around the foot piece to ensure proper draining. (figure 5). The gravel also
prevents the drain from becoming clogged with dirt and soil. One cautionary
measure when using a dry barrel hydrant is that it must be opened more than a
few turns. If it is left to run while drain valves remain open, the water leaves the
waterway like a jet stream. This stream can erode the coarse rock, causing it to
collapse. The breakup of the rock creates a void which can cause the street to
sink or the water main to break.
In areas with a high water table, drain valves may have to be plugged. This
will prevent the ground water from entering the water barrel and rising until it is
level with the area water table. Water in the barrel will, of course, be subject to
freezing and can also contaminate the domestic water system. When the drain
holes are plugged, the fire department must hand pump the barrel dry after
each use. 191
Figure 5. Hydrant installation.
Water distribution system

All of the hydrants in a city will be of little use if there is no water flowing
through the mains. The water distribution system must be designed to bring
sufficient water efficiently and reliably from the source to the area where
needed. To do this, the system needs:
1. A source of supply,
2. A method of moving water, and
3. A distribution and storage system.
Source of supply - Two sources of supply for a water distribution system
are surface waters and ground waters. Surface waters include lakes, ponds and
rivers; ground water can be obtained through wells and springs.
Depending on the purity of the source, and whether the water will be used
for industrial processing or human use, purification may be required.
Water movement - Water must be moved from its source to the treat-
ment facility and from the treatment facility to the user through water mains.
Two methods for accomplishing this task are to direct pump the water through
the system or to pump the water to an elevated storage tank. The elevated
storage tank, the most common method, then creates a pressure head equal to
.434 psi for every foot of elevation.
Distribution and storage system - Distribution of water over the area is
made through varying size pipes. Water is usually stored locally in elevated
tanks so that a good supply, under sufficient head, is always available. The dif-
ferent size pipes which go together to make a water distribution system are also
known as a grid (figure 6).
A grid is composed of:
1. Primary mains - large mains which bring water from the source or water
treatment plant to the area to be served.
2. Secondary mains - intermediate size pipes which supply large sections
of the service area.
3. Distribution mains - small size pipes which feed individual streets of the
service area. These pipes are rarely smaller than 6 inches.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify the size of mains and the
available fire flows in various areas specified by the authority having juris-
diction.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify problems related to flows
192 from dead-end water mains.
z
<!
;;;01
:;:
:;:
z
>-
O! t
<iJ
-+ f-o
I
20-INCH PRIMARY MAIN
t
01 'r
z
~
I
I
-+- f-o
I l-
6 I 6 6
I
I I
I
I I
DE AD
I -+- ~
EN D
8-INCH
DISTR ISUTOR MAIN
-<
L LOOPED SYSTEM j MA IN
+
10
+
(5
+
b
"" DE AD
EN D
HY DRANT
r+ ~ ~ 1-0
i r
+
+
= HYDRANT WITH SHUTOFF VALVE
= MAIN INTERCONNECTION WITH SHUTOFF VALVES
Figure 6. Water distribution system.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given reference material, shall identify

and explain the approximate pressure-discharge relationship for various water
pipe sizes.
"The fire apparatus driver/ operator shall identify the pipe sizes used in water
distribution systems for residential, business, and industrial districts served by
the authority having jurisdiction.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify at least two causes of in-
creased resistance or friction loss with water flowing in water mains." * •
It is important to remember that one size.of pipe, say 36 inches, is needed in
a big city as a primary main, while a 12-inch primary main will be sufficient for
a small town. Similarly, distribution mains of 6 inches may be enough for one
community, while another will need 12-inch pipe. No fixed size can be estab-
lished for each of the three types of mains. The size is relative to the needs of
the area being served.
In order to supply sufficient water for the fire service and domestic use, water
mains are looped (figure 6). This means that the mains are cross connected.
The opposite of a looped main is a dead-end main, which results in lower flow
(figure 6). Valves are installed throughout the system so that in the event of a
break, only a small localized area must be shut down for repair.
"The fire apparatus driver/ operator shall identify incrustation, tuberculation,
and sedimentation, and the effects on the carrying capacities of water mains."t
•• Paragraphs 3-2_3,3-2.4,3-2.5,3-2.6, and 3·2.7. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire
Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright© 1982, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced sub"-
ject. which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.
tParagraph 3·2.1. Ibid. 193

The amount of water that can flow through the system is also limited by the
state of the inside of the pipe. Sediment, corrosion, or rust can inhibit the flow
significantly. Corrosion, which can be caused by the materials and chemicals
carried in the water, is known as tuberculation. The buildup of sediment can
also narrow the area of the pipe available for flow.
As explained above, a dead-end main is not the best source of water from a
hydrant. Based upon the pipe size and capacity of the pumper, the maximum
length of dead-end supplies to hydrants can be calculated. Table 1 gives a
comparison of this information.
TABLE 1. Maximum Length of Dead-End Supply to Hydrants
Pipe Size 750 gpm Pump Feet 1000 gpm Pump Feet
4-inch 90 50
6-inch 650 380
8-inch 2,650 1,550
10-inch 7,750 4,600
12-inch 19,300 11,150
The larger the pipe, the more water that can be carried. The manual pub-
lished by the International Fire Service Training Association (lFSTA 205, Third
Edition), provides a comparison of the discharge capacities of pipes. Table 2
shows this comparison.
TABLE 2. Approximate Discharge Capacities of Pipes Flowing Full

Diameter
Diameter in inches
in
inches 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30 36
36 24.6 15.6 7.6 4.3 2.8 1.6
30 27.2 15.6 9.9 4.8 2.8 1.7 1
24 32.0 15.6 8.9 5.7 2.8 1.6 1
20 55.9 20.3 9.9 5.7 3.6 1.7 1
16 32.0 11.7 5.7 3.2 2.1 1
12 15.6 5.7 2.8 1.6 1
10 9.9 3.6 1.7 1
8 5.7 2.1 1
6 2.8 1
To use the chart, find the size of one pipe in the vertical column and the size
of the pipe to be compared in the horizontal column. For example, to find out
how much more water a 12-inch pipe will carry than a 6-inch pipe, find the
number 12 in the left column and the number 6 in the top column. Where the
numbers intersect, 5.7, is the capacity difference. According to the table, the
12-inch pipe will carry 5.7 times as much water as the 6-inch pipe at the same
pressure.
As another example, compare the carrying capacity of a 12-inch pipe in the
left column to that of an 8-inch pipe listed in the top column. The result, 2.8,
indicates that it would take more than two 8-inch pipes to carry as much as a
12-inch pipe.
Additional friction loss in pipes is created by bends, elbows and gates. Each
of these fittings provides some restriction to water movement and thus in-
creases the friction loss. A complete discussion of this friction loss is covered in
Chapter 18.
High-pressure hydrants - High-pressure hydrants are generally supplied
by a separate water system just for fire protection purposes. This type of system
is equipped with a high-pressure pump to supply large volumes of water to
high-risk areas. These systems are designed to operate from 150 to 300 psi.
High-pressure hydrants usually have four individually gated discharges in addi-
194 tion to a main operating valve.
Inspectio~, maintenance, and testing

Responsibilities for inspecting and maintaining fire hydrants vary from com-
munity to community. Even if a fire department does not perform the inspec-
tion, they have a duty to check and ensure that hydrants will be usable when
needed. A suggested procedure for performing the inspection is shown below.
If a defect is uncovered, it should be noted and the proper authorities (utility
company of fire department repair bureau) notified. A record of such inspec-
tion should also be kept by the inspection agency.
1. Exterior damage - Check hydrant to see if it is leaning or if there is
any evidence of it being struck.
2. Ease of operation - Open and close the hydrant to check the ease
with which the valve stem operates. The normal length hydrant wrench should
be sufficient to open the valve. If a longer wrench is needed, the hydrant is not
operating correctly.
3. Operating nut - Many different agencies make use of the water from
a hydrant. Some of their personnel may use a pipe wrench to open the
hydrant, thereby stripping the operating nut. The nut must be checked for this
type of wear. Check also the fit of the wrench.
4. Discharge caps and threads _. Many times hydrants are carelessly
painted by workmen, causing the caps and chains to become frozen in place.
Check each cap for ease of operation and examine the threads for nicks,
breaks, and rust accumulation. Be prepared to provide a thin coat of lubrica-
tion to the threads if needed.
5. Valve operation - Check the main valve for evidence of leaking if the
barrel fills with water. If flushing the valve by opening the hydrant does not
help, the street valve must be closed to shut the hydrant.
6. Proper drainage - Once the hydrant has been closed, check for the
opening of the drain valve by placing a hand over the 2 1h-inch outlet and see-
ing if a slight vacuum is produced. A weighted cord can also be inserted to
check for complete drainage.
7. Accessibility - Check to see that the location of the hydrant can be
reached with the short length of hose carried on the pumper; that the dis-
charges are accessible (figure 7); and that there are no obstructions such as
Figure 7. Accessibility of hydrants.
fences or posts to prevent the hydrant wrench from turning the valve stem.
Also see that large section may be coupled to steamer connection. Construc-
tion may have placed pavement too close to nipple to allow lugs to turn.
Fire flow tests of water systems are conducted to determine how much water
is available to the fire department in particular areas. The test usually involves a
series of hydrants that are flowed simultaneously. Static pressure in the main is 195
noted and then residual pressure at a central hydrant is recorded as additional

hydrants are opened.
Pressure readings are taken with a pitot gage set at the 211z-inch discharge.
The pitot blade should be held at the center of the stream, about 1 inch from
the discharge. The correlation of the discharge pressure with the 211z-inch
opening and a correction factor of c =.90, will yield the amount of water flow-
ing. The equation is:
Q= 29.83 X d 2 x v'Px c
Q = quantity gpm flow
d = diameter of nipple
P = pressure reading on pitot
c = correction factor
This information will provide the officer with estimates for use on the fire-
ground and will assist him in making tactical decisions. Using the preceding for-
mula, table 3 calculates the flow for a 211z-inch, 4-inch, and 4 11z-inch discharge
at varying pressures.
Exact flow requirements and test procedures for evaluating a water distribu-
tion system have been developed by the American Insurance Association. The
AlA performs these tests when conducting a survey of a community.
TABLE 3. Hydrant Discharges·

Pressure 2'12·inch 4·inch 4 'I2·inch
(psi) Discharge (gpm) (Discharge (gpm) Discharge (gpm)
1 170 430 540
2 240 610 770
3 290 740 940
4 340 860 1090
5 380 960 1220
6 410 1050 1340
7 440 1140 1440
8 480 1220 1540
9 500 1290 1640
10 530 1360 1730
11 560 1430 1810
12 580 1490 1890
13 610 1550 1960
14 630 1610 2040
15 650 1660 2110
16 670 1720 2180
17 690 1770 2240
18 710 1820 2310
19 730 1870 2370
20 750 1920 2430
25 840 2150 2700
30 920 2350 2980
35 1000 2540 3210
40 1060 2720 3440
·The formula used was Q =29.83 X d2 x vP X c where c =.90. The answers were rounded to
the nearest 10 gpm.
Since the location, style, position, and size of each fire hydrant can vary, the
pump operator must evaluate the sitution immediately from the apparatus cab.
Then, he must position the apparatus so that it is in the correct position for op-
timum utilization of the hydrant. While operating, he must also be able to
estimate the water still available from the hydrant and be on the lookout for
cavitation. Each step in the operating sequence is discussed below.
Operating the pumper

1. Locate the pumper at the hydrant.
196 2. Select one of the three methods for connecting to the hydrant:
a. hard sleeves
b. large-diameter soft sleeve
c. 21/2-inch or 3-inch soft sleeve
The use of a hard sleeve to connect to the hydrant is the most difficult
method. Even if the pumper is positioned exactly, handling the hard sleeve
makes the procedure very time-consuming. There is a brand of lighter weight
flexible hard sleeve which overcomes some of these objections; however, both
types of hard sleeve create a danger of cavitation.
The large-diameter soft sleeve method provides the most efficient way of
connecting to a hydrant. A front or rear intake simplifies the connection (figure
8). Care must be taken to prevent kinking the soft sleeve and restricting the
flow as well as to prevent the hose from rubbing on the ground due to truck
vibration.
Figure 8. Front intake with large-diameter soft sleeve.
The 21/2-inch or 3-inch soft sleeve connection eliminates the need for exact
spotting. However, even if both 2lh-inch hydrant discharges are used, they
will not be able to flow the same amount of water that a 41/2-inch outlet will
flow.
3. Shift the transmission to the pump position.
4. Take off the discharge caps on the. outlets of the hydrant to be used. If a
large-diameter soft sleeve is used, connect a one or two-way gate valve to one
of the unused 21/2-inch discharges. Some departments used various types of
four-way gates on the steamer connection to allow different pumpers to con-
nect to the same hydrant. If any of the caps are frozen onto the discharge, give
the caps a sharp blow with a hydrant wrench. This will break the cap and leave
the threads undamaged.
5. Tighten all connections. Leaking couplings can cause hazardous condi-
tions and result in injuries or damage to the hose.
6. Check to make sure the pumper discharge gates are closed.
7. Open the pumper intake valve and open the intake drain or pump drain
to bleed off the air trapped in the hose.
8. Open the hydrant fully.
9. Note the hydrant static pressure on the intake gage.
10. Close the drain when the water flows out.
11. Open the required discharge valves.
12. Set the throttle, relief valve, governor, and transfer valve to the posi-
tions required for the particular pumping situation. 197
13. Note the hydrant's residual pressure with the pump flowing water. An
estimate of the water still available from the hydrant can now be made. (See
"Estimating available flow" below for this procedure.)
14. Maintain a watch on the various gages.
15. Shutting down is accomplished in reverse order. When putting the caps
back on the hydrant discharges, tighten them just enough to discourage
vandals.
Dual pumper operation

Dual pumping (or tandem pumping) is the placing of a second pumper at
the hydrant and connecting both pumpers intake-to-intake (figure 9). This can
be done where a hydrant is connected to a large main and a good pressure is
maintained.
Figure 9. Dual pumper operation.
What happens when using this procedure is that the large-diameter intakes
of the first pumper are used as a waterway. Some of the water that comes from
the hydrant goes into the pump while the remainder flows out the other intake
into the intake of the second pumper.
The advantages of a dual pumper operation are:
1. The speed with which the second pumper can get lines on the fire.
2. Less hose is needed.
3. Apparatus is grouped close together.
4. Friction loss is reduced.
The procedures for setting up a dual pumper operation are:
1. Locate the second pumper so that it can be connected to the first pumper
intake-to-intake.
2. When the unused intake of the first pumper does not have a gate, the
blind cap can still be removed without the first pumper shutting down. This can
be accomplished by restricting the hydrant discharge or the intake pressure to
about 5 psi residual. The hydrant can be slowly shut down or the intake slowly
closed. When only 5 psi is indicated on the intake gage, it means that almost all
the water coming in is being discharged. Now, the blind cap can be easily
removed and the necessary connection made.
3. Open the hydrant or gate.
4. Follow the procedures outlined for operating a pumper.
Estimating available flow
Available flow from hydrants is estimated by determining the percent drop
198 between static pressure and residual pressure. This information can be used to
determine if additional lines can be supplied or if the hydrant can be dual

pumped.
The amount of water that is still available after one line is supplied is based
on the following percentages:
o to 10% Three times the amount of water being delivered.

11 to 15% Twice the amount of water being delivered.
16 to 25% An equal amount to that being delivered.
over 25% More water may be available, but not as much as is
being delivered.
It is important to remember that these percentages are only guidelines. At

exactly 10 percent, there is not an abrupt change from three times the water
available. Also, nothing has been said about what the residual pressure would
be when the maximum flow is reached. As the percentage approaches the up-
per limit, the residual pressure at the intake gate will be low when maximum
estimated flow is reached. Again, this is just a gUide to the amount of water left
for firefighting operations.
The steps of the procedure are:
1. Note the static pressure on the compound gage after the hydrant is
opened, but before any discharge gates have been opened.
2. Note the residual pressure on the compound gage after the first line is
operating at the standard nozzle pressure.
3. Determine the percent of the drop in pressure.
4. Determine the amount of water still available.
Example: The static pressure on the compound gage when the

hydrant is opened is 60 psi. When the first 21f2-inch line, flowing 200
gpm, is placed in service, the residual pressure is 55 psi. Estimate
the remaining gpm available.
Step 1. Determine the pressure drop from static to residual:
60 psi - 55 psi = 5 psi
Step 2. Determine the percent drop:

5 1
-=-=8.3%
60 12
Step 3. Determine available flow:
o to 10%= 3 times flow

200 gpm flowing x 3 = 600 gpm
600 gpm is still available.
Example: The static pressure when the hydrant is opened is 90 psi.
When a 500-gpm deck gun is placed i~_ operation, the residual
pressure is 72 psi. Estimate the flow still" available.
90 psi - 72 psi = 18 psi

Step 2. Determine the percent drop:.
18 = 20%
90 199
Step 3. Determine the available flow:
16 to 25% = same amount

500 gpm flowing x 1 = 500 gpm
500 gpm is still available
Example: The static pressure when the hydrant is opened is 90 psi.

When a 500"-gpm ladder pipe is placed in operation, the residual
pressure is 72 psi. However, an additional pumper connects to the
same system and the residual pressure drops to 45 psi~ Estimate the
flow still available.
90 psi - 45 psi = 45 psi
Step 2. Determine the percent drop:

45
50%
90
Step 3. Determine the available flow:
Greater than 25 % = no lines flowing

500 gpm can be added. However,
some water is still available, perhaps
enough for a hand line. The operator
will just have to try, watching the
intake gage.
Cavitation at hydrants
When pumping from a hydrant, a soft sleeve has an advantage over a hard
sleeve. If a hydrant supply is poor, the pump may attempt to pump more water
than the hydrant can deliver. Under these conditions, the pump will cavitate
and the soft sleeve will collapse under the partial vacuum, even though the in-
take gage might still indicate a positive pressure. If a hard sleeve were used, the
only indicator would be the intake gage, which is very inaccurate close to the
zero reading. Remember, cavitation is quite common when pumping from a
hydrant.
200
Chapter 17
Relay Operations
Relay is the movement of water from a pumper at the water source to the in-
take of a second pumper, out the discharge of the second pumper to the intake
of a third pumper, and so on until the water reaches the fireground. Relays are
necessary when the water ~ource is too far from the fire to be moved efficiently
by one pumper. The increased distance causes an increase in friction loss
which one pumper by itself is unable to overcome. A high back pressure may
also necessitate a relay to move the water, even if short distances are involved.
Fireground conditions usually dictate that relay operations must simply grow
rather than develop according to advanced planning. This is necessary
because the location, size and type of each fire cannot be planned in advance.
However, with certain standard operating procedures, understanding of the
relay process, and cooperation between pump operators, an involved relay
operation can be successfully completed.
demonstrate, by actual use, procedures for pumping:
"(a) At maximum delivery rate from the apparatus water tank (see Chapter
19) .
"(b) From a hydrant, at maximum rated capacity (see Chapter 16).
"(c) From draft, a maximum rated capacity (see Chapter 15).
"(d) In a relay operation.
"(e) In a tandem pumping operation (see Chapter 16).
"1. Two pumpers in parallel
"2. Two pumpers in series.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a fire department pumper and a
simulated fire scene, shall demonstrate proper maneuvering and positioning of
the apparatus to function from the given source of water (see Chapters 15
through 17)." *
OPERATING REQUIREMENTS
A relay offers certain advantage to the fireground tactical situation:
1. The pumper is located at the fireground where hose lines can be easily
monitored and where the proper equipment can be utilized.
2. An initial attack can be made using the water carried on the pumper until
the relay is set up.
'Paragraphs 3-6.5 and 3-6.6. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus
Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright©1982, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
3. Lower pump pressures can be used so that neither the engine, the
pump, nor the hose lengths will be strained.
However, the time necessary to establish a relay is a vital factor, influenced
by the available manpower, the hose carried, and the available apparatus.
Other factors that affect the relay and thus the time required to set up include:
Water needed for fire extinguishment, distance between water source and fire,
hose size, pumper capability, terrain.
Quantity of water - The quantity of water need~d for fire control will be
determined by the officer in charge. He will determine whether hand lines or
master streams will be used. The pump operator must keep the officer in-
formed about the ability of the r~lay to supply the water needed.
Distance between the water source and fire - Friction loss is depen-
dent upon the distance that water travels through the hose. Once the
necessary quantity of water has been determined, the friction loss must be
calculated. If the friction loss is too great with one pumper supplying the water,
a relay must be set up. If the number of pumpers available is limited or if a large
volume of water is needed, the relay will need two lines between pumpers.
Hose size - Friction loss can be reduced by increasing the hose diameter
or by laying additional lines. The amount of hose available and its size will
determine the number of pumpers necessary for the relay operation. Figure 1
shows a 1200-foot, 3-inch relay with the supply pumper at a hydrant out of
sight. Note that the winding hose lay will cause an increase in friction loss.
Figure 1. Water relay.

Pumper capability - The two factors that influence the ability of a
pumper to deliver water and overcome friction. loss are maximum engine
pressures for hose layouts and rated capacity of pumpers.
The limitation of engine pressures due to hose capacity was discussed in
Chapter 6. A maximum of 200-psi working pressure should be established,
based on an annual hose test of 250 psi, leaving a safety factor of 50 psi. When
pumping in relay, 20-psi residual pressure is needed to supply the next
pumper in a relay or to supply a reservoir. Therefore, the 20-psi residual
pressure can be considered an intake or reserve pressure. It is not good prac-
tice to supply the next pumper with just enough pressure because if the pattern
on the nozzle changes, causing a need for slightly more water, the pumper
without the reserve pressure would run away from the water. This, in turn, will
cause cavitation.
The balance of the available engine pressure (180 psi) can be used to over-
come friction loss. Table 1 shows the distances the 180 psi will deliver water
202 through the various size hoses.
RELAY OPERATIONS
TABLE 1. Maximum Distance Water Delivery
Flow· Hose Size

2%·inch 3·inch 4·inch
gpm feet feet feet
100 6000 18,000
200 1800 4500 18,000
250 1200 3000 12,000
300 850 2000 9000
400 500 1100 4500
500 300 720 3000
750 150 350 1500
·If two lines are laid, divide the total flow in half and then read the maximum value for each
line.
The rating of a pumper is based on the amount of water that it can pump. As
the volume increases, the pressure that the pump can develop decreases.
Therefore, the capacity of the pumpers used in a relay reaches a critical value
as the flow requirements increase. Pumpers are rated at
100 percent of maximum capacity at 150 psi
For example, if a flow of 1000 gpm were needed on the fireground, a
1000-gpm pumper would only be able to develop about 150-psi discharge
pressure (depending on whether the source is static or pressure). This means
that large lines between pumpers and close spacing would be necessary. The
smallest pump that can deliver 1000 gpm at 200 psi is a 1500-gpm pump.
For this reason, the largest pumper should be placed at the water source.
The smaller capacity pumpers should be used to supply lines at the fireground.
This will make maximum use of all pumpers.
Using these principles, the officer responsible for establishing the relay can
estimate the number of pumpers needed.
Example: A 500-gpm master stream device is needed 2000 feet
from a water source. How many pumpers would be needed (a) if a
single 2lj2-inch line were used? (b) if two 2lj2-inch lines were used?
(c) if a 4-inch line were used?
Step 1. Using table 1, determine the maximum distance for the hose size
and flow:
(a) one 2 1/z-inch = 500 gpm = 300 feet
(b) two 21/z-inch = 250 gpm = 1200 feet
(c! one 4-inch = 500 gpm = 3000 feet
Step 2. Divide the water to fire distance by the water delivery distance. This
yields the number of water supply pumpers.
(a) 2000 ft + 300 ft = 7 pumpers

(b) 2000 ft + 1200 ft = 2 pumpers
(c) 2000 ft + 3000 ft = 1 pumper
Step 3. Add one pumper for the attack pumper on the fireground. This
yields the total number of pumpers needed for the relay. In some cases this
extra pumper will not be necessary, but again, it should be included as a safety
factor.
(a) 7 + 1 = 8 pumpers
(b) 2 + 1 3 pumpers
(c) 1 + 1 = 2 pumpers 203
From the preceding example, it is clear that large-diameter hose or dual

relay lines can reduce the number of pumpers needed to move water. Figure 2
shows a specialized relay hose wagon using 4-inch hose on a reel. Of course, if
in the above examples only 500-gpm pumpers were available, more pumps
would be needed because the pump can deliver only its rated capacity of 500
gpm at 150 psi. One other limitation is the amount of hose carried on each
pumper.
Figure 2. Large-diameter hose supply for a relay.
Terrain - The rise and fall of the ground between the water source and the
fireground also affects the number of pumpers needed: However, table 1 has
enough of a margin to account for some added pressure needed to move
water uphill. Large, hilly areas may require an additional pumper.
OPERATING PROCEDURE
When the hose is laid and the pumpefs are in position, the following pro-
cedure for establishing the relay can be followed:
1. Open two discharge gates on all pumps, except on the pump at the
source, to get rid of air from hose lines and pumps. On each pumper, attach
the hose line to one of the discharges and leave the other discharge uncapped.
Uncapping the second discharge gate is not necessary if a relay valve (figure 3)
is installed. The relay valve is a relief valve connected on the intake side of the
204 Figure 3. Relay valve.

RELAY OPERATIONS
pump. It automatically opens and dumps water on the ground if too high a
pressure is supplied, thus protecting the pump. If no relay valve is present, the
operator can watch his intake gage and if a high pressure is reached, the gate
controlling the uncapped discharge can be opened and the excess water
dumped on the ground.
2. The pump operator at the water source gets water to his pump and then
discharges it so that water starts moving toward the fireground. Just to start the
water moving, discharge pressure should not be over 150 psi.
3. As soon as water reaches the second pump, the operator closes the
uncapped discharge gate. Water is now being discharged to the next pumper.
The throttle should be advanced until the 150-psi discharge pressure is
obtained.
4. Each pump operator in turn duplicates step 3 until the water is delivered
at the fireground.
5. The pump operator at the fire scene then advises all other pump
operators of the amount of water needed at the fireground.
6. The pump operator at the water source now adjusts the throttle until the
correct operating pressures for the current situation are obtained. Remember,
the discharge pressure should not exceed 200 psi, if possible. Care must be ex-
ercised that this pump does not run away from its source, causing cavitation. If
more water is needed than the relay can supply, advise the officer so that
arrangements for an additional supply can be made.
7. Each subsequent pump operator then adjusts his pressure to meet the
particular situation, without going below 20-psi residual pressure on the intake
gage. The pump operator can check the hose connected to the pump intake
by feel, to determine when maximum delivery is reached.
8. The pump operator at the fire adjusts the discharge pressure to supply
the lines being used.
9. The operation of adjusting the pressure is repeated as often as necessary.
Gages must be observed carefully during a relay. The relief valve or governor
should be set when pumping.
10. Once water is moving, every effort should be made to keep it moving
throughout the relay operation. Nozzles should not be shut off unless absolute-
ly necessary. For a temporary shutdown, the operator of the fireground attack
pumper can let the excess water dump on the ground. If a hose line bursts, the
operator of the last pump should open a discharge gate to waste water while
the hose section is replaced.
11. Shutting down is done by working from the fireground pump to the
source. Pressure on the fireground pump is reduced gradually until the pump
can be disengaged.
12. Each pump operator, in turn, reduces the pressure gradually, dis-
connects the pump, and opens an unused discharge gate until the pump
source is reached.
RELAY HYDRAULICS
The hydraulics for relay pumping are the same for any other water move-
ment. The formula for the engine pressure of the relay pumper can be
expressed as
EP = FL + RP ± E, where
EP = engine pressure in psi
FL = friction loss
RP = residual pressure (not less than 20 psi)
± E = elevation (gain or loss) 205
The attack pumper at the fire scene will calculate the engine pressure using
the standard formula
EP = FL = RP ± E
Example: In the layout below, what is the engine pressure

necessary at each of the pumpers?
500 gpm
fog nozzle
pc. . . ___. / pV
Hydrant ,...-_-., on deck gun
~el~_
o--j
300 feet
800 feet of 3 inch hose of 2 1/2 inch hose
100 feet of 2 1/2 inch hose
EP = FG + RP ± E (for pumpers 1 and 2)

EP = FL + RP ± E (for pumper 3)
Step 2. Determine the formula values for pumper 3:
RP = 100
E =0
FL = 10 psi for device
15 psi for 2 1h-inch hose per 100 ft
= 25 psi
Step 3. Solve the formula for engine pressure for pumper 3:
EP 3 = 25 + 100 + 0 = 125 psi

RP = 20 psi
E = 0
FL = 55 psi/100 ft x 3 = 165 psi
Step 5. Solve the fomrula for engine pressure for pumper 2:
EP 2 = 165 + 20 + 0 = 185 psi
RP = 20 psi
E =0
FL = 25 psi/ 100 ft x 8 = 200 psi
Step 7. Solve the formula for engine pressure for pumper 1:
206 EP 1 = 200 + 20 + 0 = 220 psi.

RELAY OPERATIONS

600 gpm fog nozzle
3 inch hose
3 inch hose
3 inch hose
Step 1.
EP4 = FL + RP ± E
EPl,2,3 = FL + RP ± E
Step 2.
RP 4 = 100 psi
E = +30 psi
FL4 = 10 psi for ladder pipe
30 psi for 3-inch hose
5 psi for siamese
~ psi for dual 3-inch lines
=54 psi
Step 3.
EP4 = 54 psi + 100 psi + 30 psi = 184 psi
Step 4.
RP 3 = 20 psi
E =0
FL = 30 psi/IOO ft x 5 150 psi
Step 5.
EP 3 = 150 + 20 + 0 = 170 psi
Step 6.
RP 2 = 20 psi
E = + 30 psi for 60-foot upgrade
FL = 30 psi/IOO ft x 5 = 150 psi
Step 1.
EP 2 + 150 + 20 + 30 = 200 psi

Step 8.
RP = 20 psi
j
E =0
FL = 21 psi/IOOO ft x 5 105 psi 207
Step 9.
EP 1 = 105 + 20 + a = 125 psi

200 feet, 2 1/2 inch hose
Step 1.
EP3 4 = FL + RP ± E
EPl:2 =FL + RP ± E
Step 2.
RP 4 = 100 psi
E =0
FL4 = 10 psi/ 100 ft x 2 = 20 psi
Step 3.
EP4 =20 + 100 + a = 120 psi
Step 4.
RP 3 = 100 psi
E =0
FL3 = 30 psi/lOa ft x 2 = 60 psi
Step 5.
EP 3 = 60 + 100 + a = 160 psi
Step 6.
RP 2 = 20 psi
E =0
FL2 = 4 psi/lOa ft x 16 = 64 psi
Step 7.
EP 2 = 64 + 20 + a = 84 psi
Step 8.
RP 1 = 20 psi
E = - 50 psi for 100 ft downgrade
FLl = 10 psi/ 100 ft x 20 = 200 psi
Step 9.
208 EP 1 =200 + 20 - 50 = 170 psi
Chapter 18
Sprinkler and Standpipe

Operations
Automatic sprinkler and standpipe systems provide firefighters with
assistance in controlling and extinguishing fires. A basic knowledge of how
these systems operate and the methods necessary for supplying water is essen-
tial for the pump operator.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given a check valve on the fire depart-
ment connection to an automatic sprinkler system, shall demonstrate the direc-
tion of flow of water through the valve.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall demonstrate the method specified
by the authority having jurisdiction for augmenting water supplies to sprinkler
systems.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given specific information on a
sprinkler system, shall identify the number of sprinkler heads that can be
adequately supplied with water by various capacity rated fire department
pumpers.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator, given speCific information on a
sprinkler system, shall demonstrate the minimum hose layouts and pump
discharge pressure required to adequately supply that sprinkler system.
"The fire apparatus driver/ operator shall demonstrate the method specified
by the authority having jurisdiction for supplying water to a dry standpipe
system.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall demonstrate the method specified
by the authority having jurisdiction for supplementing water supplies to a
standpipe system." *
STANDPIPES
Standpipe systems offer an immediate water source. They usually are in-
stalled in tall buildings (the exact height depends on local building codes),
buildings with a large floor area, and places of public assembly. The standpipe
can be thought of as a water main within the building for fire department
operations.
The advantages of a standpipe system are:
1. Water can be qUickly applied to the fire by civilians or fire brigade person-
nel before the arrival of the fire department.
• Paragraphs 3-3.1,3-3.2,3-3.3,3-3.4,3-3.5, and 3-3.6. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for
Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyrlght©1982, National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted material Is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the refer-
enced subject, which is represented only by the standard In Its entirety. 209
2. Time can be saved because firefighters do not have to stretch lines be-
tween floors of the fire building.
3. The large diameter and straight path of the standpipe reduces friction
loss.
Types of standpipes
The type of standpipe installed in a building depends on its intended use.
The National Fire Protection Pamphlet 14, "Standpipes and Hose Systems,"
establishes three classes of standpipe systems which are summarized in table 1.
TABLE 1. Standpipe Classification

Type Use Hose Size Pipe Size Water Supply
Class I Used for heavy Has 2Y2·inch For buildings up If the building
streams by discharge and to 100 feet, 4·inch contains a single
trained fire de· all portions of pipe minimum standpipe, a sup·
partment person· the floor must must be used. ply of 500 gpm Is
nel for large vol· be within 30 Over 100 feet, 6· necessary. Each
urnes of fire. feet of the noz· inch pipe mini· additional stand·
zle with 100 mum is necessary. pipe requires 250
feet of hose. gpm. When the reo
quired water is
flowing, there
must be 65 psi
residual pressure
at the highest dis·
charge outlet. The
total required
flow must last 30
minutes.
Class II Used for small Has 1 Y2·inch For buildings up A flow of 100 gpm
streams by the discharge and to 50 feet, 2·inch is necessary with
building occupants all portions of pipe minimum a 65 psi residual
for small fires. the floor must must be used. pressure at the
be within 20 Over 50 feet, 2Y2· highest discharge
feet of the noz· inch pipe mini· outlet during max·
zle with 75 feet mum is necessary. mum flow. The to·
of hose. tal flow must be
available for 30
micutlUi.
Class III Used for both Has a 2Y2·inch Same as Class I Same as Class I
heavy and small discharge with
streams. a 2Y2·inch to
1Y2·lnch reduc·
er for smaller
hose. All por·
tions of the
floor must be
within 30 feet
of the nozzle,
with 100 feet
of hose.
In addition to the various classes of standpipes outlined in the table, there is

a variety of methods for supplying them:
1. Water under pressure in the standpipe system at all times.
2. Water admitted to the standpipe system automatically as soon as a
discharge valve is opened.
3. Water admitted to the standpipe system through the manual operation of
a remote control device.
4. Standpipe is dry at all times. Water must be supplied by a fire depart-
210 ment pumper.
SPRINKLER AND STANDPIPE OPERATIONS
Components
A typical standpipe installation for a high-rise building with two stairwells is
shown in figure 1. The major components of this system are:
FILL
PIPE
WATER
TANK
ROOF
CHECK
VALVE
5TH
STAIRWELL 2
CROSS
CONNECTION
BASEMENT
DISCHARGE
Figure 1. Double-riser standpipe system.

Siamese connection - The siamese connection is the exterior connec-
tion for the standpipe system that permits the fire department to pump water
into the system (figure 2). While the exterior shape can vary, depending upon
location, each siamese has two 21f2-inch connections with clapper valves so
that the system can be charged with only one line connected. Then, a second
line can be added to augment supply without interrupting the original flow.
Figure 2. Standpipe siamese connections. 211

Check valve - The check valve prevents water from flowing in the wrong
direction. The check valve at the siamese is kept closed by back pressure ex-
erted by the elevated water in the system. Pressure from a pump into the
siamese forces this valve open when the incoming pressure exceeds the back
pressure. The check valve at the roof water system is normally open to allow
water into the standpipe system. Pressure from a pump closes this check valve
to prevent overfilling the storage tank and causing damage. A drip valve is also
installed between the check valve and siamese to prevent water from
accumulating in the line if a leak develops.
Riser - The riser' brings the water from the siamese connection to the
various floors of the building (figure 3). The size of the riser pipe is determined
by the class of the system (table 1).
Figure 3. Riser and gate valve.

Pressure reClucer - The pressure reducer prevents excessive pressure
from being supplied to a hose stream by inexperienced civilians. Fire depart-
ment personnel should remove the device before connecting hose lines and
control flow by opening and closing the globe valve.
Hose - Some standpipe systems have 11/2-inch hose (known as house
hose) already connected to the globe valve (figure 4). Since this hose is made
212 Figure 4. Preconnected hose lines.

of unlined linen, it cannot withstand normal fire department pressures, and

usually has a straight tip nozzle of a very small diameter. The hose should be
removed and replaced with fire department hose before beginning the fire at-
tack. Again, because water accumulation in the linen hose will cause
deteriorating conditions, a drip valve is installed between the globe valve and
the hose. The drip valve must be closed before opening the globe valve.
Roof outlet - Some standpipe systems are extended to the roof
(sometimes known as a header). Lines from the roof connection can be used
for roof fires and to protect adjoining exposures. To prevent freezing in the ex-
posed portion of the pipe, it is kept dry, with water flow controlled by a valve
from the roof.
Water supply
The water supply for a standpipe system varies with each installation.
Possibilities include:
Domestic water system - If adequate residual pressure can be main-
tained when the standpipe is flowing the required amount of water, the
domestic water system can be used.
Dry pipe system - The fire department pumper will be the solirce of
water for this system.
Fire pumps - When fire pumps are used to supply the standpipe system,
they are usually located below ground level. The pump must be capable of
delivering the required flow with the required residual pressure at the highest
discharge outlet, depending on the class of the installation., There are three
ways that the fire pump can be supplied with water:
1. Fed by two different mains, with each main being supplied from two
directions.
2. Fed by one main and a storage tank with a capacity of 30 minutes for
operating at the rated capacity of the pump. In an emergency, there must be a
method of bypassing the storage tank and connecting the pump directly to the
main.
3. Fed by one main, a storage tank with a capacity of 15 minutes, and a fire
department siamese connection. Again, there must be a method of bypassing
the storage tank and connecting the pump directly to the main in an
emergency.
Elevated tanks - Located on the roof of a building, the tank provides
pressure due to elevation of the water. This pressure is .434 psi for each foot
above the discharge. Therefore, to get adequate pressure at the uppermost
discharge, the tank must be elevated above the roof. Water is supplied to the
tank from a fill pump. The fill pump usually has a small capacity, so that more
water will be discharged than the fill pump can supply. This means that the
tank will empty and a fire department pumper must connect to the siamese
connection to continue to supply the system. FreeZing is a problem if the tank is
only used for standpipe supply. Since there will be long periods of time without
water flow, the tank must be kept in a heated enclosure or a heated device in-
serted inside the tank.
Pressure tanks - Located on the roof or on the top floor of the building,
these tanks are filled with water and air under pressure. When a discharge is
opened, the compressed air forces the water out of the tank under pressure. In
addition, there is pressure due to the tank elevation. As with the elevated tank,
the pressure tank must be kept from freezing. Water is supplied to the system
by a fill pump and air pressure by a compressor.
Fireground operating procedures

1. Pre-fire planning and inspection is necessary to identify and locate all 213
standpipes in the area served, as well as determine the location of hydrants

and other water supplies. A good fireground operation starts with pre-fire
planning.
2. One of the first-operating pumpers shQuld stretch a line from the stand-
pipe siamese to the water source. (Note: If the standpipe is to be used, the first
line must be stretched to the siamese.) A second line should be laid if the officer
feels the flow will be high.
3. Remove the cap on the siamese intake. Some caps are removed with
spanner wrenches, while others require that the cap be hit with a heavy object
and broken. Check the female swivel on the intake to make sure that there is a
gasket and it rotates smoothly.
4. Connect lines from the pumper to the siamese. Charge lines only when
ordered to do so bv an officer.
5; Charge the standpipe system (see Engine pressures for standpipes
below).
6. If the siamese connection is inoperable, the standpipe supply line can be
connected to the first floor discharge using a double female fitting attached to
the globe valve. Tie one end of a rope around the double female fitting and the
other end around the riser to relieve the strain on the globe valve fitting.
7. Hose for use in the fire attack is carried to the floor below the fire if the
standpipe system is exposed. If the standpipe system is enclosed in a fire-
resistive stairway, the elevator can be taken to the floor below the fire and then
the hose carried up the stairway and connected on the fire floor. It will also be
necessary to carry spanner wrenches, nozzles, and various fittings, depending
upon the installations in particular localities. Many departments have
developed various devices to carry this equipment (figure 5).
8. A firefighter should regulate the flow at the globe valve being used to pre-
vent accidental shutdown of the attack line.
9. After the fire, shut the globe valve, remove fire department hose and fit-
.tings, and replace with the house hose lines.
A. Front view B. Rear view

Figure 5. Standpipe cart.
Engine pressures for standpipes
Since complicated calculations cannot be carried out on the fireground,
basic rules of thumb have been developed for pumping into a standpipe. These
rules are stated in table 2.
To the pressure at the standpipe siamese must be added the friction loss for
the supply lines from the pumper to the siamese connection. If it is necessary to
actually calculate the friction loss, an allowance for the standpipe of 15 psi can
be used. While this figure will increase for large flows, this is an accurate
214 estimate for most flows that departments will handle.
TABLE 2. Rule·ot·thumb engine pressure tor standpipe operation

Pressure Needed at
Nozzle Type Fire Floor Standpipe Siamese
Fog nozzle 100 psi NP First through tenth 150 psi
Fog nozzle 100 psi NP Above tenth 200 psi
Straight tip 50 psi NP First through tenth 100 psi
Straight tip 50 psi NP Above tenth 150 psi
Example: What engine pressure is required to deliver 200 gpm to a

200-foot length of 2lj2-lnch hose with a fog nozzle that is stretched
from the sixth floor discharge (five floors above the ground)? The
pumper is connected to the standpipe siamese with 300 feet of
2lj2-lnch hose.
Method 1
Step 1. Select the correction equation and determine the needed pressure
by using table 2.
EP = FL + 150
Step 2. Determine the formula values
FL = 10 psi/100 ft x 3
= 30 psi from pumper to siamese
EP = 30 + 150 = 180 psi
Method 2
Step 1. Select the correct equation
EP =FL + NP ± E
NP =100 psi
E =+ 5 psi/floor x 5 floors
= 25 psi
FL21h = 10 psi/ 100 ft x 2
= 20 psi
FLstp = 15 psi
FL21h = 10 psi/ 100 ft x 3
= 30 psi
FLtotai = 20 + 15 + 30 = 65 psi
EP = 65 + 100 + 25 = 190 psi

While method 2 will give a more accurate figure, method 1 provides the
pump operator with a very quick calculation for immediate use. As the height
the water is being pumped changes, the accuracy of method 1 changes, but it
can always be used as a reliable estimator. 215
Friction loss in the standpipe itself can be accurately calculated for flow tests.
Table 3 lists the friction loss for ste~1 pipe, and table 4 shows the equivalent
length of various pipe fittings. To solve the problem, the fittings on the stand-
pipe system are noted and then they are changed to an equivalent length of
pipe. This length is then added to the total pipe length. Once the total pipe
length is known, the friction loss can be determined.
TABLE 3. Friction Loss in Steel Pipe
GPM 2 Inches 2% inches 4 inches 6 inches
(per foot) (per foot) (per foot) (per foot)
50 .047 .019
100 .174 .071 .006
150 .380 .155 .013
200 .663 .267 .023 .003
250 1.03 .413 .030 .004
300 .585 .049 .006
350 .792 .066 .009
400 1.03 .085 .011
450 1.07 .014
500 1.30 .017
550 1.57 .020
600 1.86 .023
700 2.50 .031
800 3.24 .040
900 4.08 .051
1000 5.02 .062
TABLE 4. Pipe fitting equivalent lengths

Fitting 2% " 4" 6"
Equiv. Feet Equiv. Feet Equiv. Feet
90· 9.3 13.0 17.0
45· 3.2 5.5 8.7
UT" 13.0 21.0 31.5
Check Valve 22.0 38.0 63.0
Globe Valve 62.0 110.0
Gate Valve 1.7 2.5
Example: Using the preceding example, what is the friction loss if

the standpipe is 4 inches, the flow 200 gpm, and the discharge five
floors above the ground (50 feet of pipe)?
Step 1. Prepare a schematic diagram of the standpipe installation:

4· TO 2 1/2·INCH REDUCER
,/
GATE VALVE
50 FEET
4 INCH
CV
Step 2. Calculate the total feet for the 4-inch pipe:

CV (check valve) = 38 ft (table 4)
Horizontal = 10 ft
90° = 13 ft (table 4)
Vertical = 50 ft
T = 21 ft (table 4)
216 Total = 132 ft
Step 3. Calculate the friction loss in the 4-inch pipe:
FL = .023/ft x 132 ft (table 3)

FL = 3.036 psi
Step 4. Calculate the total feet for the 21/2-inch pipe:
90° = 9.3 ft (table 4)

Gate valve = 1.7 ft (table 4)
9.3 + 1.7 = 11
Step 5. Calculate the friction loss in the 21/2-inch fitting:
FL = .267/ft x 11 ft (table 3)
FL = 2.937 psi
Step 6. Add the friction losses together for the total loss in the standpipe:
F4 + FL21/2 = 3.036 + 2.937 psi

Fltotal = 5.973 psi
SPRINKLERS
When installed, a sprinkler system is the first line of defense for fire extin-
guishment. The system provides a means for immediately supplying water to
the fire and, as such, it can be likened to having a firefighter on the job with a
charged line 24 hours a day.
Types of sprinkler systems

The type of sprinkler system installed in a building depends on the material
to be protected, the type of structure, and the availability of the water supply.
Sprinkler systems can be classified as follows:
1. Wet pipe systems are where the piping remains filled with water under
pressure at all times. Water is discharged immediately. The building must be
kept heated to prevent the water in the pipes from freezing.
2. Dry pipe systems have their pipes filled with air, either compressed or at-
mospheric, which keeps a valve closed .. Opening a sprinkler head allows the
air pressure to drop, permitting the valve to open and let water into the piping.
Water is not discharged immediately, but the problem of freezing pipes is
controlled.
3. A deluge system distributes water to a large area all at once. This system
differs from a regular system that supplies water in steps as the fire progresses
and causes sprinkler heads to open: A deluge system is used in locations where
a large fire can develop quickly, such as explosives manufacturing.
4. Preaction systems are dry pipe systems provided with a rate-of-rise in-
dicator. At a certain predetermined rate of temperature rise, the water valve is
opened, the system is charged, and an audible warning alarm is transmitted.
Water then charges the system to all the heads before the one in the fire area
actually fuses in most instances. This system is used in those installations where
water can cause damage if the sprinkler system were operated by accident or
before it was really needed.
5. A rate-oj-rise system uses a copper ball that expands a present amount
as the room temperature increases over a certain level. This. expansion can be
used to activate various fire safety devices; it can close fire doors, open ven-
tilators, or open the valve to let water into the sprinkler system.
6. Special Joam systems are installed where hazardous materials are 217
handled. These systems are normally kept dry, with water being admitted to
the system by manual control.
Components
Control valve - The control valve regulates flow of water from the water
main to the sprinkler system. The two main types of valves are the outside
stem and yoke valve and the post indicator valve (figures 6 and 7). The 05&Y
valve indicates that it is open when the stem sticks out of the hand wheel. The
PI valve indicates that it is open when the word "open" shows in the window.
Figure 6. OS&Y valve in open position. Figure 7. PI valve in open position.
Siamese connection - The siamese connection is the exterior connec-

tion to the sprinkler that permits the fire department to pump water into the
system (figure 8). When a building has both a sprinkler and standpipe, the
operator must be careful to connect the correct system.
Figure 8. Sprinkler siamese connection.

Dry pipe valve - The dry pipe valve uses a difference in surface area to
keep the valve closed. A smaller air pressure, acting on a larger area (figure
9A) overcomes the water pressure acting on a smaller area. This valve keeps
the water out of the system. When a sprinkler head operates, the air pressure
in the piping above the dry valve is reduced. The pressure of the water supply
raises and rotates the clapper and water flows to the sprinklers (figure 9B). A
dry pipe valve is shown in figure 9C.
Accelerators and exhausters - One of the major drawbacks of a dry
pipe system is the time it takes to bleed off the air, open the dry pipe valve, and
218 have water flowing out the sprinkler head. To overcome this problem, an ac-
_ ......_ _~_ _ _-- SYSTEM AIR PRESSURE
- 'C==~~-SUPPLY WATER--~~~~~2i2J• •
............
PRESSURE
A B
Figure 9. Dry pipe valve.
celerator or an exhauster in installed on the system to open the dry pipe valve
when very small changes in air pressure occur (figures lOA and lOB). This,
then, allows the water to flow to the heads much qUicker.
The bottom chamber of the accelerator is connected to the sprinkler system.
The air pressure in the bottom, middle, and top chamber is equalized through
openings A and B in figure 1DC). When a sprinkler opens, the air pressure in
the system is reduced, with a corresponding reduction of pressure in the mid-
dle and bottom chambers. The pressure in the top chamber does not reduce as
quickly as in the other chambers because of the restriction (figures lOe and
lOD). This forces down the main valve assembly and opens the auxiliary
valve. The auxiliary valve allows air in the middle chamber to exhaust rapidly
into the outlet chamber, accelerating the downward movement of the main
valve assembly. As the main valve opens, the air in the sprinkler system passes
through the bottom and outlet chambers of the accelerator to the intermediate
chamber of the dry pipe valve and equalizes the air pressure on the bottom and
t<?p of the clapper (figure 9A). This immediately destroys the pressure differen-
tial and reduces the operating time.
Water flow alarm - Both dry and wet systems fed by a variable pressure
water supply contain an audible flow alarm on the exterior of the building to in-
dicate water flow in the sprinkler system (figure 11). If the building is unoc-
cupied, the people in the street can notify the fire department that the system is
activated. Emergency personnel may also use the exterior indication of water
from the drain on the water motor gong to indicate if there is indeed water
movement in the system. One drawback is obvious. Fire department notifica-
tion is dependent upon passers-by. However, most sprinkler installations have 219
A. Exhauster
Accelerator
TYPE A-2
. . ..:;:~:.:.::=!--.:---- RESTRICTION
TOP CHAMBER
BonOM
CHAMBER
ACCELERATOR
C. CLOSED D. OPEN
C. Schematic view
Figure 10. Rapid air-removal devices.
an additional internal alarm signal that is transmitted to a security company and

220 then to the fire department. This is known as a supervised alarm system.
Figure 11. Water flow alarm.

Retard chamber - This is located on variable pressure supplied systems
only. It is installed between the sprinkler valve and the alarm activation
mechanism. It is designed to prevent accidental transmission of alarms due to
surges in the variable pressure water supply. Minor surges not equivalent to the
discharge from a liz-inch head, enters the valve and is diverted to a chamber
prior to completing the circuit to the alarm system. A time delay set from 15 to
60 seconds depending on the size of the chamber retards the transmission of
alarm until such surges can stabilize. However, in no case can the retard
chamber hold back the alarm from being transmitted due to the flow of water
approximating that of a %-inch head (15 to 22 gpm).
Risers - The risers carry the water from the intake valve and distribute it
throughout the building. The size depends on the number of heads to be
supplied.
Sprinkler heads - Sprinkler heads are devices that are sensitive to heat.
When the temperature reaches a certain predetermined value, the sprinkler
head opens and allows water to flow. The most common type of sprinkler
head is the fusible link (figure 12). This type of head operates as follows:
1. When heat increases to the fusing temperature, the special temperature
STANDARD UPRIGHT SSU STANDARD PENDANT SSP
Figure 12. Fusible link sprinkler heads. 221

rated solder melts. The link plates, through the force imposed by the levers
separate (figure 13A).
2. Fixed tension of the frame, acting as a spring, ejects levers and links clear
of the sprinkler (figure 138).
3. Water under pressure forces the disk off the orifice seat (figure 13C).
Water is allowed to flow across the head and strike the diffuser.
A B c
Figure 13. Operation of a sprinkler head.
Fusible link type sprinkler heads are designed to operate either upright if
there is enough clearance, or suspended from the water pipe. The suspended
head is called a pendant type. Figure 12 shows each of these types. Note that
the deflector on each is different, so that when replacing a head, the correct
type must be used. If in doubt, the deflector on the upright will be marked
"SSU" while on the pendant it will be marked "SSP." The water pattern for
each of these sprinkler heads is shown in figure 14.
STANDARD UPRIGHT SCHEMATIC STANDARD PENDENT

DISTRIBUTION PATTERN SCHEMATIC DISTRIBUTION PATTERN
A. Upright B. Pendant
Figure 14. Water distribution from a sprinkler head.
Another type of sprinkler head is the frangible bulb. This head contains a
liquid that partially fills a glass bulb. Since the space is only partially filled, the
glass bulb also has a trapped air bubble. As the temperature increases, the
liquid expands and the air bubble is compressed. The pressure now rises rapid-
ly and the bulb shatters, opening the cap. The size of the bubble (the amount of
liquid) controls the operating temperature of the head.
The temperature at which the sprinkler head will operate varies with the in-
stallation. A head located over a boiler will need a higher operating
temperature than one in a hotel hallway. The temperature rating of the head is
indicated on the link and also by the color of the frame (table 5). When replac-
ing sprinkler heads that have opened, be sure that a head set for the correct
temperature is installed.
When inspecting sprinkler installations, be sure to check to see that the head
has not been painted or covered in any way. The covering will raise the
222 operating temperature or may even make the head inoperable.
TABLE 5. Color Indications for Sprinkler Operating Temperatures

Ceiling temperatures Non·solder Sprinkler Solder Sprinkler Color
OF of of
100 135·150 155·165 Bronze
150 175 212 White
225 250 286 Blue
300 325 360 Red
375 400 Green
475 500 Orange
Water supply
The sprinkler water supply systems are the same as the standpipe supply
systems. However, the water supply is only calculated to be able to supply a
few heads. Should a large volume of fire open many heads simultaneously,
the supply system would be overwhelmed. For this reason, it is very important
for a pumper to connect to the sprinkler system and supplement the supply. In
addition, if the sprinkler valve is accidentally left closed, -the use of the fire
department siamese will bypass the closed valve and feed the system.
Fireground operating procedures

1. Pre-fire planning and inspection are important to locate and identify the
sprinkler systems in the area. The nearest water supplies to the system should
also be determined.
2. One of the first-arriving companies should lay one of the first lines from
supply pumper to the sprinkler siamese. A second line should be laid if the of-
ficer feels that the flow will be high ..
3. Remove the cap on the siamese intake. Some caps are removed with
spanner wrenches, while others require that the cap be broken. Check the
female swivel in the intake to make sure there is a gasket and that it turns.
4. Connect a line from the pumper to the siamese. Charge the system only
when advised to do so by the officer.
5. Charge the sprinkler system.
6. When the fire is controlled, the opened sprinkler heads can be temporar-
ily shut with a wooden wedge or a sprinkler shutoff device. If a large number of
heads have fused, shut the control valve and open drain. All the time the con-
trol valve is shut, station someone at the valve with a means of communication
so that the water can be immediately turned on in an emergency.
7. Replace the fused heads with new ones of the same temperature rating.
8. If the system is normally wet, shut the drain and open the control valve.
If the system is a dry pipe, be sure that a watchman remains on the premises to
open the control valve in case of another fire. The watchman should remain
until the dry system has been reset by a competent mechanic. Note: Dry pipe
valve must be taken apart to be reset.
Engine pressures
One of the most difficult jobs for a pump operator is to supply an operating
sprinkler system. There is almost no way of determining how many heads have
fused, so the flow is unknown. In addition, each particular installation will have
many 90-degree bends and unknown lengths of pipe, so that estimating fric-
tion loss will be impossible.
For this reason, a rule of thumb that should supply most configurations has
been developed. The figure used for supplying the system is 150-psi discharge
at the pumper. If the pumper is unable to maintain the 150 psi, then too many
heads have fused and an additional pumper will have to help supply the
system. 223
Flow from a sprinkler head can be calculated if the pressure at the opening is
known. The formula is Q = 1/2P + 15, where Q is the flow in gpm, P is
pressure at the orifice in psi and 15 is a constant.
Example: What Is the flow from a sprinkler head with a head

pressure of 15 psi?
Q= 1...p+ 15
2
P= 15 psi
Q = 1...(15) + 15
2
= 7.5 + 15
= 22.5 gpm
224
Chapter 19
Tanker and Portable Pump

Operations
Rural fire departments constantly face the problem of inadequate water sup-
plies for firefighting. While a relay is one possible answer, the extra number of
pumpers needed and the time it would take to reach the fire scene eliminates
this as a solution. One way to move water from the source to the fireground is
with tankers or portable pumps.
Tankers come in all shapes and sizes, from a pumper with a lOOO-galion
tank to a converted 2000-gallon milk truck to a 6000-gallon converted
gasoline tractor-drawn delivery truck (figures 1A and 1B). To use these tankers
efficiently, the operator must known construction details, rating methods and
operating procedures.
Figure lA. Tanker/pumper combination.
Figure lB. Tractor-drawn tanker. 225

Tanker construction
The ability of a tanker to load water at the source, carry it safely to the fire-
ground, dump it, and then return for another load depends on the. way it is
built. The factors that influence tanker usability are:
Chassis - The chassis must be sufficient to carry the intended load.
Tank size - The tank must be able to supply a sufficient amount of water
for the usual fires encountered in the district. The amount of water and the
availability of tankers from neighboring fire departments are other factors to
consider when determining the tank's capacity.
Bames - Baffles are installed in the tanks to prevent the surging (sloshing)
of the water as the tanker moves. The baffles must also have a number of
openings between them, so that the entire load of water can be dumped
quickly.
Vents - As water enters the tank, a large volume of air must be displaced.
Vents eliminate the air and prevent an excessive build-up of pressure during
filling, when the flow rate of air can reach 60 cubic feet per minute.
Intake - Tankers can be filled from either the top or the bottom. If a top fill
is chosen, the line must be held in place. This is difficult if flows are higher than
300 gpm. In addition, turb~lence and venting problems are created when us-
ing a top fill. If the fill is located near the bottom of the tank, turbulence is
reduced and venting at the top of the tank can be accomplished. The only
drawback of this type of fill is the back pressure created as the level of water in
the tank increases. However, if a pump is used at the source, the back pressure
is easily overcome. .
Discharge - The discharge of the tanker should be large enough so that
the entire contents of the tanker can be quickly dumped. This usually means
that at least a 41f2-inch pipe and gate are necessary (figure 2).
Figure 2. Tanker discharging water.
Pump - Pumps for tankers range from 1000 gpm to small portable pumps.
Some tankers do not have pumps, but rely on gravity feed. The pump size and
style chosen for the tanker depends on the needs of the individual fire
department.
Water level - A water level indicator is a very important feature on the
tanker. It will prevent overfilling which can cause icing conditions or soft
ground. It will also indicate when the water supply is nearly exhausted, so that
the next tanker can be moved in, or if no additional water is immediately
available, provide the officer with time to make another strategy change.
Hose beds - The use of a tanker by a fire department indicates that water
226 sources are not readily available. If water is not available, then only the hose
TANKER AND PORTABLE PUMP OPERATIONS
needed by the tanker at the fire scene for attack purposes is necessary. This
means that perhaps two 200-foot, 11/2-inch lines and one 250-foot, 21/2-inch
line are needed. Tanker shuttling requirements will add a few hundred feet of
extra hose for filling and discharging. This means that the hose beds on a
tanker can be small. Note that this applies only to tankers, since relay pumpers
will need considerably more hose.
Tanker rating
A tanker cannot be rated simply in gallons per minute as a regular pumper,
because the travel distance from source to fireground will vary, the speed of
dumping will change, and the intake configuration is different for each tanker.
To provide a standard for comparison, tankers can be compared by rating
them in gallons per minute of water delivery per mile. This means that if it takes
five minutes for a 1500-gallon tanker to go 1 mile to the source, fill and return
to the fireground, dump the water, and return to the source, the tanker would
be rated
_ _ _ _1_5_0_0---=<,ga_I_lo_n_s_ _ _ _ = 150 gpm per mile

5 minutes x 2 miles (round trip)
The first step in determining the rating of a tanker is to accurately compute

the holding capacity of the tank. Table 1 outlines the steps necessary for
calculating tank capacity.
TABLE 1. Tanker Capacity Calculation
Fire Department _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Apparatus Designation
Rated Tank Capacity _ _ _ _ _ gallons
A. Full loaded weight (1)
B. Weight after dumping or discharging usable water (2)
C. Empty weight taken after opening all drains and removing all possible (3)
water from piping and pump
D. Usable Capacity (1) - (2) pounds = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ gallons

8.35 Ibs./gal.
E. Maximum Capacity (1)8~J~~;.~~;I~s = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ gallons
Once the capacity is determined, the measurement can begin. Place a

pumper at a fill site: At the discharge site, prepare two 21/2-inch hand lines for
the tanker to connect to and a number of 55-gallon drums.
The time starts when the empty tanker stops at the fill site and continues as
the tanker travels to the discharge site and dumps its water. When the tanker
returns to the starting point, the time stops. The number of drums filled are
counted and multiplied by 55 to determine the number of gallons actually de-
livered. Table 2 provides a convenient format for recording the necessary data.
Operation from a pumper tank

Using the water contained within the tank on the apparatus leads to a qUick
initial attack. The operation procedures are the same as for hydrant opera-
tions, except the tank to pump valve is opened to permit water to flow to the
pump.
When operating from the tank, the operator must be continually aware of
the length of time (at the current flow) that water will be available. Then, ar-
rangements must be made for additional supplies either by relay or tanker shut-
tle. Table 3 lists the length of time various flows will last. 227
TABLE 2. Tanker Shuttle Capacity Calculation

Fire Department, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Apparatus Designation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Total Run _1~m~ile~_ _ _ _ _ _ __
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Average

Time Time Time Time
Sec. Sec. Sec. Sec.
1. Tanker wheels stop at fill site.
Timing starts
2. Water flows from fill truck
3. Water stops flowing
4. Tanker wheels start moving from
fill site
5. Tanker wheels stop at dumping site
6. Water starts flowing
7. Water stops flowing
8. Tanker leaves empty
9. Tanker returns to fill site. Stop timing
10. Total time (A)
11. Number of drums filled
12. Drums x 55 gallons (8)
8
13. Tanker rating = A.
TABLE 3. Time Available for Water Flow from Tanks

Tank capacity Flow (gpm)
(gallons) 25 100 200 250
300 12 min. 3 min. 1112 min. 1% min.
400 16 4 2 1%
500 20 5 2112 2
600 24 6 3 2%
700 28 7 3112 2%
SOO 32 8 4 3%
900 36 9 '4112 3%
1000 40 10 5 4
When preparing apparatus specifications, it is important to remember that

the piping from the tank to the pump must be capable of flowing 250 gpm in
tanks up to 800 gallons and 500 gpm in tanks that hold 800 gallons or more.
One of the problems in operating from an apparatus tank is the transition
from the tank to a hydrant. Because a higher rpm is necessary to deliver water
from the tank, opening the hydrant intake without a throttle adjustment will
add increased pressure to the discharge lines.
The following steps will proVide for safe operation:
1. Open the tank to pump valve and adjust the throttle to obtain the correct
discharge pressure.
2. Connect to the hydrant supply or the relay pumper (pressure source).
3. Open the intake supply valve half way, adjust the throttle control to the
correct pressure, and close the tank to pump valve half way.
4. Open the intake supply valve completely, adjust the throttle control to
the correct pressure, and close the tank to pump valve fully.
5. Open the tank fill valve to refill the tank while water is being discharged.
The operator must ensure that the top cap or vent on the tank is opened,
otherwise the large amount of water flowing into the tank will not have an
outlet. This will cause increased pressure that can rupture or bulge the tank.
Operation directly from a tanker

When the fire is located on a narrow road or on an unpaved road, shuttling
tankers in, having them dump water, and then turning them around to refill
228 proves difficult. In such a situation, a pumper can lay a supply line from the
hard surface roadway to the fireground with a siamese having clapper valves
on the end (figure 3).
A tanker connects to the siamese and pumps to the attack pumpers. The
clapper valve prevents the backward flow of water out the other intake. When
the first tanker runs out of water, the line is disconnected, the clapper valve
closes, and the second tanker begins pumping. While tanker 2 is pumping,
tanker 1 can refill. The length of time required for refilling will determine how
many additional tanki'!rs are needed.
By keeping the tankers away from the fire scene, road time is substantially
reduced. However, this method will work only if the tanker has a pump suffi-
cient to supply the required volume of water to the attack pumper.
TANKER 1 TANKER 2
Figure 3. Operation directly from a tanker.
Operations from portable tanks

A big assist to tanker operations is a folding tank, which serves as a reservoir
for a tanker shuttle. This allows a tanker to dump its entire load of water im-
mediately and return to the source of water for refilling. This also points out the
need for a large dump valve to permit quick emptying. An attack pumper at
the fireground drafts water from the folding tank. Two types of tanks are shown
in figures 4A and 4B.
To set up operations from a portable tank, the following procedures can be
used:
1. The attack pumper goes to the fire scene and begins operation from the
internal tank.
2. The folding or collapsible tank is set up in a position that will permit easy
access for the tanker dump valves and from which the attack pumper can
easily draft.
3. A hard sleeve with strainer is attached to the attack pumper and placed in
the basin.
4. A tanker with a short length of hose attached to the dump valve backs up
to the basin.
5. The tank vents are opened and the dump valve is opened.
6. When the tanker is empty, it returns to the fill point where a pumper is
ready to begin the refilling operation.
7. As the water in the basin is used, another tanker backs up and discharges
its water.
8. The number of tankers needed depends on the carrying capacity,
distance, refill time, and fire flow requirements.
Folding tanks can also be used as the water reservoir in remote areas (figure
5A and 5B). 229
A. Collapsible type
B. Folding type
Figure 4. Folding Tanks
Portable pump operation

The use of portable pumps for the fire service has never been fully explored.
They can be used for fireground operations when the apparatus either cannot
get near the water source or the fire is inaccessible to a regular pumper. In ad-
dition, these pumps can be used for salvage operations by removing water
from basements.
What exactly is a portable pump? NFPA 191 classifies portable pumps as:
1. Small volume, high pressure 15-20 gpm at 175 pounds
200 psi overall weight
2. Medium volume, medium pressure 50 gpm at 90 psi 150 pounds

100 gpm at 60 psi 150 pounds
3. Large volume, low pressure 100 gpm at 50 psi 150 pounds

•
4. Medium volume, high pressure 90 gpm at 250 psi 200 pounds
5. Extra-large volume, medium 500 gpm at 100 psi 200 pounds

pressure
While these five general classifications allow wide variations in portable
pump design, the definition can be generalized as follows: Can be carried by
two men, volume delivery for supplying pumper, pressure delivery to operate
attack lines, protective frame (figure 6).
Figure 7 shows a floating portable pump, with a built-in strainer on the pump
intake, being used to supply a Ph-inch line directly. Figure 8 illustrates a
portable pump drafting water from an inaccessible source and directly supply-
230 ing an attack line.
A. Airlifting tank to fire scene
B. Filling tank from helicopter drop.

Figure 5. Folding tanks in remote areas.
Figure 6. Portable pump. 231

Figure 7. Floating portable pump.
Figure 8. Portable pump at inaccessible static source.
Portable pumps in relay

A portable pump is used to relay water when a pumper cannot be positioned
at the water source. The procedures for establishing the relay are:
1. The attack pumper stretches a supply line from as close as possible to the
water source to the fireground (figure 9). The portable pump is left at the water
source.
2. Operation begins by using the water from the tank.
3. The portable pump is carried to the static source and placed in operation.
The supply line lay is completed and the hose is connected to the discharge of
the portable pump.
4. Water is supplied to the attack pumper under pressure. The changeover
from tank to portable pump should be accomplished as outlined in the section
"Operations from portable tanks."
5. A firefighter should stay at the water source to ensure that the water
delivery continues uninterrupted.
Portable pumper for supplying attack lines

A portable pump is used to directly supply the attack lines when the pumper
cannot reach the fire building and when the water source is close to the in-
232 volved building. The procedures for establishing the operation are:
1. The portable pump is carried to the static source and used to draft water
(figure 10).
2. Hand lines are connected to the discharge and advanced to the
fireground.
3. If the distance is too great, additional portable pumps may be used in
relay.
4. A firefighter should remain at the water source to ensure that a continued
supply will be available.
PORTABLE PUMP
STATIC SOURCE
Figure 9. Portable pump operation in a relay.
FIRE BUILDING
STATIC SOURCE
Figure 10. Portable pump supplying attacking lines.
233
Chapter 20
Testing and. "Maintenance

In 1911, the International Association of Fire Engineers (now the Interna-
tional Association of Fire Chiefs) conducted some brief tests on the newly
developed gasoline-driven pumper. The following year the National Board of
Fire Underwriters (now the American Insurance Association) joined with the
fire engineers to conduct the tests at their annual meeting. The National Fire
Protection Association then joined the group testing pumpers. The NFPA
Committee on Automotive Apparatus continues to set the testing standard for
pumpers.
In May 1965, the AlA discontinued its program of testing fire department
pumpers, and Underwriters' Laboratories, an independent, not-for-profit,
engineering laboratory, took over the pumper testing program, which they
continue to perform. * Any testing agency chosen by the purchaser may do this
testing, provided it is acceptable to the state. Two major types of tests are per-
formed, the certification test and the service test.
An acceptance test is conducted at the factory. Section 11-2.1 of NFPA
1901 describes this test.
"11-2.1 Tests Performed by the Manufacturer.
"11-2.1.1 The fire pump on the completed vehicle shall be thoroughly run in
by the manufacturer before being delivered, by operating for a minimum of
two hours at draft delivering rated capacity of 150 psi net pump pressure for at
least 1 hr., 70 percent of rated capacity at 200 psi net pump pressure for at
least 112 hour and 50 percent of rated capacity at 250 psi net pump pressure for
at least 112 hour.
"11-2.1.2 All pumps shall by hydrostatically tested by the pump manufacturer
for 10 min. at a pressure not less than 350 psig.
"11-2.1.2.1 Two-stage series-parallel pumps shall be tested either hydrostat-
ically or hydrodynamically by the pump manufacturer at a discharge pressure
of 500 psig."* *
An affidavit to the effect that this test has been conducted is given to the
Underwriters Laboratories or the testing agency chosen by the fire department.
They then witness a certification test as outlined in NFPA 1901-11.2.2. If the
apparatus satisfactorily completes the test, the testing agency will issue a cer-
'''Guide for Certification of Fire department Pumpers," Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook,
III. 60062.
"Section 11.2.1 Tests Performed by the Manufacturer. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1901-1979, Standard for
Automotive Fire Apparatus. Copyright © 1979, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts 02269. This
reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only
234 by the standard in its entirety.
TESTING AND MAINTENANCE
tification stating that full compliance with the pumping standards has been met
(figure 1).
Manufacturers do not automatically run an acceptance test, so that it must
be a requirement of the specifications which the department puts out for bid.
Once the apparatus has been delivered, the department should run its own
test in accordance with the National Fire Protection Association Standard
1901~** This is the same standard that UL uses as a basis for the certification
test.
The certification test is summarized in the following paragraphs. The text of
the standard follows the summary.
4" i!ldependmt. _,"'-profit orgIJ"i:ation tati"ll/or public ",/ety

CERTIFICATE OF INSPECTION FOR FIRE DEPARTMENT PUMPER
RATED CAPAClTY ............................1PDI Date.... .
This certifies that the pumper described below bu perfonned acceptably and is provided with items of equipment ..
ohown.
Manufacturer: ...... ........ Model No ............................................ Serial No.
For:.... .. .............................• Location. ..............._..........................................
Chasais: Mfr... ............•........•.......... ......•..... Model No. ....... .... . ..... ................. Serial No.
Engine: Mfr...... •... .............................Model No...... . Serial No
Pump: Mfr..... . ....•.•......... _ ............................................ModelNo..... . Serial No ..
Test Conditions: Barometric Pressure. ................. in. Hr. (corrected to Sea Level); Temp...... ..... F; Elevation.................. ft.:
Suction Hose: Size. .................in.; Length. ................. ft.: Pump eIev. above water source ............................. _...................ft.;
Perfonoance Certified to... It. Elevation.
I I I
••"-.
DISCHAftGE SUCTIO" NET PUMP pU,,"P ENGINE GEAR RATIO
~=~.~t~;~iO~
Capacity
. .:~~,--O-l-..!"Tr.:~#~~~'f.~
••_j~~'!"~~"'!-:gN~'+-...:F==-+,_""~'"_"·+N~.2W:~ +-·"-'~"'-."_"'-II--'·.+~~O
150 psi-2Hra.
Automatic Pressure Control Teat. Mu. Increase.. . .. psi. Vacuwn Teat: ....... .... ... . m. Hr. drop in 10 Min.
No Load Governor Speed...... ........ rpm; Specified..... . ............... rprn. Pump Location................................... _ _
EQUIPMENT CHECK
CONTROLS Y.. tis FUlL SYSTEM Y.. No
Visible, Accessible & IUwninated Tank Capacity, 2 hr. min.
Catchea or locks Tank max. liquid level below
Pump position indicated carburetor/injectors
Solenoid in fuel line
Hand throttle positively held
Fuel boost pump at lank
Operating data plate #
Gear Shift position lat.cb INSTRUMINTS AND GAUGH
Pump drive gear indicated at transmisaion
ehiftJever Oil prt!IIIIUe #
En,ine coolant thermometer' #
PUMP CONNECTIONS
Tachometer #
Gated 81ICtioD inlet
Sua_ Odometer/Hourmeter
HarulCO\IDter
Outlet area minimwna
(ratio.........to ...... englne/pwnp)
Dralna for outlet.l
.........In. Suction pup ......In. H,. to.......... ptf.
......... ""'' ' '
Tank to pump valve .........m. DIac:harp pup ..............to..............pd
Tank·pump min. water flow
Supply valve to heat ezehanpr # - AT OPERATOR'S POSITION
Not Valid UnJeae Countenipled
UNDERWRITERS' LABORATORIES, INC.
CERTIFICATE N'!
Figure 1. Underwriters' Laboratories test certificate.
Certification test and summary

Flow
100 % of rated capacity 150 psi net pump pressure 2 hours
70% of rated capacity 200 psi net pump pressure 112 hour
50 % of rated capacity 250 psi net pump pressure 112 hour
100 % of rated capacity 165 psi net pump pressure 10 minutes
••• Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus. NFPA 1901. National Fire Protection Association. Batterymarch Park.
Quincy. Mass. 02269. 235
Automatic pump Pressure Control

Draft 150 psig 100% capacity With the discharges closed
slowly, the discharge pressure
cannot exceed 180 psig.
Draft 150-90 psig 100 % capacity The throttle is shut to reduce
discharge pressure to 90 psig.
With the discharges closed
Draft 250 psig 50 % capacity With the discharges closed
Pump Priming Device
0-1000 capped 20-ft discharges 22 in At the end of

ft altitude length of hard uncapped of vacuum 10 min the reading
sleeves must be at least
12 in.
1001 - capped 20-ft discharges 21 in At the end of 10
2000 ft length of uncapped of vacuum min the reading
altitude hard sleeves must be at least
11 in.
2001 - capped 20-ft discharges 20 in At the end of
3000 ft length of hard uncapped of vacuum 10 min the reading
altitude sleeves must be at least
10 in.
For each 1000-foot increase in altitude, the required vacuum is reduced 1 inch.
During the lO-minute period of the test, the primer cannot be operated.
NFPA standard 1901 certification test

The certification test performed by the testing agencies is conducted in ac-
cordance with NFPA 1901. The text reproduced below is taken from the 1979
(the current) edition of the standard.
"11-2.2 Certification Tests.
"11-2.2.1 A three-hour certification test shall be performed and shall consist
of drafting water and pumping rated capacity against a net pump pressure of
150 psi for a continuous period of two hours, followed by two Ih-hour periods
of continuous pumping, during one of which at least 70 percent of the rated
capacity shall be delivered at net pump pressure of 200 psi and during the re-
maining 112 hour, 50 percent of the rated capacity shall be delivered at a net
pump pressure of 250 psi.
"11-2.2.2 The apparatus shall be subjected to a lO-minute overload test to
demonstrate its ability to develop 10 percent excess power (see 3-1.3.2). The
test shall consist of discharging rated capacity from draft at 165 psi net pump
pressure.
"11-2.2.3 A test shall be conducted to check the performance of the
automatic pump pressure control (see 3-3.2.7) pumping from draft and
discharging rated capacity at 150 psig pressure. With the pressure control set in
accordance with manufacturer's instructions, after all outlet valves have been
closed slowly, pump discharge pressure shall not have increased more than 30
psi from its original value.
"11-2.2.3.1 After the 150 psig test specified in 11-2.2.3 has been completed,
the discharge shall be reestablished at rated capacity at 150 psig pressure.
236 Pressure shall then be reduced to 90 psig by using the throttle. With the
pressure control set in accordance with manufacturer's instructions, after all

outlet valves have been closed slowly, pump discharge pressure shall not have
increased more than 30 psi from its original value.
"11-2.2.3.2 After the 90 psig test specified in 11-2.2.3.1 has been com-
pleted, the discharge shall be established at 50 percent of rated capacity at 250
psig pressure. With the pressure control set in accordance with manufacturer's
instructions, after all outlet valves have been closed slowly, pump discharge
pressure shall not have increased more than 30 psi from its original value.
"11-2.2.4 A vacuum test shall be performed and shall consist of subjecting the
interior of the pump, with capped suction and uncapped discharge outlets, to a
vacuum of 22 in. Hg by means of the pump priming device. The vacuum shall
not drop more t1~an 10 in. Hg in 10 minutes. The primer shall not be used after
the lO-minute test period has begun. (See 3-3.2.9.r
Exception: At altitudes above 1000 feet, the value of required vacuum shall be
reduced by 1 inch per 1000 feet.
"11-2.2.5 Tests shall be made with all accessories and power-consuming ap-
pliances attached.
"11-2.2.6 The tests shall be stopped only as necessary for changing hose and
nozzles. During and after the tests, the engine, pump transmission, and all
parts of the machine shall show no undue heating or excessive strain or vibra-
tion; and the engine shall show no loss of power, overspeed, or other defect.
"11-2.2.7 For pumpers rated less than 1500 gpm capacity, tests shall be
made with 20 feet of hard suction hose in a single line. For pumpers rated
1500 gpm or more, two 20-foot suction lines may be used. External and inter-
nal strainers shall be used on all tests. (See 3-2.2.1.)
"11-2.2.8 Where a water tank of 300 gallons or larger is furnished, a test shall
be performed to check the tank to pump flow rate as specified in 6-1.2.3 of this
Standard. The required rate of flow shall be maintained throughout the
discharge period until at least 80 percent of the rated capacity has been
discharged . (See 6-1. 2.3.)" t
Net pump pressure calculations

The amount of work that a pump must perform to deliver rated flow
depends on whether the water enters the eye of the impeller under pressure or
whether the pump has to work to bring the water up into the eye (drafting).
When water enters the impeller under pressure, the pump has less trouble
building up additional pressure. Under draft conditions, the pump must work
to create and maintain the vacuum that brings the water into the strainer, up
the drafting sleeve, and into the impeller.
Net pump pressure is defined as:
NPP psig + lift (ft) + suction loss (ft) , where
2.3 2.3
NPP net pump pressure
psig = discharge pressure at the gage
lift = vertical lift in feet
suction loss = loss in strainer and hard sleeves in ft
(table 1)
2.3 = conversion factor from ft to psi
tSection 11-2.2 Certification Tests. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1901-1979, Standard for Automotive Fire Ap-
paratus, Copyright©1979, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted material is
not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its
entirety. 237
Since the gage pressure at the discharge is the quantity needed for the test,
with the net pump pressure being known, the equation can be transformed to
psig = NPP - J!fL _ suction loss

2.3 2.3
Now, it can be easily seen that the net pump pressure is less than the gage
pressure for the drafting situation. By using this formula, the discharge
pressure is independent of the lift. This equalizes the test no matter where it is
performed.
Example: What gage pressure is required for a 1000-gpm pumper

at the 100 percent capacity test, operating from an 8-foot lift, with 20
feet of 4lj2-inch hard sleeve?
Step 1. Determine the correct formula:
. = NPP - -lift
pSlg - - suction loss
2.3 2.3
NPP = 150 psi (100% capacity test)

lift ___
8 __
3.5 psi
2.3 2.3
Suction loss table 1

2.3
First 10 feet = 12
Second 10 feet = 21/2
12 + 211z
2.3
= 6.3 psi
psig = 150 - 3.5.- 6.3

= 140.2 psi
Note that the suction allowance must be reduced by 1 psi for the 70 percent
test and 2 psi for the 50 percent capacity test.
Example: What gage pressure is required for a 1250-gpm pumper

at the 50 percent capacity test, operating from a 9-foot lift, with 20
feet of 5-inch hard sleeve?
Step 1. Determine the correct formula:
psig = NPP _ lift _ suction loss

238 2.3 2.3
NPP = 250 psi (50% capacity test)

lift = 2.- = 4.0 psi
2.3 2.3
suction loss = table 1
2.3
First 10 ft = 12 liz
Second 10 ft = 2
Reduced allowance for 50% test 2
Loss = 121f2 + 2 - 2 = 4.3 psi
2.3
Step 3. Solve the formula:
psig = 250 - 4.0 - 4.3

= 241. 7 psi
Pump service test

"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify the percentages of rated
capacity, rated pressures, and the capacity in gallons per minute at the rated
pressures a fire department is designed to deliver.
"The fire service apparatus driver/ operator, given a fire department pumper
and the necessary equipment, shall demonstrate an annual pumper service
test.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall identify the following conditions
that may result in pump damage or unsafe operation, and identify corrective
measures:
"(a) Cavitation (see Chapters 15 and 16)
"(b) Leaking fuel, oil, or water
"(c) Overheating
"(d) Unusual noises
"( e) Vibrations
"(f) Water hammer (see Chapter 12)." tt
While performance of a new pumper is certified by Underwriters'
Laboratories or other testing agencies, when it is delivered, the pumper must
continue to operate effectively for 15 or more years. It must be reliable on the
fireground. Time lost while an additional pumper is brought in to replace a
broken-down piece of apparatus can cause tremendous losses in life and
property.
A schedule for testing pumps thus becomes an extremely important item for
all fire departments. These tests should be performed at least once a year.
They will help to locate defects that could otherwise go unnoticed or un-
suspected since the pump is rarely called upon to produce at full capacity.
Two types of service tests are conducted on a regular basis. The pump ser-
vice test determines the ability of the pump to deliver its rated quantity at rated
pressures. The dry prime test checks the ability of the pump to develop a
vacuum.
HParagraphs 3-1.4, 3-1.5, and 3-1.6. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Apparatus
Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright© 1982, National Fire Protection ASSOCiation, Quincy,
The pump service test consists of drafting with a lift of not more than 10 feet
and pumping at a net pump pressure as follows:
100% rated capacity 150' psi net pump pressure 20 minutes
70% rated capacity 200 psi net pump pressure 10 minutes
50% rated capacity 250 psi net pump pressure 10 minutes
There are three variable factors that are interrelated with this test: pump
speed, pump pressure, and pump discharge. This interrelationship is seen by
increasing the pump rpm which will increase the pump pressure or the pump
discharge or both. Pump speed is controlled by the engine throttle, pump
pressure by the hose layout and position of the discharge gate, and flow by
nozzle size. The only way to reach the test conditions is by adjusting all three
variables.
Test layout
The discharge hose layouts consist of 21/2-inch supply lines connected to a
smooth bore nozzle. The hose acts not only as a water carrier, but it also sup-
plies some friction loss that is required to reduce engine discharge pressure to
the required nozzle pressure. Since short lengths of hose are convenient to
handle, the additional friction loss necessary is provided by partially closing a
discharge gage.
For example, to deliver 1000 gpm through a 2-inch tip at 250-psi net pump
pressure requires a nozzle pressure of 71 psi. This means that 79 psi of friction
loss must be introduced. If 100 feet each of two 21/2-inch lines are used, the
friction loss in each line flowing 500 gpm will be 55 psi. The remaining 24-psi
friction loss necessary for the desired nozzle pressure will come from partially
closing the discharge gate.
The test setup for various size pumps is shown in table 2.
Test equipment
To accurately test a pumper for performance, both a pitot gage and a pump
pressure gage that have been carefully tested for accuracy are required. Gage
testing can best be done with a dead weight gage tester. Smooth bore nozzles
of accurate size should be used with the pitot gage. Nozzles should be used on
a siamese deluge gun for greatest accuracy. A stream straightener behind the
nozzle should also be used.
If a deluge gun is not available, a 21/2-inch nozzle can be tied down .for the
test (figure 2).
A comparison of the revolutions per minute of the pump to deliver the same
240 Figure 2. Service test.

TABLE 1. Allowances for Friction Loss in the Suction Hose

Rated capacity of Diameter of suction Allowance (feet)
pumper (gpm) hose (inches) For 10 ft. of For each additional
suction hose 10 ft. of suction hose
500 4 6 plus 1
4% 3% pius %
750 4% 7 plus 1%
5 4% pius 1
1000 4% 12 plus 2%
5 8 plus 1%
6 4 pius %
1250 5 12% plus 2
6 6% plus %
1500 6 9 plus 1
1500 4% (dual) 7 plus 1%
1500 5 (dual) 4% plus 1
1 5 0 0 6 (dual) 2 plus %
1750 6 (dual) 12% plus 1%
1750 4 % (dual) 9% plus 2
1750 5 (dual) 6% plus 1
1750 6 (dual) 3 pius %
2000 4% (dual) 12 plus 2%
2000 5 (dual) 8 plus 1 %
2000 6 (dual) 4 plus %
Note: The allowance computed above for the capacity test should be reduced by 1 pound
for the allowance on the 200 pound test and by 2 pounds for the allowance on the
250·pound test.
TABLE 2. Pump Service Test Setup

2%" Length Net pump
Capacity lines ft. Tip NP GPM pressure
750·gpm pump
100% 2 50 1·3/4" 68 750 150
70% 1 50 1·1/2" 62 525 200
50% 1 100 1·1/4" 66 375 250
1000·gpm pump
100% 2 100 2" 71 1000 150
70% 2 100 1·3/4" 59 700 200
50% 1 100 1·1/2" 56 500 250
1250·gpm pump
100% 4 100 two 88 625 150
1·1/2" 625
70% 2 100 1·7/8" 70 875 200
50% 2 100 1·1/2" 88 625 250
1500·gpm pump
100% 4 100 two 68 750 150
1·3/4" 750
70% 2 100 2" 78 1050 200
50% 2 100 1·3/4" 68 750 250
Note: Insert a gate valve in the 2%·inch line for additional friction loss.
quantity of water will indicate the condition of the pump and any deterioration.
Use a revolution counter and a stop watch to check the tachometer on the ap-
paratus. The counter connection on the pump panel usually will indicate 1/10
or 1/2. This means that the tachometer reading obtained with the counter
must be multiplied by 10 or 2 to get pump rpm.
Test procedure
1. Record the preliminary information on the pump test form (figure 3).
2. Position the apparatus for drafting.
3. Drain all water from the pump. 241
Apparatus _ _ _ Pump Make Date

Type of Pump Model _ _ _ Capacity
Gear Ratio Engine Make No. of Cylinders
Tested by
PRIMING PERFORMANCE
Dry Prime - Initial Vacuum inches
After 10 minutes inches
Oraft - lift feet; feet of hard sleeve
Time to prime seconds
CALCULATION OF GAUGE PRESSURE

PSIG = NPP _ lift _ friction lo~ NPP
2.3 2.3
lift
2.3
fl
..E______
PSIG =
WATER FLOW
Gpm Tip Nozzle Net Pump Gauge Time Pump
pressure pressure pressure start! rpm
finish
150
200
250
PRESSURE CONTROL
Initial Pressure Flow Shut down pressure
ENGINE CONTROLS
Oil Pressure Water Temperature Vibrations
Leaks _ _ _._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Remarks _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Figure 3. Pump test record form.
4. Run the dry prime test as outlined in this chapter. Record the results on
the form.
5. Connect two hard sleeves and the strainer together and then attach them
to the pump intake. Attach a rope to the strainer.
6. Hammer all couplings together to ensure an airtight seal.
7. Lower the strainer end of the hard sleeve into the drafting source.
8. Connect the hose and appliances as indicated in table 2.
9. Start the priming mechanism and time the length of time necessary to ob-
tain the prime. A prime should be obtainedjn less than 45 seconds. If a prime
is not obtained, check for a malfunction. Record the results on the chart.
10. Run the pump for a few minutes discharging some water, so that both
the pump and engine can warm up.
11. Calculate the necessary gage pressure, taking into account the size of
the hard sleeves, the height of the lift, and the length of the hard sleeve.
12. Keep one or both of the discharge gates partially closed before building
up the pump pressure. Increase engine rpm until the required gage pressure is
obtained.
13. Check the nozzle pressure with a pitot gage.
14. If the pump pressure is correct but the nozzle pressure is too high, close
the gate a little to introduce more friction loss. This will lower the nozzle
pressure but it will increase pump pressure. Correct the pump pressure by
shutting the throttle a little. Check the pitot reading again at the nozzle.
15. If the pump pressure is correct, but the nozzle pressure is too low, a
242 discharge gate must be opened slightly. This will reduce pump pressure and in-
crease nozzle pressure. The throttle must again be adjusted for correct
discharge pressure.
16. When the pump pressure and discharge quantity are satisfactory, con-
tinue the test for the required length of time. If the time taken to make the initial
adjustments is not too great, the test time can be counted from the first build-up
of pressure. Check the gates to be sure that they do not vibrate open or closed.
Record the results on the chart.
17. Readings should be taken with the pitot gage every five minutes with
the 20-minute test and every two minutes with the 10-minute test.
18. After running the 100 percent capacity test, the two pressure tests
follow immediately. Do not drop the water between these tests. The only time
interval is that which is necessary to change nozzle size and layout.
19. The transfer valve is set to pressure for the 200-psi test.
20. Adjust the discharge as described in steps 11 through 17.
21. After completing the 200-psi test, change the nozzle and hose layout
for the 250-psi test. Keep the transfer valve in the pressure position.
While conducting the annual service test, discharge gates are partially closed
to either create friction loss or to achieve a higher pump pressure. This,
however, decreases the flow. On the fireground, it is not beneficial to increase
pump discharge pressure at the expense of reduced flow through partially clos-
ing a discharge gate.
The only time a discharge gate should be partially closed on the fireground is
during the use of multiple lines of different diameters that require different
flows. Then, the pump pressure is set for the highest pressure required and the
other lines are gated back to reduce flow. The discharge gates are closed until
the proper pressure is indicated on the individual discharge gage.
Dry prime test

The dry prime test provides information concerning the tightness of the
pump and the priming system. It indicates if the pump is in good condition for
drafting. This test is also used to check the inner liner of the hard sleeve.
The hard sleeve has a rubber lining, fabric, a rubber cover, and a helix of
wire set in rubber between reinforcing layers of fabric. If the hard sleeve is
strained or bent, it is possible for the layers of the lining to separate. Then,
when drafting under vacuum conditions, the liner will collapse and prevent
water from entering the pump. When the pressure returns to atmospheric, the
liner returns to normal. For this reason, the sleeves are checked during the
priming test.
The test procedure is as follows:
1. Insert a lit flashlight facing away from the pump panel in ~ne end of the
hard sleeve.
2. Connect one section of hard sleeve to the intake of the pump. Make sure
the flashlight is facing out. Support the hard sle¢ve in a level position (figure 4) .
3. Cap the hard sleeve with a piece of Plexiglas with a gasket of the correct
size for the sleeve being used.
4. Drain the pump and make sure the tank-to-pump valve is closed.
5. Close all pump openings.
6. Operate the primer until a reading of 22 inches is obtained.
7. Stop priming and shut off engine.
8. Begin timing.
9. Look into the hard sleeve to make sure that the inner lining does not col-
lapse under vacuum.
10. Listen for air leaks which are sometimes audible with the engine
stopped. 243
11. The vacuum reading should not fall below 12 inches in less than 10
minutes.
12. If the vacuum is lost, it means that there is an air leak in the system.
Check the drains, gates, connections, packing, and relief valve for leaks.
13. Connect the other hard sleeve and repeat steps 1 through 9.
14. At the conclusion of the test, check the priming reservoir for oil if a
rotary gear primer is used.
Figure 4. Dry prime test.
TRUCK MAINTENANCE
To operate efficiently, the fire department apparatus must be well main-
tained. If a truck fails to start, breaks down on the way to a call, or fails to
operate on the scene, there can be disastrous results. The driver/operator is
responsible for ensuring that the following areas are in a correct and safe
operating condition. A suggested check list is shown in table 3.
"The fire apparatus driver/operator shall demonstrate the performance of
routine tests, inspections, and servicing functions required to assure the opera-
tional status of fire department pumpers, including:
"(a) Battery check
"(b) Booster tank level (if applicable)
"(c) Braking system
"(d) Coolant system
" (e) Electrical system
"(f) Fueling
"(g) Lubrication
"(h) Oil levels
"(i) Pump
" (j) Tire care
"(k) Toolsttt
Remember, the driver/operator is not the mechanic. So, although these
maintenance suggestions can be easily performed, the more complex
maintenance and repairs should be referred to the fire department mechanic.
Any leaks, vibrations, or unusual operating problems need to be checked
immediately.
Battery and electrical system
The electrical system of a fuel pumper consists of the battery or batteries, the
lighting system, the alternator, the voltage regulator, and any electrical motors.
'Paragraphs 3-1.1, 3-1.4, 3-1.5, and 3-1.6. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1002-1982, Standard for Fire Ap-
paratus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications, Copyright©1982, National Fire Protection ASSociation, Quincy,
The electrical system should be checked as follows:

Battery - water level is correct
- terminals are clear of corrosion
- specific gravity is correct
Voltage regulator - if battery is at full charge and the ammeter shows a high
charge, the voltage regulator needs to be checked.
Alternator - if the battery is uncharged and the ammeter shows little charge,
the alternator and voltage regulator need to be checked.
Electrical equipment - the operation of all the lights, motors, and switches
need to be checked to ensure correct functioning. Terminals need to be
checked for corrosion and damage from moisture.
TABLE 3. Suggested Truck and Pump Maintenance List

Electrical System Braking System Pump
Battery Master cylinder Pump transmission
Voltage regulator Air pressure Pressure gages
Alternator Air tank Motor gages at panel
Emergency warning lights Gates operate freely
Safety lights Tires Valves operate freely
Motors - booster reel Visual check Pump bearings
Siren/horn Air pressure Priming pump
Mountings Transfer valve
Liquid Levels
Oil and oil filter Equipment Gaskets and washers
Gasoline Breathing apparatus Check valves
Automatic transmission Ladders Suction threads
Power steering Cutting tools Packing
Coolant System Nozzles Relief valve
Portable power tools Hose
Windshield washer Hose appliances
Liquid levels
There are many areas of the pumper containing liquid that need to be
checked. The gages should be compared with a visual check of the liquid level
to ensure that the gage is reading correctly. Additions should be made carefully
and with the correct fluid. Those levels that need to be checked are:
Booster tank water level.
Coolant system.
Fuel tank.
Oil level.
Automatic transmission fluid.
Power steering fluid.
Windshield washer fluid.
Braking system
One of the most important safety items to be checked is the apparatus brak-
ing system. If the truck has air brakes, they can be tested by starting the truck
and seeing how long it takes to get sufficient air pressure in the system. Anyex-
tensive delay means there is an air leak which needs immediate repair. In addi-
tion, failure to maintain air pressure needs immediate attention. Water should
be bled from the air tanks. For mechanical brakes, the level of the fluid reser-
voir of the master cylinder should be checked.
One of the best methods for determining brake problems is the driver's sen-
sivity to the changing feel of the truck. Gradual degradation is especially no-
ticeable to a regular driver. This deterioration should be brought to the atten-
tion of the department.
Lubrication
One of the major items of protective maintenance is the lubrication of the 245
pumper. In addition to maintaining the motor oil level, lubrication of all the
metal-to-metal contacts is necessary. However, the proper grade and con-
sistency of lubricant must be used to ensure that the parts remain protected as
well as to reduce wear.
Tires
Each of the tires should be checked for the correct air pressure using a truck
tire gage. In addition, each tire should be checked visually for wear, breaks,
foreign matter in the treads, as well as for cracking due to age. Finally, the lugs
must be checked to ensure they are tight.
Equipment maintenance
All removable equipment needs to be checked to ensure that it is ready for
use. Items such as breathing apparatus must have the correct air pressure and
be ready to use. Opening and cutting tools must be free of rust and have their
working surfaces at the prescribed sharpness level. Nozzles must be free of dirt
and have free-moving swivels and good gaskets. Hose must be clean with
clean couplings and good gaskets. Portable tools with their own engines
should have the correct fuel level, proper lubrication, and be ready to operate.
Pump maintenance
A good pump maintenance program will minimize downtime and provide
for more reliable operation at an incident. Correct operation of the pump will
also help to reduce the number of breakdowns. A suggested check list is shown
in table 3.
One of the major problems encountered in pump breakdown is a result of
the pump overheating. This results from the pump turning but no water flows
through it. Indications of an overheated pump are: Pump overheat light goes
on, steamer cap becomes hot, seizing of the clearance ring.
To avoid this condition, sufficient water needs to flow through the pump. To
do this, open the tank-to-pump valve and the tank fill valve to allow the tank
water to circulate. The following preventive maintenance functions should be
performed by the driver/operator to ensure that the pump is ready to operate:
1. Main pump and drive unit - The pump bearings, drive unit bearings
and all gears are supplied with oil from the drive unit housing. Use a good
grade SAE 90 motor oil. Keep oil level between the high and low mark on the
bayonet gage.
2. Priming pump - Keep the primer oil tank filled with SAE 30 motor
oil.
3. Transfer valve - Operate the valve under pressure to ensure that the
valve does not freeze in pOSition. In addition check that the valve is greased
and that any 0 rings are flexible.
4. Gaskets and washers - Inspect the gaskets and washers on the hard
sleeves and the intakes to ensure they are in good condition. Poor gaskets can
prevent the pump from getting a prime for drafting.
5. Check valves - The check valves should be free to swing. Ensure that
no foreign matter is caught between the valve and the seat.
6. Suction threads - Cast iron suction threads should be coated lightly
with grease once a month.
7. Packing - Packing is designed to be moist to remain soft and pliable.
The water gets to the packing from the discharge side of the pump. Water
should drip from the packing even when the pump is not engaged. The pack-
ing can be adjusted or replaced in accordance with the manufacturers' recom-
mendations.
8. Relief valve - Operate the relief valve regularly to ensure that the parts
246 move freely. In addition, ensure that any 0 rings remain flexible.
Chapter 21
Driver Training
Obviously, if a pumper and its personnel do not arrive on the scene, the
safety of the public as well as the other firefighters is in jeopardy. An individual
can be the most knowledgeable pumper operator in the department, but the
operator must get the apparatus to the incident safely if it is to be useful.
In addition to knowing how to handle the pump, an individual. who is
selected to become an apparatus driver should have:
Good eyesight, be free from medical problems which would cause loss of
vehicle control, and be in excellent physical condition.
Knowledge of the routine maintenance of the truck.
The ability to remain calm while responding uAder emergency conditions.
Knowledge of streets, response routes from other stations, and potential
traffic problem areas.
Knowledge of potential water sources, particularly in areas that require the
use of static water sources.
Safe driving
Unfortunately, in many fire departments the selection of the pumper
driver/operator is based upon seniority or popularity. When selections are
made this way, the tremendous responsibility of getting the vehicle to the scene
in one piece may be overlooked.
When an alarm is received, the tendency is to try and get the firefighters and
eqUipment to the scene as qUickly as possible, disregarding traffic, weather,
and road conditions. The truck weaves in and out, crosses over the center line
to pass other vehi~les, and ignores traffic control Signals. This activity results in
accidents, injuries, and jeopardizes the public safety. Yet, in many cases, the
drivers who operate in this manner continue unchallenged by their superiors.
Further, some departments even award these individuals special recognition in
the mistaken belief that this is the correct way to drive emergency apparatus.
Drivers must remember that they are handling large and heavy vehicles.
M~ny times the drivers are only familiar with handling the family car, which has
grown smaller over the years. To suddenly switch to driving a big truck can
create many problems.
Individuals driving a pumper on an emergency call must guard against being
caught up in the excitement of the siren, lights and horns and resist throwing
out caution. Most states only permit disregarding traffic laws when the public
will not be endangered. This means the driver must make certain that an in-
tersection is clear before entering, even if the traffic light gives the apparatus
the right of way. 247
Drivers must remember that some individuals will stop immediately upon
hearing a siren; th'ey may freeze with fright and not pull over. Other traffic may
then have to stop and the apparatus will not have any place to go and an acci-
dent could result. In addition, with total climate control for passenger cars,
windows stay closed in summer and winter, and many drivers play radios and
tapes, so they may not notice emergency apparatus until it is too late. The ap-
paratus driver must continually be aware of the traffic in front, indications of
movement to the left or right, the sudden decision ·-of a car in front to make a
left turn, and oncoming traffic.
The driver/ operator must also keep in mind the response routes of other ap-
paratus responding on the call. In many cases, the warning devices make it im-
possible to hear other emergency apparatus approaching an intersection.
When there is such a potential, a radio announcement by the units ap-
proaching the intersection will help reduce the possibility of an accident.
Safe driving also requires that upon return from a call, the driver/operator
perform routine checks of the truck. Such things as the tires, fuel level, oil
level, radiator, water tank level, and general overall appearance need to be
checked. This is in addition to the requirement that a complete check of the
truck's condition be performed daily.
When driving on snow or ice, special precautions must be undertaken.
These include:
1. Driving slowly and getting the "feel" of the road,
2. Using chains on snow or ice,
3. Ensuring that the windshield is kept clear and that the defroster is work-
ing efficiently,
4. Downshifting or applying the brake carefully to prevent the truck from
going into a skid, and
5. Ensuring that there is sufficient space between the pumper and the
vehicles in front to allow for stopping.
Driving the pumper

It is impossible to learn to drive a fire truck by reading a book. However, cer-
tain procedures can be described and then put into practice. The key is to ac-
tually drive the truck and learn under the supervision of a safety-conscious in-
structor. The basic procedures are:
1. When getting in the cab, adjust the seat so that you can comfortably
reach the brake, clutch, and accelerator.
2. Adjust both left and right mirrors. Remember, there is no rear-view mir-
ror on a pumper. You must get used to using the right-hand mirror.
3. Depress the clutch and make sure the gear selector is in neutral. Trucks
with automatic transmission must have the selector in neutral.
4. Start the engine by turning on the electrical selector switch and pressing
the starter button. Ensure that all gages are reading correctly.
5. Release the emergency brake(s) and place foot on foot brake.
6. Shift the gear selector into first gear, ease out on the clutch slowly while
simultaneously pressing on the accelerator. The clutch must be engaged slowly
to prevent putting a sudden load on the engine, transmission, and clutch.
However, the clutch has to be let out fast enough to prevent stalling the
engine. The necessary coordination can be learned with practice, with the final
test being able to accelerate smoothly after stopping on a hill.
7. When the engine reaches the maximum rpm for first gear, the clutch
should be depressed and the gear selector shifted to second gear. Up-shifting
continues through the gears as the truck accelerates until the highest gear is
reached. In city driving, the truck may not attain the top speed necessary to
248 reach the highest gear.
DRIVER TRAINING
8. One of the advantages of a manual transmission in a pumper is the ability

to down-shift as the truck slows down. This helps to maintain control and
allows the engine to assist the brakes in slowing down the truck. To down-shift,
the driver depresses the clutch and shifts the gear selector to the next lower
gear. This will provide an increase in engine rpm. As the slowdown continues,
the truck is shifted to the next lower gear when engine rpm reaches a certain
minimum value. Remember to keep the engine in gear when decelerating. Do
not coast. The engine tachometer in the cab is the indicator to use for the cor-
rect time to shift. One other advantage of down-shifting is that the truck is
ready to accelerate as conditions change.
9. Backing up a pumper is a very exacting procedure. Because there is no
view directly to the rear of the pumper, an individual should be posted in the
back during any reverse movement. In addition, a continual view of the left
and right mirrors needs to be maintained. It is sometimes easier and qUicker to
go forward and a block or two out of the way to avoid the problem of backing
up.
10. When stopping the pumper at the scene, make sure the emergency
brake is set. Put wheel chocks under the wheels to prevent the truck from
rolling.
11. When returning to the station, make the driver's maintenance checks to
ensure that the truck is ready to respond again.
DRIVER TRAINING
Before beginning driver training, the fire department should administer a
written test covering such items as:
Local and state laws
Area and street locations
Location oJ equipment on the apparatus
Departmental rules and regulations pertaining to driving.
The driver/ operator should receive initial skills level training in a safe, large,
open area that can be used to simulate driving conditions.
demonstrate the following driving tests:
"(a) Serpentine
"(b) Alley dock
"(c) Opposite alley pull in
"(d) Diminishing clearance
"(e) Straight line
"(f) Turn around."·
FORWARD
FINISH - - - _
START----~
REVERSE
Figure 1. Serpentine
Serpentine - The serpentine (figure 1) consists of a line of markers that

are spaced 34 feet apart. The driver pulls through the course, going around
'Paragraph 3-1. 7. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 1901-1982. Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Profes-
material is not the complete and official pOSition of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the 249
the markers and then backs the apparatus through the markers. The entire
course, forward and backward, must be traveled without stopping and without
hitting any of the markers.
This driving procedure simulates the right control necessary for getting
through and around traffic and fixed obstacles.
Alley dock - The alley dock (figure 2) consists of a marked area, just
slightly larger than the truck. The driver has to pull up parallel to the opening
and then back into it. This driving procedure simulates backing into the fire sta-
tion or a narrow alley.
FORWARD
'"<,
" "
\
REVERSE
r--===================-
t
20'
:
I _10+-
Figure 2. Alley Dock
Opposite alley pull in - In the opposite alley pull in, a IO-foot-wide area
is offset by one apparatus length so that the driver has to move the truck to the
right (figure 3). This driving procedure tests the driver's ability to manuever the
vehicle while maintaining speed and keepil1g the apparatus under control.
1t, START-I......_ _-;.... _l I

--~~--------==~
==t ~ ~---------------+~
+ .. • FINISH
10'
- Length of Apparatus
Figure 3. Opposite Alley Pull In
Diminishing clearance - In the diminishing clearance setup, the

markers start at 9 feet 6 inches and diminish to 8 feet 2 inches over a 75-foot
distance (figure 4). The driver must remain in the cab of the truck, using only
~
T ~ T ~I~en
U I_
8'2"
1. ~
~ ~
9'6"
1 ~
~
50 Feet -I· 75 Feet -I
250 Figure 4. Diminishing Clearance

DRIVER TRAINING
the front window to watch the course, and must stop within 6 inches of the
finish. This driving procedure tests the driver's ability to control the vehicle and
judge the clearance on both sides.
Straight line - In the straight line test, the markers are set to determine if
the driver keeps the vehicle on a straight line (figure 5). In this test, the markers
~ ~ ® ® ~ ®
II ® ®
.-
® ®
PATH OF RIGHT WHEELS
® ®
I~
/. 30 Feet
-I
Figure 5. Straight Line
are set up for 30 feet and separated by 2 feet 6 inches. The right wheel of the
truck is placed between the markers and the distance must be traveled without
knocking down any of the markers.
Turn around - In the turn around exercise (figure 6) the driver's ability to
make a three-point turn to reverse direction is tested. Both a left and right turn
around are tested because of the difference in maneuvering required for each.
FINISH
20'
L ~\,~ 20'
10'~
START . .-----+--~~~
- Figure 6. Turn Around
251
Appendix A
Understanding Fluids
Before defining a fluid, an explanation of the characteristics that a fluid
possesses will aid in understanding the scientific principles involved. All matter
can exist in anyone of three states: solid, liquid, or gas, which are composed
of tiny particles called molecules.
In a solid, the molecules are spaced very close together, and by their nature
they try to hold onto each other. Now when a solid is heated, the molecules
vibrate. As more heat is applied, the molecules vibrate more and more rapidly
and try to break away from each other. At some point, the molecules do break
away and the form of the solid changes to either a liquid or gas. The stronger
the attachment of the molecules of a solid, the higher heat that is necessary to
change the form.
Definition of a fluid
A fluid is defined as a substance that yields to the slightest force and recovers
its previous state when the force is removed. The molecules of a fluid are not
closely bound and cannot sustain a sideways force. This is the basic distinguish-
ing factor between a fluid and a solid. Fluids can be divided into two subclasses
- gases and liquids.
An understanding of fluid behavior is necessary because the firefighter must
be able to anticipate actions of fluids. From flammable liquid spills to toxic
gases, an understanding of the properties of fluids will aid the pump operator.
In order to understand what causes fluids to move, a discussion of the
various types of forces is necessary. The three major forces that can act on any
body are shear, tensile, and compressive.
A shear force (figure 1) is a sideways force which will cause the fluid to
move. A tensile force (figure 2) is an attempt to pull apart the fluid and does
not cause much movement. The only motion of a tensile force is caused by the
ability of the particular molecules to stick together~ A compressive force (figure
3) is the attempt to push the fluids together. This will cause the best movement
of the fluid and, of the three forces, permits the best control.
The compressive forces used in the fire service, when referenced to a given
area, are known as pressure. Pressure denotes a force per unit area. In the
American system of measurement, force is measured in pounds and area is
usually measured in square inches or square feet. In the fire service, pressure
in force per unit area is expressed as pounds per square inch and abbreviated
252 as psi.
UNDERSTANDING FLUIDS
VERY LITTLE MOVE-

WILL CAUSE FLUID MENT OF FLUID, DE-
TO MOVE PENDING ON ABILI-
TY OF MOLECULES
TO STICK TOGETHER
Figure 1. Shear Force Figure 2. Tensile Force
Figure 3. Compressive Force
Both liquids and gases are fluids. The properties of fluids (figure 4) can be
generalized as:
Liquids Gases
Almost incompressible. (For purposes Compressible. (A 40-cubic-foot vol-
of this text, a liquid will be considered ume of air is compressed into a small
incompressible because it takes a cylinder for breathing apparatus.)
pressure of 30,000 psi to cause a 1
percent reduction in a given volume
of water.)
Assumes the shape of the container. Assumes the shape of the container.
(Whether in a glass, lake or pool, a (A gas will expand until it fills the ves-
liquid always conforms to the shape sel holding it, whether it be a jar or a
of the vessel.) room.)
Occupies a definite volume, indepen- Will expand to occupy the volume of

dent of the shape of the vessel. the container. (If a bottle of gas were
(Whether it's confined to a tall, thin r.eleased in a room, the gas would
glass or a long, flat plate, the liquid continue to expand until it took the
will have the same volume.) shape of the room.)
Capable of flowing. (The fact that a Capable of flowing under certain cir-
liquid is not compressible permits it to cumstances. (Air will flow in a venti-
flow easily.) lating system or around the wing of an
airplane. Under these special condi-
tions, the gas acts as if it is incom-
pressible. )
The prime fluid that pump operators are concerned with is water. Water has
some properties that make its use on the fireground beneficial.
Properties of water
There are two different conditions that a firefighter must consider when
operating a pump. The first is when the fluid is at rest or under static condi-
tions. (The study of fluids at rest is called hydrostatics') The second possibility is 253
FLUIDS
INCOMPRESSIBLE COMPRESSIBLE
ASSUMES SHAPE OF CONTAINER ASSUMES SHAPE OF CONTAINER
OCCUPIES A DEFINITE; VOLUME EXPANDS TO OCCUpy VOLUME

OF CONTAINER
CAPABLE OF FLOWING CAPABLE OF FLOWING
Figure 4. Properties of fluids
that the fluid is in motion or flowing (the study of this type of motion is called
hydrokinetics) .
First, consider the physical properties of water. Water is composed of
molecules, with each molecule made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen (figure 5). 1:he chemical symbol for this is written as H 20. In
their natural state, hydrogen and oxygen are gases, but when combined to
form a molecule of water, they become a completely new substance. This new
substance is a liquid between 32°F (freezing point) and 212°F (the boiling
point at normal atmospheric pressure). In addition, once hydrogen and
oxygen form water, it is very difficult to separate back to their original
elements.
Under static conditions, water follows five basic laws:
1. Fluid pressure is perpendicular to the surface on which it works (figure
6A).
This means that when water is confined by a barrier, it causes pressure which
acts at 90 degrees to the barrier. What would happen if this were not true? As
shown in figure 6B, assume that the force acts at some other angle than 90
degrees. Under this condition, the force would cause the water to move and a
static condition would not be present. The only time there will be a static condi-
tion is when the force is perpendicular to the barrier.
2. At any point within the water, the pressure is the same amount in all
directions (figure 6C).
Within the water, at any point the pressure exerted by water molecule "X"
on the surrounding molecules is the same in all directions. It is important to
distinguish that this does not say the pressure at point "X" is equal to the
pressure at point "Y."
3. Pressure from the outside, when applied to water in a confined area will
be distributed to all parts of the area without decreasing in value (figure 6D).
Because water is incompressible, an external force of 100 psi applied to the
water will cause the pressure throughout the vessel to increase by 100 psi.
4. The pressure exerted by water at any point in the open vessel is depen-
dent upon its depth (figure 6E).
5. The pressure exerted by water does not depend upon the shape of the
vessel (figure 6F).
Pressure for the fire service is measured in pounds per square inch. Because
everything is referenced to this particular area, the shape of the vessel will not
change the pressure reading. Only the height of the water above the gage will
change the pressure. Gages Q, Rand S all read in psi, and because the height
is the same, all gages will read equal pressures. Note that the size and capacity
254 of the containers is not mentioned, yet the pressure will be the same.
UNDERSTANDING FLUIDS
® HYDROGEN ATOM
+ ® OXYGEN ATOM H20

1 WATER
® HYDROGEN ATOM MOLECULE
Figure 5. Chemistry of water
FORCE
(NOT AT 90°)
MOLECULE "Y"
A S C
RULE A-1 RULE A-2
100 PSI
PRESSURE AT "S"
IS HIGHER
D E
RULE A-3 RULE A-4
"a"
GAGES O. R, AND S WILL ALL READ THE SAME.

F RULE A-5
Figure 6. Properties of water
The definition of pressure and the distinction between pressure and force
have been discussed, In addition, the basic laws of pressure as applied to water
under static conditions have been covered,
255
Appendix B
Water Movement
Flow or movement of water can occur in any of three directions at the same
time. The movement of a fluid in three directions is called three-dimensional
flow. For the applications and uses in the fire service, it is sufficiently accurate
to think in terms of flow or movement only occurring in one direction. This is
called one-dimensional flow (figure 1).
POINT 1
POINT2
VELOCITY EQUAL I--~ VELOCITY EQUAL

ACROSS ENTIRE I-_~ ACROSS ENTIRE
AREA I--~AREA
AREA AT 1 LARGER THAN AT 2

VELOCITY AT 1 SMALLER THAN AT 2
Figure 1. One-dimensional flow
As the water passes through hose, look at the flow in two places, indicated at
points 1 and 2 on figure 1. (Keep in mind that one-dimensional flow is an ap-
proximation and cannot be extended to more complicated flows in other
fluids.)
If you could stand at one point with a counter and a stop watch, you would
be able to count how many cubic feet of water passed by every minute. The
amount of water would be determined by how fast the water was flowing and
how big was the area of the hose. From this information the formula for flow
can be written:
Q =AV, where
Q = quantity of flow
A = area
V = velocity of flow
It is extremely important, when using this founula, to use the proper units. If
the area is measured in square inches and the velocity in inches per minute,
then flow would be cubic inches pet minute. This can be stated as:
Q = A (inches 2) x V ( in~hes )
minute
Q = inches 3
256 minute
WATER MOVEMENT
However, in the fire service, the common measure for flow is gallons per
minute. So this formula must now be converted so that Q is expressed in gpm:
Q = A (~) x V( i~ )
mm
1 gallon contains 231 cubic inches of water
A (in 2) x V (~)
mm
Q • 3
231 !!l.
gal
Using the division of fractions rule of inverting and multiplying
Q = A (~) x Vjirr) (;) 1 (gal)

(min) 231 i
2
The in cancels with the in x in, leaving
3
Q = gallons
minute
Example: What is the flow in gallons per minute in a 3·inch hose
line, if the water is moving past a point at the rate of 102 feet per
minute?
Step 1. Determine the area:
Area of a circle = n r2
r = 11/2 inches
n =3.14
A =3.14 (11/2)2
A = 3.14 (2.25)
A = 7.06 in 2
Step 2. Determine the velocity in correct units:
V = 102 K x 12 in
min .K
V = 102 (12) .-l!L
min
V = 1224.-l!L
min
Q =AV
7.06 in 2 x 1224.-l!L
Q = - - - - - -min - • 3
231 !!l.
gal
Q = 8641 gal
231 min
Q = 37.41 gpm 257
Conservation of matter
Now, just from intuition, it can be said that if 200 gallons per minute were
put in one end of a hose line, the other end would flow 200 gpm when using a
noncompressible fluid. Notice that nothing was said about the size of the hose.
What goes in one end must come out the other end at the same rate. In physics
this rule is stated as: Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
This rule means that at any point in the system the flow rate must be equal.
The flow rates at points 1 and 2 of figure 1 can now be written as
QI =AI VI
Q2 = A2 V2 and since the flows are equal
QI = Q2 and
Al VI = A2 V2
This means that the larger the area gets the smaller the velocity will be.
Example: using figure 1, the area at point 1 is 4 square inches and
the velocity is 220 feet per second. What is the velocity at point 2 in
feet per second, if the area is 3 square inches?
Step 1. Determine the area:
Al = 4 in 2
A2 = 3 in 2
Step 2. Determine the velocity in correct units:
ft
VI = 220 - x 12 in
sec ft
VI = 2640 in
sec
V 2 = unknown
Al VI = A2 V 2
4 in 2 (2640) in 3 in 2 (V 2)
sec
4 (2640) in = V 2
3 sec
10560 in = V 2
3 sec
3520 in = V 2
sec
Step 4. Convert to correct units:
3520 in
sec
- - - - = V2
12 in
ft
V 2 = 293.3311.
258 sec
WATER MOVEMENT
Note that as the area decreased at point 2 to 3 inches the velocity increased to
293.33 ft/sec.
Bernoulli's Equation
In order to continue the discussion of fluids in motion, certain further defini-
tions are necessary. The energy possessed by a fluid can be defined as its
capacity to do work. This ability to do work can be classified into groups such
as electrical, chemical, atomic, thermal, and mechanical. For the field of pump
operation the main group is mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy can be divided into two major areas: potential energy
and kinetic energy. Potential energy of a fluid is that energy which the fluid has
stored, ready for use. One example would be an elevated water tank in which
the water has potential energy to do work because it is elevated above the
ground. The kinetic energy of a fluid is its energy due to motion. For example,
water flowing from a nozzle possesses kinetic energy because the flowing water
is able to do work (turn a wheel or knock down a wall).
Potential energy can be stored in one of two ways. It can receive its energy
due to elevation (head) or due to pressure under static conditions. Since
potential energy can also be a combination of these two, a generalized equa-
tion can be written:
total potential energy = pressure head + elevation head
It is important to keep the units of this equation ~onsistent. Each value must
be expressed in terms of equivalent head, which in the fire service is usually
feet.
The rule which states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed can now
be extended to include energy. Energy can be changed from one form to
another, but the total available energy must remain constant. Because of this
the total energy possessed by a fluid can be written as:
1iotaI energy potential Ienergy

= I I
pressure head + elevation head + kinetic energy
In keeping with the reqUirements of expressing the energy in terms of head,

kinetic energy will be called velOcity head.
Figure 2 shows how a hydraulic system receives energy. With no water flow-
ing, what is the gage reading at the hydrant? Potential energy at the hydrant is
due to the elevation head plus the static pressure head created by the pump.
With no water flowing, the velOcity head equals zero. The equation can now
be written:
total energy = pressure head + elevation head + velOcity head

pressure head (PH) = pressure in psi x 2.31 ft/psi
PH = 100 psi x 2.31 ft/psi
PH = 231 ft
Elevation head (EH) = 200 ft
Velocity head (VH) = 0 (static conditions)
total energy = 231 + 200 + 0 = 431 ft
Pressure at hydrant = P = h x .434
P = 431 x .434 = 187 psi 259
GAGE
PUMP
;.;·;·;.;·;.;···············..··········0 ...................;.;.;.;.;
CREATING
100 PSI
HYDRANT
Figure 2. Total energy under static conditions
Now, energy cannot be created nor destroyed. Therefore, at anyone point

in the system the total energy must be equal to the total energy at any other
point in the system. At points 1 and 2 in figure 3, the energy equation can be
written as:
pressure head! + elevation head! + velocity head!

pressure head 2 + elevation head 2 + velocity head 2
Figure 3. Bernoulli's Equation

This statement about the equality of energy at any point in a fluid system is
known as Bernoulli's Equation.
Using figure 3, what is the velocity head at point 2?
At point 1, PH! = 100 x 2.31 = 231 ft
EH! = 200 ft
VH! = 0 (even though water is moving, the area is so large,
a velocity of 0 can be assumed.)
At point 2, PH 2 = 0 (discharge open to the atmosphere so there is no
pressure head.)
EH2 =0
VH 2 = unknown
PH! + EHI + VH! = PH2 + EH2 + VH2
231 + 200 + 0 = 0 + 0 + VH 2
VH 2 = 431 ft
Within the fire service, velocity head by itself will not be useful to the pump
260 operator. A more beneficial value is the velocity reached by the fluid.
WATER MOVEMENT
Velocity formula
The velocity attained by a falling object is determined by the height through
which it will fall due to gravity pulling it down. Since gravity is a constant value,
the farther the object must drop the longer it will be able to increase its velocity.
This means that the longer it drops the faster it will be going (higher velocity)
when it reaches the bottom. The elements of time and gravity can be related to
velocity with the formula:
v =gt, where
v = velocity in ftl sec
g = gravity which is 32.2 ft/sec 2
t = time in seconds
So, if it takes 3 seconds for an article to fall, its velocity will be:
v = 32.2 l!. x 3 sec

sec 2
v = 96.6 l!.
sec
Note that the size, shape and weight do not enter into the picture. The
velocity obtained is based solely on the action of gravity.
The velocity of a falling object does not remain in a constant. At the end of
one second the velocity is 32.2 ft/sec and at the end of two seconds it is 64.4
ftl sec. The average velocity of the object can be obtained by taking the final
velocity and dividing by 2. This gives the formula:
average velocity = ~ = gt
2 2
If the average velocity was 100 ftl sec, the height through which the object
fell can be determined by multiplying by the time it took to fall. In this example,
if it took 10 seconds the object fell
100 l!. x 10 sec = 1000 ft

sec
Using this as a base, then multiplying the average velocity by time to yield
the height, h, which is equal to velocity head produces the formula
h=..Y..(t)
2
= gt (t)
2
= gt2
2
Using the formula v = gt and solving for t yields
t=..Y..
~ 261
Substituting yields
h =...9... (~)2
2 g
h=.Q"x~x~
2 g' g
h=L
2g
Solving for v gives
v2 = 2gh
v =v'2gh
Since g = 32/2 ftl sec, this formula can be written as
v = '1/2 x 32.2 x h
v = '1/64.4 h
v = 8.02 v'h
The velocity head or height is related to pressure in psi through the formula
h =2.31 P
Substituting in the velocity formula yields
v = 8.02 'l/2.31P
v = 8.02 x 1.52 Vf5
v = 12.19 Vf5
Now, the velocity can be calculated when either the pressure or the eleva-
tion head are known.
Example: With a nozzle pressure of 80 psi, what is the velocity of

discharge?
Step 1. Select the formula to use:

v = 12.19 Vf5
Step 2. Determine the for1J1ula values:
P =80 psi
Step 3. Solve the equation

v = 12.19 VSO
v = 12.19 (8.94)
v = 109 ftl sec
Example: If a hole is made in a water tank 94 feet below the sur-

face of the water, what would be the velocity of the water as it is
262 discharged from the hole?
QUANTITY OF WATER FLOWING
Step 1. Select the formula to use:
v = 8.02 v'h
h = 94 ft
v =8.02y'94
v = 8.02 (9.70)
v = 77.8 ft/sec
The form of Bernoulli's Equation for water can now be rewritten to reflect
the formulas just developed.
PH 1 + EH1 + VH 1
P H =P-
.434
EH = z (elevation)
VH = v2
2g
~+z + ~=~+Z2+ ~
.434 1 2g .434 2g
This is usually the way Bernoulli's Equation is expressed in hydraulic text-
books. It is just another way of saying that the sum of the energies within a
hydraulic system are the same.
Measurement devices
There are two major devices for making measurements of flow and velocity:
the venturi meter and the pitot gage. Both of these devices use the formulas
developed in this unit to make measurements.
The venturi meter, figure 4, uses Bernoulli's Equation
~+z +~=~+Z2+~
.434 1 2g .434 2g
--Q
Figure 4. Venturi meter

If the meter is level, there is no elevation and Zl and Z2 equal zero. The equa-
tion then reduces to
~+~=~+ v/
.434 2g .434 2g 263
Now, compare area at points 1 and 2 of figure 4. The area at point 2 is

smaller so the velocity will be higher. In the formula an increase in velocity at
point 2 will cause a decrease in pressure. The lower pressure at point 2 will
cause the liquid (usually mercury) in the tube to deflect. The difference in
height, h, is calibrated so that velocity and flow can be read from a table.
A pitot gage, figure 5, is also used to measure velocity head at the discharge
DRAIN
NOTE: THE OPENING IN THE BLADE MUST BE PLACED

IN THE CENTER OF THE STREAM BECAUSE THE VE-
LOCITY HEAD IS NOT QUITE EQUAL ACROSS THE
ENTIRE DISCHARGE OPENING.
Figure 5. Pitot gage

of a nozzle. From the reading of velocity head, h, velocity can be calculated
from the formula
v =2gh
Then, flow can be calculated using the formula
Q=AV
In actual practice, a gage is connected to the pitot tube so that readings

directly in psi can be made. Then, using the size of the nozzle and the discharge
pressure, the flow can be read from a table.
264
Appendix C
Quantity of Water Flowing

The first step in calculating proper engine pressure is to determine the
amount of water flowing. On the fireground this can be arrived at by means of
educated guesses, but the pump operator must understand how these figures
are determined. He will thus be able to handle unique situations, new ap-
pliances, and new apparatus without difficulty.
It has been shown that discharge through a hose Iir;te was equal to the area
times the velocity.
Q =AV
Due to gravity, the velocity of flow was shown to be
v = 12.14 vp It
sec
Substituting yields
Q =A ft2 x 12.14VP It = ft3

sec sec
Since the common measure for flow, Q, in the fire service is gallons per
minute and area of the nozzle is expressed in inches, this formula must be con-
verted for pump operator use.
Area of nozzle discharge A = 1t r2
The radius, r, of a circle is 112 of the diameter, d.
r=-
d
2
Area of a nozzle A = 1t X A. x A.
2 2
A = 1t d2
4
In the formula A is measured in feet, so the formula must be converted so

that d can be expressed in inches. 265
'It X d2 ~ 1ft2
A = X
4 144~
A ='It d,2 ft2 with d measured in inches.

576
Velocity in feet per second must be converted so that Q will be measured in

gpm.
V = 12.14v'P .it
sec
V = 12.14v'P .it X 60 sec
sec 1 min
V = 728.4 v'P .it
min
There are 7.481 gallons per cubic foot.
V = 728.4v'P .it x 7.481~

min ft3
V = 5449.16 v'P gal
min x ft2
Substituting the values for A and V in the original equation yields
Q ='ltd 2 ft2 x 5449.16v'P gal

576 min x ~
Q = 3.1416 d 2 x 5449.16VP gal
576 min
Q = 17,119.08 d 2v'P
576
Q = 29.72 d 2VP gal
min
This formula is known as the Freeman Formula. The American Insurance

Association uses a slight variation of this formula
Q = 29.83 d 2VP gal

min
Both formulas are very close in value, with a variation of less than 1 percent.
Calculations within the text use Freeman's Formula.
One of the problems with both of these formulas is that the value is purely
theoretical because friction loss within the device is riot considered. To correct
the equation, a coefficient of discharge, c, is included in the equation.
Freeman's equation can then be written as
Q = 29.7 X d 2 x VP X C
The value of the coefficient of discharge will vary with the opening through
266 which the water will flow. The 2 1/2-inch discharge opening of the fire hydrant
can have a value of c which varies between 0.7 and 0.9. Smooth-bore nozzles
have a c value ranging from 0.96 to 0.99. Since the values of 0.96 to 0.99 are
all close to 1.0, the coefficient is sometimes deleted from the calculations for
smooth-bore nozzles.
Examples: How much water will be delivered from a Ilj4-inch

smooth-bore nozzle if the nozzle pressure is 50 psi?
Q = 29.7 x d 2 X yIP X C
Step 2. Determine the formula value:
d = 1.25 inches
P =50 psi
c = 1
Q = 29.7 X(1.25)2 x v'5O x 1

Q =29.7 x 1.56 x 7.07 x 1
Q = 327.55 gpm
Example: How much water will be delivered from a 2 1/2-inch

discharge of a hydrant with a coefficient of discharge of 0.85 and a
discharge pressure of 8 psi?
Q = 29.7 x d 2 X yIP X C
d = 2.5 inches
p = 8 psi
c = 0.85
Q = 29.7 (2.5)2 x VB x 0.85

X
Q = 29.7 x 6.25 x 2.83 x 0.85

Q =446.5 gpm
Solving friction loss using K factors for 2 1/2-inch hose
For flow in a straight-bore nozzle with a diameter of 1 inch or greater, the

formula is:
FL= 1.1 x K x NP x L, where

FL = friction loss in 21/2-inch hose 267
K = -d for 21/2-inch hose only

4
10
d = nozzle diameter in inches
NP = nozzle pressure in psi
L = number of 50-foot lengths of hose
Example: What is the friction loss in 400 feet of 2 1/2-inch hose

using a 1 1/4 inch tip at 42-psi nozzle pressure?
Step 1. Select the proper equation, when flow is known:
FL= 1.1 x K x NP x L
K=- d4
10
K= (11/4)4
10
K = 1.25 x 1.25 x 1.25 x 1.25
10
K= 2.44
10
K= .244
NP=42 psi
L= 400= 8
50
FL= 1.1 x .244 x 42 x 8

FL = 90 psi for 400 ft
Friction loss .calculations using K for small flows

If the nozzle diameter is less than 1 inch, use the formula
FL= 1.0 x K x NP x L, where

K = value determined from table
NP = nozzle pressure
L = number of 50-foot lengths of hose
Because the values of K are dependent upon two constants, nozzle diameter
and hose size, they can be calculated in advance. Table 1 lists the values of K.
Example: What is the friction loss in 200 feet of Ilj2-inch hose

using a 3/4 -inch nozzle at 56-psi nozzle pressure?
Step 1. Select the proper equation for unknown flow with a nozzle diameter
less than 1 inch:
268 FL = 1.0 x K x NP x L
K = .455 (table 1)
NP= 56 psi
L= 200 = 4
50
FL = 1. 0 x .455 x 56 x 4
FL = 102 psi per 200 ft
TABLE 1. Values of K
Nozzle 11f2-inch 21f2-inch 3-inch Dual 21f2-inch Dual3-inch
diameter line line line lines lines
use small diameter formula
1/4 .0084
3/8 .036
1/2 .104 .0115
5/8 .234 .023
3/4 .455 .042
7/8 .068
1 .105 .038 .025
1 1/8 .167 .062 .043
1 114 .248 .092 .066 .023
1 3/8 .341 .137 .096 .034
1 1/2 .505 .192 .135 .051
15/8 .680 .266 .184 .068
1 3/4 .907 .351 .242 .093
2 1.550 .605 .418 .157
Engine pressure calculations using K factors

One of the formulas developed for friction loss was
FL= 1.1 x K x NP x L
Substituting this in the engine pressure formula
EP=NP+FL±E
EP=NP + 1.1 K x NP x L ± E
If level ground is assumed, then E = 0 and the formula becomes
EP=NP + 1.1K x NP xL
EP = NP [1 + 1.1 K (L)]
With a very slight introduction of error, the expression within the bracket can
be written as
[1.1 + K (L)]
Then,
EP = NP [1.1 + K(L)]
This formula is known as the Underwriters formula and is used for
calculating engine pressure when flow is not known. 269
As with the friction loss formula, engine pressure calculation for hose with a
nozzle smaller than 1 inch and 21/2-inch or less hose must use the formula
EP = NP [1 + K(L)]
Example: What engine pressure is necessary to deliver 50-psi noz-

zle pressure with a 1-1/ 8-lnch tip through a 300-foot length of
2lj2-inch hose?
Step 1. Select the proper equation, with tip size larger than 1 inch.
EP= NP[1.1 +K(L)]
NP=50 psi
K = .167 (table 1)
L= 300 = 6
50
EP=50 [1.1 + .167 (6)]

EP=50 [1.1 + 1.0]
EP=50 [2.1]
EP= 105 psi
270
EQUATIONS
Appendix D
Eqaations
Average velocity Y= .91
2 2
Back pressure P = .434 h
Bernoulli's Equation PH1 + EH1 + VH1 = PH2 + EH2 + VH 2
..EL+ Zl + ~ =~+ Z2 + ~
.434 2g .434 2g
Engine pressure EP = NP + FL ± E (hose line)
EP = NP [1.1 + K(L)] (larger than 1 inch)
EP = NP [1 + K(L)] (smaller than 1 inch)
EP = FL + RP ± E (relay)
Flow Q = AV
Q = 29.7 X d 2 x vp X c (Freeman)
Q = 29.83 X d 2 x vp X c (AlA)
Q = 112P + 15 (sprinkler head)
Q1 + Q2 = AN1 = A2V2
Friction loss (100 feet of 2112- FL = 2Q2 + 112Q
inch hose flowing less than FL = 1.0 K x NP x L (smaller tip than 1 ")
100 gpm
Friction loss (100 ft of 2112" FL = 2Q + Q
hose flowing more than 100 FL = 1.1 K x NP x L
gpm
Net pump pressure NPP = psig + lift (ft) + suction loss (ft)
2.3 2.3
Nozzle reaction NR = 1.57 x d 2 x P (straight tip)
NR = .0505 x Q x VP (fog nozzle)
Velocity v = gt
v = V2gh
v = 8.02 v'h
v = 12.19 VP
Velocity head h = 2.31P
271
Appendix E
Definitions
Absolute pressure: True pressure, which equals the sum of atmospheric
and gage pressures (psia).
Accelerator: Bleeds air from a dry pipe sprinkler system rapidly.
Air pressure gage: Shows the pressure available in the brake lines.
Algebraic expression: A group of symbols which represents a number.
Ammeter: Shows how much current is flowing into or out of the battery.
Associative rule of addition: Addition can be performed in any
sequence.
Associative rule of multiplication: Multiplication can be performed in
any sequence.
Atmospheric pressure: Pressure caused by the elevation of air above the
earth.
Auxiliary cooling valve: Permits water from the pump to cool the
radiator water through a heat exchanger.
Back pressure: Pressure caused by the elevation of water.
Bames: Metal parts added to water tanks to prevent surging.
Barrel: On a hydrant, conducts water from the foot piece to the bonnet.
Bearings: On a pump, provide support and alignment for the impeller
shaft.
Bonnet: On a hydrant, provides protection to the unit and contains the
mechanism for turning the valve.
Bourdon tube: Hollow curved tube which activates a pressure gage.
Capacity: See parallel.
Cavitation: Caused by the pump attempting to deliver more water than is
being supplied. This causes the formation of water vapor and liquid
water, under pressure, rushes in to fill the empty space. This results in
a tremendous shock.
Centrifugal force: Force which tends to make rotating bodies move away
from the center of rotation.
Centrifugal pump: A pump which uses a rapidly spinning disk to create
the pressure for water movement.
Certification: Pumper test conducted by Underwriters' Laboratories
to determine if the pumper can deliver its rated volume and pressures.
Check valve: Valve which prevents water from flowing in the wrong
direction.
Clearance rings: See wear rin!=ts.
Clover leaf pump: A rotary pump using three gear teeth.
Common fraction: A fraction which has both terms expressed.
272 Commutative rule of addition: Order of the addition is reversible.
DEFINITIONS
Commutative rule of multiplication: The order of multiplication is

reversible.
Complex fraction: A fraction which contains a whole number in the
numerator or denominator, or in both of them.
Compound gage: Gage which indicates both positive and negative
pressure on the same gage.
Compressive force: Force which tends to push things together.
Control valve: Valve which regulates flow of water from water main to the
sprinkler system.
Dead-end main: Main that is not cross connected to any other main.
Deluge system: Sprinkler system which delivers water to a large area all
at once.
Denominator: The number of equal parts that the whole is divided into.
Direct proportion: Unlike quantities change in the same order in each
ratio.
Distribution mains: Small-size pipe which feeds individual streets of the
service area.
Distributive rule of multiplication: One number times the sum of two
other numbers is equal to the first number times one of the other
numbers plus the first number times the second of the other numbers
a x (b x c) = (a x b) + (a x c).
Dividend: Number to be divided.
DIvisor: Number to divide by.
Double-acting pump: Type of piston pump which discharges water while
the piston moves in either direction.
Double suction impeller: Water enters on both sides of the impeller.
Drafting: Using water from a static source.
Drip valve: Prevents water from accumulating in a dry sprinkler system
due to a leak.
Dry barrel hydrant: Barrel of hydrant drains automatically after hydrant is
shut down.
Dry prime test: Provides information on the ability of the pumper to
evacuate air and draft water.
Dry pipe sprinkler system: Air pressure fills the piping and holds back
the water from entering until needed.
Dry pipe standpipe: Standpipe system in which the pumper is the source
of supply.
Dry pipe valve: Keeps the water out of a dry pipe sprinkler system.
Dual pumping: Connecting two pumpers intake to intake so -that the
second pumper receives the excess water available from the hydrant.
Dynamometer: Device to measure force.
Energy: Capacity to do work.
Equation: A statement which expresses equality.
Exhaust primer: Primer which uses the venturi principle of fast-flowing
exhaust gases to remove air from the pump.
Exhauster: Bleeds air from a dry-pipe sprinkler system rapidly.
Extremes: Outside terms of a proportion.
Eye: The part of the impeller where water enters.
Factors: Individual parts of the terms in mathematics.
Flap valve: Valve that controls the flow of water inside a multistage pump.
Flinger ring: Prevents water from continuing to travel the impeller shaft to
the gears and ball bearings.
Fluids: Substances which yield to the slightest force and recover their
previous state when the force is removed.
Foot piece: Inlet for water to a hydrant. 273
Formula: General expression which states a fact.

Fraction: Part of a whole number.
Frangible bulb: A type of sprinkler head which activates by expansion of
a liquid as it heats up.
Front-mount pump: Pump mounted ahead of the engine on a front
engine type of apparatus.
Fusible link: Type of sprinkler head which activates by melting at a
specific temperature.
Gage pressure: Pressure read on a gage (psig).
Governor: Minimizes pressure changes by controlling engine speed.
Grid: Different size pipes which are connected together to make a water
distribution system.
Head: Height to which a given pressure will elevate water.
Horsepower: Amount of work which can be produced by an engine.
Hydraulics: Study of fluids.
Hydrokinetics: Study of fluids in motion.
Hydrostatics: Study of fluids at rest.
Impeller: Part of the centrifugal pump which provides velocity to the
water.
Improper fraction: Fraction whose numerator is larger than its
denominator.
Indirect proportion: One ratio gets larger while the other ratio gets
smaller.
Inverse proportion: See indirect proportion.
Kinetic energy: Energy due to motion.
Laminar flow: Water moving in straight lines.
Lift pump: Special type of piston pump which develops low pressure.
Line gage: Indicates pressure on individual hose lines.
Looped main: Cross-connected water main.
Lowest common denominator: Smallest denominator that a group of
fractions has in common.
Means: Inside terms of a proportion.
Midship pump: Pump mounted behind the cab of the apparatus.
Minuend: Larger number of a subtraction.
Mixed number: Number which contains a whole number and a fraction.
Multiplicand: Number to be multiplied.
Multiplier: Number of times the multiplicand is to be multiplied.
Needle valve: Installed on gage to permit a steady reading, without
vibration.
Negative pressure: Pressure below atmospheric.
Numerator: Number of equal parts of the whole which has been taken to
make a fraction.
Numerical coefficient: Number in a term.
Odometer: Records distance traveled in miles and sometimes continues to
function while pumping.
Oil pressure gage: Measures the amount of pressure in the lubricating
system.
Outside stem and yoke (OS&y) valve: Valve used to control water
supply to a sprinkler system.
Packing: Allows the impeller shaft to pass from outside of the pump to the
inside, while maintaining an airtight seal.
Parallel: Capacity position in which each impeller works independently
into the discharge.
Pendant: Type of sprinkler head which is suspended from the water pipe.
274 Percentage: Dividing up into 100 equal parts.
DEFINITIONS
Piston pump: Positive-displacement pump using a piston to develop the

movement.
Pitot gage: Measures velocity head at the discharge of a nozzle.
Poppet valve: Valve on the American pump which controls the flow of
water into the pump.
Positive-displacement pump: The volume of space within the pump will
determine the amount of water which the pump can deliver on one
stroke or revolution.
Positive pressure: Pressure above atmospheric.
Post Indicator (PI): Type of water control valve for a sprinkler system.
Potential energy: Energy which has been stored.
Power: Number of times a number is multiplied by itself.
Preaction system: Sprinkler system which provides a warning alarm
before the sprinkler head temperature is reached.
Pressure: Force per unit area.
Pressure reducer: Installed on a standpipe to prevent excessive pressures
from being supplied to a hand line.
Primary main: Large main which brings water from the source or water
treatment plant to the area to be served.
Priming: Process of evacuating the air from the pump so that atmospheric
pressure can force water in.
Product: Result of multiplying the multiplicand by the multiplier.
Proper fraction: Fraction whose numerator is smaller than its
denominator.
Proportion: Equality of two ratios.
Quotient: Resultant answer.
Radiator fill valve: Permits pump water to directly enter the radiator.
Rate-of-rise system: System which will perform other fire protection tasks
(close fire doors, open ventilators, etc.) as well as activate the
sprinkler system.
Relay: Movement of water from a pumper at a water source to additional
pumpers until the water reaches the fireground.
Ratio: Comparison of like quantities.
Relief valve: Prevents excess pressure on discharge lines by bypassing
water from discharge to intake.
Remainder: Extra amount if the quotient is not a whole number.
Residual pressure: Pressure remaining once water has begun flowing.
Retard chamber: Prevents activation of a sprinkler system due to minor
water pressure fluctuation.
Riser: Carries water from the intake throughout the building for either
standpipe or sprinkler operation.
Root: Determines what number, when multiplied by itself will give the
original numbers.
Rotary gear pump: Rotary pump using two gears to move the water.
Rotary pump: Positive-displacement pump using rotary devices to develop
water movement.
Rotary vane pump: Rotary pump using metal rods to slide out and seal
against the pump housing.
Secondary main: Intermediate size pipes that supply large sections of the
service area.
Series: Pressure position in which the first impeller's discharge is fed to the
eye of the second impeller which then discharges the water from the
pump.
Service test: Pumper test performed in station to determine if the pumper
can deliver its rated volumes and pressures. 275
Shear force: Sideways force.

Shrouds: Sides of the impeller which confine the water.
Siamese connection: Exterior connection for the standpipe system.
Single-acting pump: Type of piston pump that only discharges water
while the piston moves in one direction.
Slippage: Backward movement of water from the discharge to the intake.
Speedometer: Indicates speed of apparatus in miles per hour.
Stages: Number of impellers mounted on a common shaft.
Static pressure: Pressure when water is. not moving.
Steamer connection: Large discharge on a hydrant.
Subtrahend: Number to be subtracted.
Supervised system: Sprinkler or standpipe system that automatically
transmits an alarm when water flows to a place which maintains the
status at all times.
Tachometer: Indicates speed of engine crankshaft in revolutions per
minute.
Tandem pumping: Connecting two pumpers for a short relay.
Tensile force: Pull apart force.
Term: Combination of symbols between plus or minus signs.
Torque: Ability of the engine to produce rotation at a given speed.
Transfer valve: Selector for series or parallel operation on a multistage
pump.
Transposing: Moving a factor from one side of the equation to the other
and changing the sign.
Turbulent flow: Water moving with a swirling action.
Upright: Type of sprinkler head mounted upright on the water pipe.
Vacuum primer: Uses the vacuum created by the intake manifold to
remove air from the pump.
Vanes: Guides inside'the impeller which direct the water to the edge.
Vapor pressure: Pressure created as a confined liquid changes to a gas.
Volute: Gradually increasing discharge waterway.
Water flow alarm: Audible flow alarm on the exterior of a building to
indicate a water flow from either the sprinkler or standpipe system.
Water hammer: Shock loading on hose, couplings, and pump due to the
sudden stopping of water.
Water horsepower: Amount of work which can be performed by a pump.
Water temperature gage: Indicates the temperature of the waer in the
engine cooling system.
Wear rings: Prevents discharge water from returning to the eye of the
impeller.
Wet barrel hydrant: Barrel of hydrant always contains water.
Wet pipe sprinkler system: Sprinkler pipes always contain water.
276
Index Booster tank, 137-138
Bourdon tube, 132,
Braces, in algebraic operation, 28
Brackets, in algebraic operation, 28
Brake horsepower, 117-119
A calculation of, 118
Absolute pressure, 51
Accelerators, in sprinkler systems, 218, 220 C
Acceptance tests, for pumps, 234 Cab components, 128-131
Addition Cancellation, in multiplying fractions, 14
in algebra, 25 Cavitation, 158
of decimal fractions, 18 and drafting, 188
of fractions, i 1 at hydrants, 200
of numbers, 2 in relay operations, 202
Ahrens-Fox piston pumper, 81 Centrifugal force, principles of, 90-91
Air brakes, 130 Centrifugal pumps
Air chamber American dual-impeller model, 100-102
for piston pumps, 83 American LaFrance model, 96-100
for rotary pumps, 89 Components of, 91-96
Air horns, 130 Hale two-stage model, 103-107
Air pressure gage, 130 history of, 78
Alley dock driving test, 250 operating procedures for, 186-187
Algebra pressure gage, 131-134
addition in, 25 priming of, 177-181
division in, 27 Seagrave model, 107-108, 111-113
and equations, 29 Waterous two-stage model, 109, 113-116
grouping symbols in, 28 Certification tests, 235-237
multiplication in, 26 Chain drive, 125-126
subtraction in, 26 ChaSSiS, of tanker, 226
symbols in, 24 Check valve, in standpipes, 212
Allison HT-70 transmission, 126-127 Clearance rings, of centrifugal pump, 94
Alternator, and ammeter readings, 130 Climatic conditions, and drafting water,
Altitude 184-185
and atmospheric pressure, 51 Clover leaf pumps, 87
and drafting water, 184-185 Clutch arrangements, 123-124
American dual-impeller centrifugal pump, Coefficient of discharge, 64, 65, 66
100-101, 178 Cold weather, a.nd governor maintenance,
American Insurance Association, 196 164, 166
American LaFrance centrifugal pump, Common fractions
96-100 decimal conversion of, 17
American LaFrance governor, 158-160 defined,9
American Lafrance primer, 170-171 reducing of, 10
American LaFrance relief valve, 147-148 Commutative rule
American model governor, 161-162 of addition, 3
Ammeter, 130 of multiplication, 5
Arabic numbers, Compound fraction, 9
Associative rule Compound gage, 131
of addition, 3 Compressive forces, 252 -253
of multiplication, 5 Conservation of matter, and water flow,
Atmospheric pressure, 50 258-259
Atoms, 252 Control valve, for sprinkler systems, 218
Automatic governor, 167-168 Crankshaft, power transmission from, 123-
Auxiliary cooling system, 134-136 124
Average velocity, formula for, 261-263 Ctesibius, 75
Cube root, 39
B
Back pressure, 51 D
rule of"thumb for, 63 da Vinci, Leonardo, 48
Baffles of tanker, 226 Dead-end mains, 194
Balancing cylinder, in governor, 158 Decimal fraction
Base (mathematical), 38 addition of, 18
Battery, 130 division of, 21
Bearings, of centrifugal pump, 94 multiplication of, 19
Bernoulli's Law, 259-260, 263 percentages, 36
Bleed line, of American LaFrance relief rounding off, 22
valve, 148 subtraction of, 19 277
Deck guns, 60, 70 Flow
Deluge gun, for service testing, 240 and conservation of matter, 258-259
Deluge sprinkler systems, 217 formula for, 64
Denominator, defined, 9 and venturi meter, 263
Diesel engines, optimum rpms for, 96 Flow pressure, 52
Diminishing clearance driving test, 250-251 Fluids
Direct proportion, defined, 34 defined 47-48 252-253
Discharge, of tanker, 226 forces and, 252-153
Discharge calculations properties of, 253-255
formula, 64 Foam sprinkler systems, 217-218
from fog nozzles, 68, 69 Fog nozzle, 68. 69
from smooth bore nozzles, 64, 65 and pressure control, 142-143
Discharge gages, 134 and water flow quantity, 56
Discharge pressure line, of American Force, categories of, 252
LaFrance relief valve, 148 Formula, defined, 25
Discharge valves, 136 Fractions (See also decimals)
Distance, in relay operations, 202 addition of, 11
Distributive rule, of multiplication, 5 divison of, 15
Dividend,6 multiplication of, 14
Division reducing of, 10
in algebra, 27 subtraction of, 13
of fractions, 15 types of, 9
of numbers, 6 Frangible bulb sprinkler head, 222
Divisor, 6 Freeman, John R., 48
Double-acting piston pump, 85 Freeman formula, 266
Drafting water (see water supply) Friction loss
Drain, for dischargelintake lines, 137, and flow.type, 54
148 and hose, 54, 55
Drive shaft, power transmission from, 125, hand method for, 61
127 in devices, 60
Driving, safe, 247-248 in paraIlel lines, 60
Dry barrel hydrant, 190-191 in unequal lengths, 60
Dry-pipe valve, in sprinkler system, 217, other than 21/2-inch hose, 58
218-219 in standpipe operations, 215-217
Dry prime test, 243-244 for 21/2-inch lines, 56
Dynamometer, 119 and water flow,
Dyne, defined, 44 smaIl flows, 57
Frontinaus, 47
E Fuel gage, 129
Efficiency Fusible link sprinkler heads, 222
calculation of, 120-122
single-stage vs. two-stage, 121-122
Electrical system, 130
Elevated storage tank, 192 G
for standpipe systems, 213 Gases, properties of, 253
Elevating platforms, 72 Gasoline engines, history of, 78
Energy, for hyraulic system, 259-260 Gage pressure, 50
Engine gages, 128-130 Gages (see specific gage; engine gages;
Engine hours meter, 129 pump gages)
Engine pressure Generator, and ammeter readings,
calculation of, 67 130-131
friction loss, 67 Gooseneck engine, 76
importance of, Governors
relay operations, 205-208 American LaFrance model, 158-161
sprinkler system, 223-224 American model, 161-162
standpipe operations, 214-217 automatic, 167-168
Equations, basic procedures for, 29 Hale model, 162-163
Exhaust primer, 179-181 principles of, 158
Exhauster, in sprinkler system, 218-220 Seagrave model, 164-166
Exponents, 38 Waterous model, 166-167
Extremes, in proportion, 34 Gram, defined, 44
Eye of impeIler, 91-94 Gravity, and fluid velocity, 260
Grid, 192-193
F Gross brake horsepower, 117-119
Firefighting, history of, 47, 75 Ground waters, as supply source, 192
278 Flinger, ring, 94 Grouping symbols, in algebra, 28
H M
Hale governor, 162-163 Mathematics
Hale priming pump, 172-174 Basic operations in, 1
Hale relief valve, 151-153 and fractions, 9
Hale single-stage pump, 107, 109-110 Means, in proportion, 34
Hale two-stage pump, 103, 105, 106-107, Mechanical energy, defined, 259
108-109 Meter, defined, 44
Hard sleeve Metric system, 43
and hydrant connection, 197 Minuend,5
testing of, 243 Mixed number
Head, defined, 51 defined, 10
Height and pressure, 67 dividing of, 16
High-pressure hydrant, 194 subtracting of, 13
Hosepower of pump drives, 117-119 Molecules, defined, 252
Hose Multiple-bucket carrier, 76
and friction loss, Multiplicand, 3
history of, 76 Multiplication
for relay operations, 203 in algebra, 26
for standpipes, 212-213 of fractions, 14
for tankers, 226-227 of numbers, 3
Hose tenders, history of, 76 Multiplier, 3
Humidity, and drafting water, 185
Hydrant pressure, 52 N
Hydrants National Board of Fire Underwriters, 234
and pumper operation, 196-198 National Fire Protection ASSOciation, 234
and water distribution system, 192-194 Standard 1901 text of, 234-235
characteristics of, 189-191 Needle valve, 134
estimating available flow, 198-200 Negative numbers, subtraction of, 26
inspection/maintenance, 195-196 Negative pressure, 52
testing, 196 Net brake horsepower, 117-119
Hydraulics Net engine pressure, 52
calculations, 56 Net pump pressure, calculation of, 237-239
history of, 47 Newsham engine, 75
for relay operations, 205-208 Newton (dyne), defined, 44
Hydrokinetics, defined, 47 Nonpositive displacement pump (see
Hyrostatics, defined, 47 centrifugal pump)
principles of, 48 Normal operating pressure, 52
I Nozzle
Impeller, in centrifugal pump, 91, 93, 94 and pressure control, 141-143
Improper fraction in service tests, 240
defined,9 and water flow quantity, 64, 65, 68, 69
reducing of, 11 Nozzle pressure, 56
Indirect proportion, 35 Numerator
Intake, of tanker, 226 of decimal fraction, 17
Intake gage, 134 defined,9
Intake valves, 136
International Association of Fire Engineers, o
234 Odometer, 129
Inverse proportion, defined, 34 Oil pressure gage, 129
"On the motion and measurement of
J water," 47- 48
John Bean relief valve, 148-149 One-dimensional flow, 256
measurement of, 256-257
K Opposite alley pull-in test, 250
Kinetic energy, defined, 259 Overheating, of pump, 138
L p
Ladder pipes, 142 Packing, of centrifugal pump, 94
Laminar flow, and friction loss, 53 Parallel lines,
Lift pump, 80 friction loss in
Lifting, of water, 182-184 Parentheses, in algebraic operation, 28
Line gage, 134 Percentages, principles of, 36
LiqUids, properties of, 253 Philadelphia-style hand pumper, 77
Liter, defined, 44 Pi,25
Looped water main, 194 Piano pumper, 77
Lowest common denominator, 11 Pilot valve, with relief valve, 145-147 279
Pipes, for distribution and storage, 192-194 positive displacement type, 80
Piston pumps, 80 relay capabilities of, 202-203
air chamber for, 83 service testing of, 239-240
discharge calculations for, steam, 78
double-acting type, 85 transmitting power to, 123-127
lift type, 80
multiple cylinder type, 85
Q
pressure type, 82 Quotient, 7
slippage, 86
Pitot, Henri, 48
Pitot, gage, 263-264 R
for hydrant testing, 196 Radiator fill valve, 135-136
for service test, 240, 242 Radical sign, 39
Portable pumps, 230-232 Rapid water, 56
and priming, 169 Rate-of-rise sprinkler system, 217
Portable tanks, 229 Rating, of tankers, 227
Positive displacement pumps (see also Ratio
piston pumps; rotary pumps), principles of, 33
Positive pressure, 52 and proportion, 34
Potential energy, defined, 259 RedUcing, of fractions, 10
Power, transmitting of, 123-125 Relay operations
Power takeoff, 127 advantages of, 201-202
Powers (mathematics), principles of, 38 factors in, 201-204
Preaction sprinkler systems, 217 hydraulics of, 205-208
Pressure pumper operation in, 204-205
and height, 63 Relief valves
and water, 64 American LaFrance model, 147-148
definition of, 49 basic principles of, 144-145
types of, 50 Darley model, 149-150
vs. force, 49 Hale model, 151-153
Pressure control, 144 John Bean model, 148-149
C\nd governors, 158-167 operation of, 157
and nozzles, 141-143 simple type, 145
and relief valves, 144-157 Thibault model,. 153, 154-155
Pressure gage Waterous model, 154, 155-157
for pumps, 130 with pilot valve, 145-147
in service tests, 240, 242 Remainder (division), 7
Pressure piston pump, 82 Residual pressure, 52
Pressure reducer, in standpipes, 212 Restricted pressure line, of American
Pressure tanks, for standpipes, 213 Lafrance relief valve, 148
Priming devices (see also rotary priming Retard chamber, in sprinkler system, 221
pumps) Risers
exhaust type, 179-181 in sprinkler system, 221
testing of, 243-244 in standpipes, 212
vacuum type, 177-179 Rome, 47
Prony brake, 129 Roof outlet, for standpipes, 213
Proper fraction Roots (mathematical), principles of, 39
defined,9 Rotary gear pumps, 87
dividing of, 15 Rotary priming pumps, 169-170
subtraction of, 12 American LaFrance model, 170-171
Proportion, principles of, 34 Darley model, 171-172
Pump discharge pressure, 52 Hale model, 172-174
Pump drives Seagrave model, 174-175, 176
and horsepower, 117-119 Waterous model, 175-177
types of, 123-127 Rotary pumps, 87
Pump gages, 131-134 Rotary vane pump, 89
Pump speed, 122-123 Rubber hose lining, and friction loss, 55
Pumper, driving the, 248-249
Pumps and pumpers (see also centrifugal S
pumps; piston pumps; pump drives; Seagrave governor, 164-166
rotary pumps) Seagrave pump, 107-108, 111-113
acceptance testing of, 234 Seagrave rotary vane priming pump, 174-
for tankers, 226 175, 176
gasoline, 78 Separate engine method, of power
hand, 75, 77 transmission, 123
history of, 75 Serpentine driving test, 249-250
280 portable, 230-233 Service test, for pumps, 239-240
Shear force, defined, 252, 253 Thibault model relief valve, 153-154
Shrouds, of impeller, 91 Three-dimensional flow, 256
Siamese connection Throttle linkage clutch, in governor, 159
for sprinkler systems, 218 Time, and fluid velOcity, 261
for standpipes, 211 Torque, 119
Simple (common) fraction, defined, 9 Training, driver, 249-251
Simple relief valve, 145 Transfer valve, of centrifugal pump, 95-96
Single-stage pump, efficiency of, 121- Transposing, in equations, 30
Sliding collar drive, 125 Turbulent flow, 53
Slippage Turn-around driving test, 251
in piston pumps, 86 21fz-inch lines, friction loss in, 56
in rotary pumps, 88 Two-stage pump, efficiency of, 121-122
Smooth nozzles, aDd water flow quantity, 64
Soft sleeve, and hydrant connection, 197 U
Solids, properties of, 252 Underwriters' formula, 269
Specific gravity, and battery, 130-131 Underwriters' Laboratories, 234-235
Speedometer, 129 Unit symbols, for metric system, 43
Sprinkler heads, 221-223
Sprinkler systems V
components of, 218-222 Vacuum primer, 177-178
engine pressure for, 223-224 Vacuum-type transfer, in Hale pumps, 107
operating procedures for, 223 Vanes, of impeller, 91
types of, 217-218 Vapor pressure, and drafting water, 185
Square root, 39 Velocity head, 259
Squirrel-tailed pumper, 77 VelOcity of fluid
Stages, of centrifugal pump, 94-95 formula for, 261-262
Standpipes and pitot gage, 263-264
components of, 211-213 Vents, of tanker, 226
engine pressure for, 214-215 Venturi, G.B., 48
operating procedures for, 213-214 Venturi meter, 263-264
types of, 210 Vitruvius, 47
Static pressure, 52 Voltage regulator, and ammeter readings,
Steam pumpers, history of, 78 130
Stevenius, 48 Volute, from impeller, 94
Straight-line driving test, 251
Straight-tipped ground nozzles, and pressure W
control, 141-142 Water (see also water supply)
Straight-tipped ladder pipe, and pressure one-dimensional flow of, 256
control, 142 pressure and, 50-52, 254-255
Strainer, in governor, 162 properties of, 253-254
Subscript, in algebra, 25 Water discharge, formula for 64
Subtraction Water distribution system and hydrants,
in algebra, 26 192-194
of fractions, 12 Water-flow alarm, 219-220
of numbers, 5 Water hammer, 143
Subtrahend, 5 Water horsepower, 119-121
Super pumper, 79 Water supply
Surface waters, as supply source, 192 drafting of, 182-188
System International (SI) , 43 and cavitation, 188
and climatic conditions, 184-185
and lifting, 182-184
T common problems in, 187-188
Tachometer, 129, 241 operating procedures for, 186-187
Tank fill valve, 137-138 for sprinkler systems, 223
Tanker for standpipe systems, 213
construction factorf~f, 226-227 historyof,
operating from, 228-229 Water tank, 137-138
rating of,227 Water temperature gage, 130
Temperature Waterous primer, 175-177
and drafting water, 184-185 Waterous governor, 166-167
and sprinkler operation, 222-223 Waterous relief valve, 155-157
Tensile force, defined, 252 Waterous two-stage pump, 109, 113, 114-
Terrain, in relay operations, 204 116
Testing Wear rings
acceptance, 234 of centrifugal pump, 94
of pumps, 234-237 Wet barrel hydrant, 190
service, 239-240 281

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IsmanCopyrtpg.indd 1 9/1/08 11:30:41 AM

Another important part of mathematics is the shorthand symbols that are

Example: Four pumpers on the fireground are supplying 526 gpm,

Step 1. Arrange vertically 526

The terms used for multiplication are:

Example: If a particular pump can deliver 248 gpm, how much

Step 1. Arrange multiplier and multiplicand:

Step 7. Add the resultant figures:

Example: A pumper is delivering 362 gpm through two lines to the

Step 1. Write the minuend and subtrahend:

Example: If a pump is supplying a discharge pressure of 192 psi,

Step 1. Write the minuend and subtrahend:

Step 3. Continue subtracting in the other columns (8 - 8 = 0) and

Quotient - the answer

Dividend = Quotient + Remainder

The steps for division are:

Example: If 8236 gpm are needed on the fireground and 14

Step 1. Write the numbers as a division problem:

Mixed number: A number which contains a whole number and a fraction.

Example: Reduce 9/12 to lowest terms.

Therefore, 3/4 is the fraction expressed in simplest terms.

Reducing improper fractions

Step 2. Reduce the proper fraction to its lowest terms (4 + 2 = 2; 6 + 2 = 3) :

Example: Change 8 3/4 to an improper fraction.

Step 1. Multiply the whole number by the denominator of the fraction

Example: A nozzle has tips with the following diameters available:

Step 4. Those fractions already expressed in terms of the lowest common

Multiply the numerator and denominator by the quotient obtained in step 2:

Step 6. Write the fractions and whole numbers in a vertical column:

Step 8. Place result over lowest common denominator:

Step 9. Reduce to lowest possible terms:

Step 10. Add column of whole numbers:

Step 11. Add the sum of the fractions:

Subtracting proper fractions

Step 1. Determine the lowest common denominator-64.

Step 3. Subtract the numerators:

Step 4. Place the r~ult over the lowest common denominator:

Example: Subtract 2 13/64 from 5 5/32.

Step 1. Determine the lowest common denominator: 64.

Step 3. If the numerator of the number to be subtracted (13) is larger than

Step 6. The resulting mixed number is the answer:

Example: Multiply 23/4 by 5 1/3.

Step 1. Change mixed numbers to improper fractions:

Step 2. Write the problem as a multiplication problem:

Step 3. Multiply the numerators:

Step 6. Reduce the fractions to the lowest terms:

176+ 12= 14~ = 14.£

Example: Multiply 2 3/4 by 5 1/3.

Step 1. Change mixed numbers to improper fractions:

Step 2. Write the problem as a multiplication problem:

Step 3. Select a number that is common to any numerator and any

Step 5. Multiply the numerators:

Step 6. Multiply the denominators:

Step 7. Write the new fraction:

Step 8. Reduce the fraction to lowest terms:

Dividing proper fractions

Step 1. Write out the division problem: