 Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.

 The reproductive events in humans include;

 Gametogenesis (formation of gametes)
 Insemination (transfer of sperm into female genital tract)
 Fertilization (fusion of male and female gametes leading to the
formation of zygote)
 Implantation (this is followed by the formation and development
of blastocyst and its attachment to the uterine wall)
 Gestation (embryonic development)
 Parturition (delivery of the baby)
 These reproductive events occur after puberty.
 There are remarkable differences between the reproductive events in
the male and in the female,
For example, sperm formation continues even in old men, but
formation of ovum ceases in women around the age of fifty years.
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The male reproductive system is located in the

pelvis region.
 It includes a pair of testes along with
accessory ducts, glands and the external
genitalia.
1. A PAIR OF TESTIS
 The testes are situated outside the abdominal
cavity within a pouch called scrotum.
 The scrotum helps in maintaining the low
temperature of the testes (2–2.5⁰C lower than
the normal internal body temperature)
necessary for spermatogenesis.
 In adults, each testis is oval in shape, with a
length of about 4 to 5 cm and a width of about
2 to 3 cm.
 The testis is covered by a dense covering.
 Each testis has about 250 compartments called
testicular lobules.
 Each lobules contains one to three highly
coiled seminiferous tubule in which sperms are
produced.
 Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its
inside by two types of cells called male
germ cells (spermatogonia) and sertoli
cells.
 The male germ cells undergo meiotic
divisions finally leading to spore
formation.
 While sertoli cells provide nutrition to
the germ cells.
 The regions outside the seminiferous
tubules called interstitial spaces,
contain small blood vessels and
interstitial cells or Leyding cells.
 Leyding cells synthesise and secrete
testicular hormones called androgens.
2. MALE SEX ACCESSORY DUCTS
The male sex accessory ducts include
Rete testis
Vasa efferentia
Epididymis
Vas deferens
• The seminiferous tubules of the testis
open into the vasa efferentia through rete
testis.
• The vasa efferentia leave the testis and
open into epididymis located along the
posterior surface of each testis.
• The epididymis leads to vas deferens
that ascends to the abdomen and loops
over the urinary bladder.
• It receives a duct from seminal vesicle
and opens into urethra as the ejaculatory
duct.
• These ducts store and transport the
sperms from the testis to the outside
through urethra.
• The urethra originates from the urinary
bladder and extends through the penis to
its external opening called urethral
meatus.
 Conduction of sperms through accessory ducts

Seminiferous tubules rete testis vas efferentia

epididymis vas deferens urethra urethral meatus.
 3. PENIS

o The penis is the male external

genitalia.
o It is made up of special tissue that
helps in erection of the penis to
facilitate insemination.
o The enlarged end of the penis called
the gland penis is covered by a loose
fold of skin called foreskin. Glans penis
 MALE SEX ACCESSORY GLANDS
 The male accessory glands include
 Paired seminal vesicles
 A prostate gland
 Paired bulbourethral glands
 Secretions of these glands constitute the
seminal plasma which is rich in fructose,
calcium and certain enzymes.
 The secretions of bulbourethral glands
also helps in the lubrication of the penis.
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system consists of

 A pair of ovaries
 A pair of oviducts
 Uterus
 Cervix
 Vagina
 External genitalia located in the pelvic region
 These parts of the system along with a pair of
the mammary glands are integrated
structurally and functionally to support the
processes of
 Ovulation
 Fertilisation
 Pregnancy
 Birth and child care
 Ovaries
 Ovaries are the primary female sex
organs that produce the female
gamete (ovum) and several steroid
hormone (ovarian hormones).
 The ovaries are located one on each
side of the lower abdomen.
 Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm in
length and is connected to the pelvic
wall and uterus by ligaments. Ligaments
Cortex Medulla
 Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses
the ovarian stroma.
o The stroma is divided into two zones
o A peripheral cortex
o A inner medulla

Medulla
Cortex

Ligaments
 Oviducts (Fallopian tubes )

Each fallopian tube is about 10-

12cm long and extends from the
periphery of each ovary to the
uterus.
INFUNDIBULAM

The funnel shaped part closer to the

ovary is the infundibulum.
 Fimbriae
 The finger like projections in the edges of the infundibulum is
called fimbriae.
 Fimbriae help in collection of the ovum after ovulation.
 Ampulla
The wider part after infundibulum of the oviduct is called ampulla.
Isthmus
 The last part of the oviduct which joins the uterus is called isthmus.
 It has a narrow lumen.
Uterus (womb)
 The uterus is single and it is also
called womb.
 The shape of the uterus is like an
inverted pear.
 It is supported by ligaments
attached to the pelvic wall.
 The uterus opens into vagina
through a narrow cervix.
 The cavity of the cervix is called
cervical canal which along with
vagina forms the birth canal.
 Wall of Uterus
The wall of the uterus has 3 layers of tissue.
i. Perimetrium: the external thin membranous
layer
ii. Myometrium: middle thick layer of smooth
muscle is myometrium.
 Myometrium exhibits string contraction during
delivery of the baby
iii. Endometrium: inner glandular layer.
 Endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during
menstrual cycle while the myometrium exhibits
strong contraction during delivery of the baby.
 External Genetalia
The female external genitalia include
i. Mons pubis
ii. Labia majora
iii. Labia minora
iv. Hymen
v. Clitoris
Mons pubis: Mons pubis is a cushion
of fatty tissue covered by skin and
pubic hair.
Labia majora: The labia majora are
fleshy folds of tissue, which extend
down from the mons pubis and
surround the vaginal openings.
Labia minora: The labia minora are
paired folds of tissue under the labia
majora.
Clitoris: The clitoris is a tiny finger-
like structure which lies at the upper
junction of the two labia minora above
the urethral opening.
Hymen: The opening of the vagina is often
covered partially by a membrane called
hymen.
 The presence or absence of hymen is not a
reliable indicator of virginity or sexual
experience . Justify
 The hymen is often torn during the first
coitus (intercourse).
 However, it can also be broken by a sudden
fall or jolt, insertion of vaginal tampon,
active participation in some sports like
horse back riding, cycling etc.
The presence or absence of hymen is not a reliable indicator of
virginity or sexual experience . Justify
 In some women the hymen persists even after coitus.
 In fact, the presence or absence of hymen is not reliable
indicator of virginity or sexual experience.
 Mammary Glands
 The mammary glands are paired
structures (breasts) that contain
glandular tissue and variable amount
of fat.
 The glandular tissue of each breast is
divided into 15- 20 mammary lobes
containing clusters of cells called
alveoli.
 The cells of alveoli secrete milk,
which is stored in the cavities
(lumens) of alveoli.
 The alveoli open into mammary
tubules.
 The tubules of each lobe join to form a
mammary duct.
 Several mammary ducts join to form a
wider mammary ampulla which is
connected to lactiferous duct through
which milk is sucked out.
 Mammary lobes

Mammary alveoli

Mammary tubules

Mammary ducts

Mammary ampulla Lactiferous duct

Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

Corpus
luteum
Spermatogenesis
 Male gamete formation
 Takes place in seminiferous tubules
of testis
Oogenesis
 Female gamete formation
 Takes place in ovary
 Spermatogenesis

 Spermatogenesis begins at puberty.

 The spermatogonial cells present on
the inside wall of the seminiferous
tubules multiply by mitotic division
and increase in numbers.
 Each spermatogonium is diploid
and contains 46 chromosomes.
 Some of the spermatogonia called
primary spermatocytes periodically
undergo meiosis.
 A primary spermatocyte completes the
first meiotic division (reduction division)
leading to the formation of two equal,
haploid cells called secondary
spermatocytes which have only 23
chromosomes each.
 The secondary spermatocytes undergo the
second meiotic division to produce four
equal, haploid spermatids.
 Spermiogenesis & Spermiation

Spermiogenesis
 It is the formation of spermatids into
functional spermatozoa or sperms.
Spermiation
 After Spermiogenesis sperm heads
become embedded in the sertoli cells,
and are finally released from the
seminiferous tubules.
 The process of release of sperm from
seminiferous tubules is Spermiation.
 Hormonal control of spermatogenesis
 Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to
significant increase in the secretion of gonadotropin
releasing hormone (GnRH: which is released by
hypothalamus).
 The increased level of GnRH then acts at the anterior
pituitary gland and stimulates secretion of two
gonadotropins- luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH).
 FSH acts on the sertoli cells and stimulates secretion
of some factors which help in the process of
spermiogenesis.
Role of luteinizing hormone (LH)
 LH acts at the Leyding cells and
stimulates synthesis and secretion of
androgens.
 Androgens, in turn, stimulate the
process of spermatogenesis.
Role of Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

 FSH acts on the sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors
which help in the process of spemiogenesis.
 Hypothalamus

Secretes GnRH

Acts on pituitary

Secretes of 2 gonadotropins

Luteinizing hormone (LH) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Acts on Leyding cells Acts on sertoli cells

Secretes of androgen

Stimulates secretion of factors for

Stimulates spermatogenesis spermiogenesis
 Structure of Sperm
Sperm is a microscopic structure composed
of
 A head
 Neck
 A middle piece and
 A tail
 A plasma membrane envelops the whole body
of sperm.
Acrosome
 The sperm head contains an elongated haploid
nucleus, the anterior portion of which is covered
by a cap like structure, called acrosome
 The acrosome is filled with enzymes that help
fertilization of the ovum.
Middle piece
 The middle piece possesses numerous
mitochondria, which produce energy
for the movement of tail that facilitate
sperm motility essential for
fertilization.
 The human male ejaculates about 200
to 300 million sperms during a coitus
of which, for normal fertility, at least
60 percent sperms must have normal
shape and size and at least 40 percent
of them must show vigorous motility.
 Sperm released from the seminiferous
tubules, are transported by the accessory
ducts.
 Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens,
seminal vesicle and prostate are essential
for maturation and motility of sperms.
 The seminal plasma along with the
sperms constitute the semen.
 The functions of male sex accessory ducts
and glands are maintained by the
testicular hormones (androgens).
OOGENESIS
 Oogenesis

 The process of formation of a mature female gamete is

called oogenesis.
 Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development
stage when a couple of million gamete mother cells
(oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary;
 No more oogonia are formed and added after birth.
 Oogonial cells start division and enter
into prophase- I of the meiotic division
and get temporarily arrested at the
stage, called primary oocytes (the
stage of ovum at the time of birth of a
baby girl).
 Primary follicle
 Each primary oocyte then gets
surrounded by a layer of granulosa
cells and is called the primary follicle.
 A large number of these follicles
degenerate during the phase from
birth to puberty.
 Therefore, at puberty only 60,000 to
80,000 primary follicles are left in
each ovary.
 Secondary follicle
 The primary follicles get surrounded
by more layers of granulosa cells and a
new theca and are called secondary
follicles.
 Tertiary follicle
 The secondary follicle soon transforms
into a tertiary follicle.
Antrum : the fluid filled cavity in tertiary
follicle is called antrum.
Theca interna and Theca externa
The theca layer of ovarian follicles are
organized into an inner theca inetrna and an
outer theca externa.
 At this stage the primary oocyte
within the tertiary follicle grows
in size and completes its first
meiotic division.
 It is an unequal division
resulting in the formation of a
large haploid secondary oocyte
and a tiny first polar body.
 Secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient
rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte.
Does the first polar body born out of first
meiotic division divide further or degenerate?
 At present we are not very certain about this.
 Graafian follicle

 The tertiary follicle further

changes into the mature follicle or
graafian follicle.
 Zona pellucida

 The secondary oocyte forms a new

membrane called zona pellucida
surrounding it.
 Ovulation

 The Graafian follicle now ruptures to

release the secondary oocyte (ovum).
 The process of release of ovum from the
ovary is called ovulation.
 Comparison between spermatogenesis and oogenesis

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

Occurs in testis Occurs in ovum

Limited growth phase Elaborated growth phase

Each primary spermatocyte Each primary oocyte gives only

gives 4 sperms one ovum
No polar body formation Polar bodies are formed

Begins at puberty and extends Begins at embryonic stage but

up to senility suspends up to the puberty.
It ceases around the age of 50.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 The reproductive cycle in the female
primates is called menstrual cycle.
 Eg: monkeys, apes and human beings
 In human females, menstruation is
repeated at an average interval of
about 28/29 days.
 The cycle of events starting from one
menstruation till the next one is called
the menstrual cycle.
Menarche & Menopause

 The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called

menarche (9 to 14 years).
 In human beings, menstrual cycles ceases around 50
years of age; that is termed as menopause.
Phases of menstrual cycle

Menstrual phase (1-5th day)

Folicular (proliferative) phase

(5th to 13th day)

Ovulatory phase (14th day)

Secretory (luteal) phase (15-

28th day)
 Menstrual phase (1-5th day)

 If the released ovum is not fertilized

endometrial lining of uterine wall
degenerates and blood vessels rupture.
 The blood, degenerated endometrial
cells and secretory products are
discharged through vagina and is called
menstruation.
 The menstrual flow lasts for 3-5 days.
Folicular (proliferative) phase 5- 13th day

 Starts from 5th day to 14th day of cycle.

 Ovarian follicles begin to develop and
developing follicles are called Graffian
follicles.
 Graffian follicles secrete estrogen.
 Endometrium become thicker glandular and vascularized.
 LH and FSH secretion from pituitary increases and attains a peak level
about 14th day (LH surge).
Ovulatory phase (14th day)
 LH surge induces rupture of graffian follicle.
 Mature graffian follicle rupture and ovulation takes place.
 Ovulation takes place about 14th day of menstrual cycle.
 Secretory (Luteal) phase 15- 28th day
 The remaining part of the graffian
follicles transforms into corpus luteum
(yellowish conical structure).
 The Corpus luteum secretes large
amount of progesterone which is
essential for the maintenance of the
endometrium.
 Such an endometrium is necessary for
implantation (blastocyst stage of
embryo)of the fertilized ovum and
other events of pregnancy.
 During pregnancy all events of the
menstrual cycle stop and there is no
menstruation.
 Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of
normal reproductive phase and extends
between menarche and menopause.
 FERTILISATION & IMPLANTATION

Fertilisation
 During copulation (coitus) semen is
released by the penis into the vagina
(insemination).
 The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass
through the cervix, enter into the
uterus and finally reach the junction
of the isthmus and ampulla
(ampullary isthmic junction) of the
fallopian tube.
 The ovum released by the ovary is
also transported to the ampullary
isthmic junction where fertilization
takes place.
 Fertilisation can only occur if the
ovum and sperms are transported
simultaneously to the ampullary-
isthmic junction.
 This is the reason why not all
copulations lead to fertilization and
pregnancy.
 The process of fusion of a sperm with
an ovum is called fertilization.
 During fertilization, a sperm comes in
contact with the zona pellucida layer of
the ovum and induces changes in the
membrane that block the entry of
additional sperms.
 Thus, it ensures that only one sperm
can fertilise an ovum
 The secretions of acrosome help
the sperm enter into the cytoplasm
of the ovum through the zona
pellucida and the plasma
membrane.
 The entry of sperm induces the completion of second meiotic
division and second polar body is released.
 The haploid nucleus of the sperm and
ovum fuses to form the diploid zygote.
 Sex of the baby is determined by the father not by the mother. Justify?
 The chromosome pattern in the human
 Female is XX and Male XY.
 46 chromosome 44
chromosomes (autosomes) + 2
chromosomes (sex chromosomes)
 Females produce gametes with only X
chromosomes and male produce gametes
with either X or Y chromosomes.
 50 percent of male gamete carry X
chromosomes and 50 percent carry Y
chromosomes.
 If the X chromosome carrying
sperm fuses with the egg of female,
XX female will be formed.
 If the Y chromosome carrying
sperm fuses with the X egg of
female, XY male will be formed.
 Thus, the sex of the baby is
determined by the X and Y
chromosome carrying sperms of the
father.
Cleavage

 After fertilization, zygote begins to divide.

 The zygote divide mitotically while it moves
through the isthmus of the oviduct towards
the uterus called cleavage.
Blastomeres
 The cells formed after cleavage is known as
blastomeres.
 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells are called
blastomeres.
Morula
 The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is
called morula
 Blastocyst
 The morula continues to divide and
transforms into blastocyst.
 The blastomeres in the blastocyst are Trophoblast
arranged into an outer layer called
Inner cell mass
trophoblast and an inner group of cells
attached to trophoblast called the inner
cell mass.
 The trophoblast layer the gets attached to the
endometrium and the inner cell mass gets
differentiated as the embryo.
 After attachment, the uterine cells
divide rapidly and covers the
blastocyst.
 As a result, the blastocyst becomes
embedded in the endometrium of the
uterus.
 This is called implantation and it
leads to pregnancy
 Cleavage Cleavage is the repeated mitotic division of the zygote

Blastomeres Blastomeres are the cells formed during cleavage

Morula The embryo with 8 to 16 celled stage is morula

Trophoblast Outer layer of blastocyst

Inner cell mass Inner group of cells attached to trophoblast

PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
 After implantation, finger- like
projections appear on the trophoblast
called chorionic villi which are
surrounded by the uterine tissue and
maternal blood.
 PLACENTA

 The chorionic villi and uterine tissue

become interdigitated with each other
and jointly form a structural and
functional unit between developing
embryo (foetus) and maternal body
called placenta.
 Function of placenta

 The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the

embryo.
 Removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste materials produced by
the embryo.
 The placenta is connected to the embryo
through an umbilical cord which helps in the
transport of substances to and from the
embryo.
 Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and
produces several hormones like human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens,
progestogens, etc.
 In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone
called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.
 hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in
women only during pregnancy.
 In addition, during pregnancy the levels of
other hormones like estrogens,
progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine,
etc., are increased several folds in the
maternal blood.
 In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone
called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.
 hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in
women only during pregnancy.
 In addition, during pregnancy the levels of
other hormones like estrogens, progestogens,
cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are
increased several folds in the maternal blood.
 Increased production of these hormones is
essential for supporting the fetal growth,
metabolic changes in the mother and
maintenance of pregnancy.
 Development of embryo
Trophoblast
 Immediately after implantation, the inner Inner cell mass
cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an
outer layer called ectoderm and an inner
layer called endoderm.
 A mesoderm soon appears between the
ectoderm and the endoderm. These three
layers give rise to all tissues (organs) in
adults.
 The inner cell mass contains certain cells
called stem cells which have the potency
to give rise to all the tissues and organs.
Do you know for how many months pregnancy last in dogs, elephants and
cats?

 Dogs- 56- 68 days

 Elephants- 18- 22 months
 Cats- 58- 67 days
What are the major features of embryonic development at various
months of pregnancy?
 The human pregnancy lasts 9 months.
 In human beings, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo’s heart is
formed. The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed by listening to the
heart sound carefully through the stethoscope.
 By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs
and digits.
 By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the major organ systems
are formed, for example, the limbs and external genital organs are well
developed.
 The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are
usually observed during the fifth month.
 By the end of about 24 weeks (end of second trimester), the body is
covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate, and eyelashes are formed.
 By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and
is ready for delivery.
Major features of embryonic development at various months of pregnancy
Month of pregnancy Features of embryonic development

First month Heart sound noticed using stethoscope

Second month Develops limbs and digits

Third month /12 weeks (first trimester) Major organ system are formed

Fifth month First movements of the foetus and

appearance of hair on the head.

Sixth month/ 24 weeks (second Body is covered with fine hair, eyelids
trimester) separate, and eyelashes are formed
Ninth month Foetus is fully developed
 Parturition and Lactation
Parturition
 The average duration of human
pregnancy is about 9 months which is
called the gestation period.
 Vigorous contraction of the uterus at
the end of the pregnancy causes
expulsion/ delivery of the foetus.
 This process of delivery of the foetus
(child birth) is called parturition.;p0
 The signals for parturition originate from
the fully developed foetus and the placenta
which induce mild uterine contractions
called foetal ejection reflex.
 This triggers release of oxytocin from the
maternal pituitary.
 Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and
cause stronger uterine contractions, which
in turn stimulates further secretion of
oxytocin.
 What do you think the doctors inject to
induce delivery?
 Ans: Oxytocin
 The stimulatory reflex between the
uterine contraction and oxytocin
secretion continues resulting in
stronger and stronger contractions
 This leads to expulsion of the baby out
of the uterus through the birth canal-
parturition.
 Soon after the infant is delivered, the
placenta is also expelled out of the
uterus.
 Lactation

 The mammary glands of the female undergo

differentiation during pregnancy and starts
producing milk towards the end of pregnancy
by the process called lactation.
Breast- feeding during the initial period of infant
growth is recommended by doctors for bringing
up a healthy baby. Why?
 The milk produced during the initial few days
of lactation is called colostrum which
contains several antibodies absolutely
essential to develop immune resistance for
the new born babies.