materials

Article
Experimental Study on Compressive and Flexural Performance
of Lightweight Cement-Based Composites Reinforced with
Hybrid Short Fibers
Cong-Thuat Dang *, My Pham and Ngoc-Hieu Dinh *

Faculty of Civil Engineering, The University of Danang—University of Science and Technology, 54 Nguyen
Luong Bang, Danang 550000, Vietnam; phammy@dut.udn.vn
* Correspondence: dangcongthuat@dut.udn.vn (C.-T.D.); dnhieu@dut.udn.vn (N.-H.D.)

Abstract: This paper aims to experimentally study the compressive and flexural characteristics
of cement-based composites developed for fabricating thin, lightweight, and high-performance
components of buildings. Expanded hollow glass particles with a 0.25–0.5 mm particle size were used
as lightweight fillers. Hybrid fibers made of amorphous metallic (AM) and nylon fibers were used
to reinforce the matrix with a total volume fraction of 1.5%. The primary test parameters included
the expanded glass-to-binder (EG/B) ratio, the fiber volume content ratio, and the length of the
nylon fibers in the hybrid system. The experimental results demonstrate that the EG/B ratio and the
volume dosage of the nylon fibers exhibited insignificant effects on the compressive strength of the
composites. Additionally, the utilization of nylon fibers with a longer length of 12 mm resulted in a
slight compressive strength reduction of approximately 13% compared to that of the 6 mm nylon
fibers. Further, the EG/G ratio exhibited an insignificant effect on the flexural behavior of lightweight
cement-based composites in terms of their initial stiffness, strength, and ductility. Meanwhile, the
increasing AM fiber volume fraction in the hybrid system from 0.25% to 0.5% and 1.0% improved
flexural toughness by 42.8% and 57.2%, respectively. In addition, the nylon fiber length significantly
affected the deformation capacity at the peak load and the residual strength in the post-peak stage.
Citation: Dang, C.-T.; Pham, M.;
Dinh, N.-H. Experimental Study on
Keywords: fiber-reinforced cement-based composites; short fibers; compressive strength; flexural
Compressive and Flexural
strength; tensile toughness
Performance of Lightweight
Cement-Based Composites
Reinforced with Hybrid Short Fibers.
Materials 2023, 16, 4457. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma16124457 1. Introduction

Academic Editors: Mohamed

Nowadays, lightweight cement-based composites are used popularly in structural
K. Ismail, Ahmed A. Elansary
buildings to replace conventional normal-weight counterparts because they possess many
and Eslam Gomaa outstanding advantages, such as low density, high thermal conductivity, and a high-
temperature resistance capacity. In addition, the self-weight of the structure plays an
Received: 17 April 2023 essential factor in the design and construction of buildings. To reduce the self-weight of
Revised: 22 May 2023 the structure, lightweight concrete with high performance is one of the critical issues in
Accepted: 1 June 2023
balancing the relationships among the strength, ductility, and structural self-weight of
Published: 19 June 2023
concrete materials. The practical need to produce high-performance, lightweight concrete
has increased in recent years. In high-rise buildings, structural high-performance, and
lightweight concrete can significantly reduce the self-weight load and, therefore, mitigate
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
the effects of dynamic loads, such as strong winds or earthquakes. Li et al. [1] studied
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the shear behavior of beams made of steel fiber-reinforced expanded-shale lightweight
This article is an open access article concrete (SFRELC) by four-point bending tests. The experimental results indicate that the
distributed under the terms and shear failure modes of SFRELC beams with stirrups were altered from brittle to ductile
conditions of the Creative Commons with an increasing fiber volume fraction. De Maio et al. [2] evaluated the behavior of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// reinforced concrete (RC) structures strengthened with an FRP-based system subjected
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ to progressive damage by the numerical method and analyzed the experimental results.
4.0/). The numerical fracture model based on the cohesive crack approach incorporating an

Materials 2023, 16, 4457. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124457 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 4457 2 of 17

embedded truss model was used in the study to simulate the damage to RC structures
under quasi-static loading conditions. The numerical results showed the beneficial effects
of the FRP strengthening system on both the static and dynamic response in terms of the
load-carrying capacity and the degradation of the natural vibration frequency. In another
study by De Maio et al. [3], a numerical investigation of the reinforcing effect of nano-
modified epoxy resin on the response of FRP-retrofitted RC components was conducted.
The integrated model based on a cohesive crack approach incorporating bond–slip behavior
was employed to carry out a failure analysis of retrofitted structures and verified by the
previous experimental study. As a result, the reliability of the proposed model was proven
by the good agreement between the analytical and experimental results.
Lightweight cement-based composites with high performance are particularly essen-
tial for the rapid development of the prefabricated industry because the manufactured
structural members are thin, tidy, and well utilized in a modular integrated structure,
thereby reducing transportation, machining, and installation costs, etc. The most poten-
tial direction to produce lightweight cement-based composites is by using lightweight
aggregates (LWA) combined with a cement-based matrix. Over the last several decades,
many different types of LWAs have been investigated in various studies. Fundamentally,
LWAs can be classified into artificial aggregates (e.g., expanded clay and shale) and natural
aggregates (e.g., pumice and scoria). Gadea et al. [4] conducted an experimental study
to produce lightweight mortar by using rigid polyurethane foam waste with a particle
size of less than 4 mm. Several mortar grades were achieved by mixing cement with
different amounts of polyurethane, aggregate, and water. The study pointed out that
when the amount of polyurethane increased, the mortar density and mechanical prop-
erties were reduced. In contrast, its workability, permeability, and air content increased.
Alduaij et al. [5] studied lightweight concrete in hot coastal regions using expanded clay as
an LWA. The analyzed results showed that the lightweight concrete reached a compressive
strength of 5.5–29 MPa when increasing the cement content from 250 to 350 kg/m3 , while
its densities were almost constant, around 1500 kg/m3 . Recently, a new type of LWA,
expanded glass (EG), was introduced as a substitute for conventional aggregates. EG is
a product of industrial waste materials. It is very stable because its production occurs
in a special kiln at 900 ◦ C. Further, it is well-suited for LW mortar or concrete produc-
tion processes due to its high strength, durability, pressure resistance, and environmental
friendliness [6]. Figure 1 shows the processes of expanding, cooling, and sieving glass
particles (Sommariva and Weinberger [7]). The raw materials react with each other, become
viscous, and sinter, followed by the expansion of the agent and the formation of gas and
pore structures at approximately 600 ◦ C. After achieving optimum levels of the number of
pores, cell size, and thickness in the temperature range of 800–900 ◦ C, a cooling process
is then initiated to lower the temperature to below 100 ◦ C, followed by a sieving process
for particle size classification. Carsana and Bertolini [8] used EG aggregate and silica
fume to replace the fine fraction of aggregate and mineral addition to produce lightweight
concrete with a density of less than 1800 kg/m3 and compressive strength of approximately
25 MPa. The results demonstrated that besides increasing the cohesiveness of fresh
concrete, the low water-to-binder (W/B) ratio, and the presence of silica fume, the con-
crete was also effectively resistant to the intense penetration of sulfate and chloride ions.
Rumsys et al. [9] performed an experimental study on the compressive strength and dura-
bility properties of lightweight concrete using fine EG and different types of micro-fillers.
This study found that the durability of the investigated concrete using fine EG was suffi-
cient. Therefore, the considered lightweight concrete mixtures can be applied to produce
structural elements that require high durability. Lightweight EG particles were also studied
recently by Adhikary et al. [6] to develop flowable ultra-lightweight concrete, which can
be used as a sustainable material for energy-efficient buildings. The test results concluded
that a concrete density of less than 800 kg/m3 could be achieved using a higher content of
aerogel particles incorporating EG. In addition, fly ash and prefabricated plastic bubbles
were found to be very beneficial for manufacturing LW and ultra-LW concretes.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, 4457 3 of 17

aerogel particles incorporating EG. In addition, fly ash and prefabricated plastic bubbles
were found to be very beneficial for manufacturing LW and ultra-LW concretes.

Figure1.1. The
Figure Theprocesses
processesofofexpanding,
expanding,cooling,
cooling, and
and sieving
sieving EGEG particles
particles (reproduced
(reproduced from from Somma-
Sommariva
riva and Weinberger [7], AIDIC/CET is acknowledged as source and the copyright
and Weinberger [7], AIDIC/CET is acknowledged as source and the copyright is respected).is respected).

Owing to
Owing to the
the existence
existence of LWAsLWAsinducing
inducing an an increase
increase in in the
the porosity
porosity within
within cement-
cement-
based matrices, the
based the mechanical
mechanicalproperties
propertiesand andductility
ductilityofof lightweight
lightweight concrete
concrete areareusually
usu-
poor compared to normal-weight concrete. Dispersed micro-fibers
ally poor compared to normal-weight concrete. Dispersed micro-fibers [10] have been [10] have been incorpo-
rated in several
incorporated instudies
severaltostudies
increasetothe mechanical
increase performanceperformance
the mechanical of lightweightofcement-based
lightweight
composites. Iqbal
cement-based et al. [11] Iqbal
composites. investigated theinvestigated
et al. [11] addition of micro-steel
the addition fiber in high-strength,
of micro-steel fiber
lightweight,
in high-strength, andlightweight,
self-compacting concrete. The results
and self-compacting concrete. showed that the
The results showed compressive
that the
strength decreased
compressive strength bydecreased
about 12%, bycorresponding to a steel fibertocontent
about 12%, corresponding a steel greater than or
fiber content equal
greater
than
to 1%. orMeanwhile,
equal to 1%.the Meanwhile, the splitting
splitting tensile tensile
and flexural and flexural
strength increasedstrength increased
by about 37% and by
about 37% and 110%, respectively, when the steel fiber content increased
110%, respectively, when the steel fiber content increased from 0% to 1.25%. Li et al. [12] from 0% to 1.25%.
Li et al. [12]the
compared compared the effectiveness
effectiveness of polypropyleneof polypropylene
fibers (PPFs)fibers (PPFs)
and steel and(SFs)
fibers steel for
fibers (SFs)
fabricat-
for
ingfabricating
highly ductile highly ductile lightweight
lightweight concrete. The concrete.
results Thefromresults frompointed
this study this studyoutpointed
that theout op-
that
timalthe optimal
contents forcontents
the PPFsfor andtheSFsPPFswereand SFsand
1.1% were 1.1%
2.0%, and 2.0%, respectively.
respectively. Among the two Among fiber
the twothe
types, fiber
SFstypes, the SFs
exhibited exhibited
better better than
performance performance
the PPFsthan the PPFs in
in improving theimproving
initial andthe re-
initial and residual flexural strength, whereas the PPFs exhibited
sidual flexural strength, whereas the PPFs exhibited better performance in the post-peak better performance in the
post-peak
stage. stage.
Despite
Despite thethe previous
previousliterature,
literature,further
furtherresearch
researchon onlightweight
lightweightcement-based
cement-basedcompos- compo-
ites
sites with high performance still has much potential for development.ItItisisstill
with high performance still has much potential for development. stillattracting
attracting aa
lot
lot of
of attention
attentiontoday.
today.The Thepresent
presentresearch
researchaimed
aimedtotoinvestigate
investigatethe thecompressive
compressiveand andflexu-
flex-
ral properties of a newly developed type of high-performance,
ural properties of a newly developed type of high-performance, lightweight cement-based lightweight cement-based
composites
composites using short hybrid
using short hybrid fibers.
fibers.EGEGparticles
particlesmade madefrom fromindustrial
industrialrefractory
refractory materi-
materials
als with a 0.25–0.5 mm particle size were used as lightweight fillers.
with a 0.25–0.5 mm particle size were used as lightweight fillers. A hybrid fiber type made A hybrid fiber type
made up of short amorphous metallic (AM) and nylon fibers
up of short amorphous metallic (AM) and nylon fibers was employed to reinforce the ce- was employed to reinforce
the cementitious
mentitious matrix.matrix. The fibers
The fibers in thisin this study
study were utilized
were utilized in theofform
in the form shortoftypes
shortto types
ensureto
ensure their workability and fiber distribution issues and their appropriateness
their workability and fiber distribution issues and their appropriateness for thin structures. for thin
structures.
The primary The
testprimary
parameters test included
parameters theincluded
expandedthe expanded glass-to-binder
glass-to-binder (EG/B) ratio, the (EG/B)
fiber
ratio, the fiber volume content ratio, and the length of nylon fibers in the hybrid system.
volume content ratio, and the length of nylon fibers in the hybrid system. The contribution
The contribution of this study can provide useful insight into construction materials for
of this study can provide useful insight into construction materials for fabricating thin, light-
fabricating thin, lightweight, and high-performance structural elements of buildings, such
weight, and high-performance structural elements of buildings, such as slabs, structural
as slabs, structural walls, and coupling beams.
walls, and coupling beams.
2. Materials and Experimental Layout
2.1. Material Properties
Fine EG particles made from industrial refractory materials with a grain size range
of 0.25–0.5 mm were utilized as lightweight fillers. Table 1 summarizes the main physical
and mechanical properties of the EG provided by the manufacturer. Figure 2a shows the
morphology and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the EG.
 2. Materials and Experimental Layout
2.1. Material Properties
Fine EG particles made from industrial refractory materials with a grain size range of
0.25–0.5 mm were utilized as lightweight fillers. Table 1 summarizes the main physical and
Materials 2023, 16, 4457 mechanical properties of the EG provided by the manufacturer. Figure 2a shows the4mor-of 17
phology and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the EG.

Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of EG.

Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of EG.
Properties Unit Standard Values
Properties Unit Standard Values
Particle size mm ASTM C136 [13] 0.25–0.5
Particle size mm ASTM C136 [13] 0.25–0.5
Fineness modulus
Fineness modulus –
– – – 1.92 1.92
Bulk
Bulk density
density kg/m
kg/m 3 3 ASTM C29/C29M
ASTM C29/C29M [14][14]
340 340
Apparent density
Apparent density kg/m
kg/m 3 3 ASTM C128
ASTM [15][15]
C128 680 680
Compressive strength
Compressive strength MPa
MPa BS 13055:2016
BS EN EN 13055:2016 [16]2.6
[16] 2.6
Water absorption by mass Mass.
Water absorption by mass Mass. % % ASTM C128
ASTM C128 [15] [15] 28 28
Thermal conductivity W/m.K – 0.07
Thermal
Color conductivity – W/m.K – – 0.07 Creamy white
Color – – Creamy white

Figure 2. Morphologies of expanded glass particles and microsilica: (a) morphology of EG particles;
Figure 2. Morphologies of expanded glass particles and microsilica: (a) morphology of EG particles;
(b)
(b)morphology
morphology of
of microsilica.
microsilica.
Table 2 presents the developed lightweight cement-based mixtures. The main parame-
ter of the mix proportions is the EG dosage. The mix ID of LCEG02 and LCEG03 used the
EG/B ratios of 0.2 and 0.3, respectively. The water-to-cement ratio was kept at a constant
of 0.35 for all mixtures. Microsilica (Figure 2b) was used as supplementary cementing
material to improve the density of the matrix and the bond quality between the lightweight
particles and the cement paste (Wang et al. [17], Rashad et al. [18]). Figure 3 presents the
particle size distribution curves of the EG, microsilica, and Portland cement obtained from
vibration tests in accordance with ASTM C33 [19], conducted using the sieve machine.
The chemical composition, clinker composition minerals, and physical properties of the
cement and microsilica are shown in Table 3. A commercial superplasticizer (SP) was used
to achieve suitable workability of the mixture.
 stant of 0.35 for all mixtures. Microsilica (Figure 2b) was used as supplementary cement-
ing material to improve the density of the matrix and the bond quality between the light-
weight particles and the cement paste (Wang et al. [17], Rashad et al. [18]). Figure 3 pre-
sents the particle size distribution curves of the EG, microsilica, and Portland cement ob-
tained from vibration tests in accordance with ASTM C33 [19], conducted using the sieve
Materials 2023, 16, 4457 machine. The chemical composition, clinker composition minerals, and physical proper- 5 of 17
ties of the cement and microsilica are shown in Table 3. A commercial superplasticizer
(SP) was used to achieve suitable workability of the mixture.

Table2.2.Mix
Table Mixproportions
proportions of
of LW
LW cement-based composites.
cement-based composites.

Mix ProportionsMix Proportions

of Matrix of Matrix
by Mass by Mass
of Total of Total Binder
Binder
Mix IDs Binder
Mix IDs Binder SP *, % by Mass
W/B * W/B * EG/B * Sand EG/BSP
* *, %Sand
by Mass of Binder
Cement MicrosilicaCement Microsilica of Binder
LCEG02 0.35 0.9
LCEG02 0.1
0.35 0.9 0.20.1 – 0.2 – 0.1 0.1
LCEG03 0.35 0.9
LCEG03 0.1
0.35 0.9 0.30.1 – 0.3 – 0.2 0.2
* W/B= =water-to-binder
* W/B water-to-binder ratio,
ratio, EG/B
EG/B = expanded
= expanded glass-to-binder
glass-to-binder ratio,ratio, SP = superplasticizer.
SP = superplasticizer.

Figure 3. Particle size distributions of components for cement-based matrix.

Figure 3. Particle size distributions of components for cement-based matrix.
Table 3. Chemical composition, clinker minerals, and physical properties of Portland cement and
Table 3. Chemical composition, clinker minerals, and physical properties of Portland cement and
silica fume.
silica fume.
Chemical Composition Portland Cement Microsilica
Chemical
SiO 2, %
Composition Portland Cement
20.2 91.2Microsilica
SiO
Al 2O2 ,3%
,% 20.2
58.0 1.391.2
Al22O
Fe O33,, %
% 58.0
3.0 0.81.3
Fe2 O3%
CaO, ,% 3.0
63.3 0.70.8
CaO, % 63.3 0.7
MgO,
MgO, %
% 3.4
3.4
0.30.3
SO 3, %
SO3 , % 2.1
2.1 - -
Clinker Minerals
Clinker Minerals
C3S, % 54.9 -
C S, % 54.9 -
C23S, % 16.6 -
C2 S, % 16.6 -
C
C3A,
A, % % 10.3
10.3 - -
3
C4 AF, % 9.1 -
Physical properties
Specific gravity 3.2 2.2
Fineness, m2 /kg 312 20.47

This study utilized a hybrid form of dispersed fibers made up of amorphous metallic
and nylon fibers to reinforce the cementitious matrix. Figure 4 presents the morphology
(Figure 4a) and SEM images (Figure 4b) of the fibers. Table 4 lists the primary physical
and mechanical properties of the fibers. The AM fibers featured a ribbon shape and rough
surface and exhibited a better bonding performance between the fibers and the matrix
than conventional steel fibers (Choe et al. [20], Zhao et al. [21]). Nylon fiber is a kind of
synthetic polymer commonly used for concrete structures, with the capabilities of shrinkage
prevention, crack width control, and increasing tensile ductility. The hybridization of the
 This study utilized a hybrid form of dispersed fibers made up of amorphous metallic
and nylon fibers to reinforce the cementitious matrix. Figure 4 presents the morphology
(Figure 4a) and SEM images (Figure 4b) of the fibers. Table 4 lists the primary physical
and mechanical properties of the fibers. The AM fibers featured a ribbon shape and rough
surface and exhibited a better bonding performance between the fibers and the matrix
Materials 2023, 16, 4457 than conventional steel fibers (Choe et al. [20], Zhao et al. [21]). Nylon fiber is a kind 6 of 17
of
synthetic polymer commonly used for concrete structures, with the capabilities of shrink-
age prevention, crack width control, and increasing tensile ductility. The hybridization of
the fibers
fibers was expected
was expected to achieve
to achieve a balance
a balance in terms
in terms of the of the strength,
strength, strain capacity,
strain capacity, and crackand
crack of
width width of the cement-based
the cement-based composite.
composite. Compared
Compared to other
to other fibers,fibers,
kindskinds
such such as car-
as carbon,
bon, and
glass, glass, and polyvinyl
polyvinyl alcoholalcohol (PVA)nylon
(PVA) fibers, fibers, nylon
fibers arefibers
more are more Specifically,
low-cost. low-cost. Specifi-
they
cally,
can they can from
be produced be produced
potentiallyfrom potentially
recycled productsrecycled products local
with abundant withsources
abundant local
to meet
sources to meet
infrastructure infrastructure
demands. In thedemands. In theAM
present study, present study,
fibers withAM fibersof
a length with a length
10 mm wereof
10 mm were and
investigated, investigated, andwith
nylon fibers nylon fibers
sizes of 6with
and sizes
12 mm of were
6 andinvestigated,
12 mm were considering
investigated,
their effect ontheir
considering the workability
effect on theofworkability
a cement-based mixture.
of a cement-based mixture.

Figure 4. Morphology and SEM images of the fibers used in this study: (a) morphology of the fibers;
Figure 4. Morphology and SEM images of the fibers used in this study: (a) morphology of the fibers;
(b)
(b)SEM
SEMimages
imagesofofthe
thefibers.
fibers.

Table 4. Properties of nylon and AM fibers.

Elastic
Length Diameter Width Thickness Density
Fiber Types Modulus
(mm) (µm) (mm) (µm) (kg/m3 )
(GPa)
Amorphous
10 - 1.0 24 7200 140
metallic
Nylon 6, 12 26 - - 1160 2.7

2.2. Test Parameters

Table 5 summarizes the test parameters and test specimens in this study. For the
EG/B ratio and fiber content series, the test specimens were named following the format of
“EGX-NYY-AMZ”, where X represents the EG/B ratio, Y represents the volume fraction of
Materials 2023, 16, 4457 7 of 17

nylon fibers (in %), and Z represents the volume fraction of AM fibers (in %). For instance,
EG0.2-NY1.0-AM0.5 represents the specimen containing 1.0% nylon and 0.5% AM fibers in
the cement-based matrix.

Table 5. Details of test specimens.

Fiber Volume Fiber Length

Test Specimens EG/B
Fraction (%) (mm)
Parameters Ratio
Vf,ny Vf,AM Lf,ny Lf,AM
EG0.2-NY1.0-AM0.5 0.2 1.00 0.50 6 10
EG0.2-NY0.5-AM1.0 0.2 0.50 1.00 6 10
EG/B ratio
EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5 (1) 0.3 1.00 0.50 6 10
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 (2) 0.3 0.50 1.00 6 10
RE-EG0.3 0.3 - - - -
Fiber volume EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5 (1) 0.3 1.00 0.50 6 10
content ratio EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75 0.3 0.75 0.75 6 10
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 (2) 0.3 0.50 1.00 6 10
Fiber length EG0.3-NY12-AM10 0.3 1.00 0.50 12 10
(nylon) EG0.3-NY6-AM10 (1) 0.3 1.00 0.50 6 10
(1) The same specimens; (2) the same specimens.

The main test parameters included: (1) EG/B ratio, (2) fiber volume content ratio, and
(3) nylon fiber length in the hybrid system. For the first parameter, the effects of the EG/B
ratios of 0.2 and 0.3 were investigated for specimens containing 1.0% nylon and 0.5% AM
fibers (EG0.2-NY1.0-AM0.5 and EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5), and for specimens containing 0.5%
nylon and 1.0% AM fibers (EG0.2-NY0.5-AM1.0 and EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0). For the second
parameter, the effect of the fiber volume content ratio was investigated. A base cement-
based matrix with EG/B = 0.3 was used in this test series. Specifically, RE-EG0.3 was the
specimen without fibers; for specimens EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5, EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75, and
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0, the volume fraction of nylon fibers and AM fibers varied from 0.5%
to 1.0%, with the total volume fraction of the hybrid system kept at a constant of 1.5%.
For the third parameter, the effect of the nylon fiber length was investigated. Specifically,
specimens EG0.3-NY12-AM15 and EG0.3-NY6-AM15 utilized 12 mm- and 6 mm-nylon
fibers, respectively. This series of specimens was fabricated with the EG/B ratio, the
fiber volume fraction of nylon, and the AM fiber content corresponding to 0.3, 1.0%, and
0.5%, respectively.

2.3. Specimen Preparation and Mixing Procedure

Two types of specimens were prepared. The first type was used for the compres-
sive test. According to ASTM C109/C109M [22], the cube specimens with dimensions of
50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm were cast. The second type was used for the flexural test. Accord-
ing to ASTM C 1609 [23], beam specimens with dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm
were cast.
Figure 5 shows the mixing sequence as follows: the plain mix was prepared by first
mixing the binder (cement and microsilica) and the EG particles in a pan mixer for about
1 min to achieve a uniform distribution. Water was then added and mixed for 3–4 min.
Afterward, the super-plasticizer was gradually added and mixed for about 3–4 min to
achieve the expected flowability. The nylon fibers were then added to the fresh mixture and
mixed for an extra 3–4 min, followed by an additional 2–3 min mixing after adding the AM
fibers. After mixing, the fresh mixture was poured into molds and covered by plastic layers
to prevent premature water evaporation and shrinkage. The specimens were demolded
after 24 h and then dry-cured for 28 days in laboratory conditions before performing tests.
 Afterward, the super-plasticizer was gradually added and mixed for about 3–4 min to
plastic layers to prevent premature water evaporation and shrinkage. The specimens
achieve the expected flowability. The nylon fibers were then added to the fresh mixture
demolded
and mixed forafter 24 h3–4
an extra andmin,
then dry-cured
followed by anfor 28 days2–3
additional in min
laboratory conditions
mixing after adding before
forming
the tests.After mixing, the fresh mixture was poured into molds and covered by
AM fibers.
plastic layers to prevent premature water evaporation and shrinkage. The specimens were
Materials 2023, 16, 4457
demolded after 24 h and then dry-cured for 28 days in laboratory conditions before8 of 17
per-
forming tests.

Figure 5. Mixing sequence of LW cement-based composites.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Mixing
Mixing sequence
sequence of
of LW
LW cement-based
cement-basedcomposites.
composites.
2.4. Experimental Setup and Measuring Devices
2.4.
2.4. Experimental
Experimental Setup
Setup and
and Measuring
Measuring Devices
Devices
The compressive performance of the test specimen was determined based on A
The
The compressive
compressive performance
performance of
of the
the test
test specimen was
was determined based on
on ASTM
C109/C109MM[22].
C109/C109 [22]. Figure
Figure 6 6 presents
presents the the specimen
compressive
compressive test
determined
test setup.
setup.
based
Uniaxial
Uniaxial
ASTM
compressive
compressive
C109/C109 M [22]. Figure 6 presents the compressive test setup. Uniaxial compressive test-
ing was carried
testing out with aaloading
loadingrate
rate of78 78 kN/min.
ing waswas carried
carried out out
withwith
a loading rate of 78ofkN/min.
kN/min.

Figure 6. Compressive test setup.

Figure 7 presents the flexural test setup. A four-point flexural test setup was carried
Figure 6.
Figure Compressive
Compressive test test setup.
setup.
out in 6.
accordance with ASTM C 1609 [23], with a loading velocity of 0.05 mm/min using the
displacement control method. Two linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) were
Figure 7 presents
Figure the flexural
7 presents test setup. A four-point flexural test setup was carried was ca
mounted on the specimensthe flexural
at two testsides
opposite setup. A four-point
to measure flexural
their deflection test
at thesetup
mid-
out in accordance with ASTM C 1609 [23], with a loading velocity of 0.05 mm/min using
out in
span. A accordance withtoASTM
load cell was used measure C 1609 [23], with
the loading a loading
data during velocity
the flexural of 0.05
tests. mm/min usin
The flexural
the displacement control method. Two linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs)
displacement
were mounted on control method.atTwo
the specimens twolinear variable
opposite differential
sides to measure theirtransformers
deflection at(LVDTs)
mounted
the mid-span.on the specimens
A load cell was at two
used to opposite
measure the sides to measure
loading theirthe
data during deflection
flexural at the
span.The
tests. A load cellloading
flexural was used
was to measure
generated the loading
through datatesting
a universal duringmachine
the flexural
(UTM)tests.
of a The fle
1000 kN capacity. For the compressive and flexural tests, three replicas were carried out for
each specimen.
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, 4457 loading was generated through a universal testing machine (UTM) of a 1000 kN capacity.9 of 17
For the compressive and flexural tests, three replicas were carried out for each specimen.

Figure7.7.Flexural
Figure Flexuraltest
testsetup.
setup.
3. Experimental Results and Discussion
3. Experimental Results and Discussion
3.1. Compressive Strength
3.1. Figure
Compressive Strength
8 shows the influence of the different parameters on the compressive strength of
Figure 8 shows
the lightweight the influence
cement-based of the different
composites. Figure 8aparameters
indicates that onincreasing
the compressive
the EG/B strength
ratio
of the
from 0.2lightweight
to 0.3 led tocement-based
a reduction in composites.
the compressiveFigure strength,
8a indicates thatcould
which increasing the EG/B
be attributed
toratio from 0.2 in
the increase to the
0.3 led
hollowto a degree
reduction in the
of the compressive
matrix; however,strength, whichdegree
the reduction could be was at-
tributed to theSpecifically,
insignificant. increase in by the increasing
hollow degree of the matrix;
the EG/B however,
ratio from 0.2 to the
0.3,reduction degree
the specimens
was insignificant.
without fibers showed Specifically,
a reduction byofincreasing
14.2%, thethe EG/B ratio
specimens from 0.21.0%
containing to 0.3, the specimens
nylon fiber and
without
0.5% AM fiberfibersshowed
showed a reduction
a decrease of 14.2%,
of 17.5%, and the
the specimens containing
containing 0.5%1.0%nylon
nylonfiber
fiber
and1.0%
and 0.5%AM AMfiber
fibershowed
showeda areduction
decreaseof of15.3%.
17.5%,Theanddensities
the specimens
of the containing
cement-based 0.5% nylon
matrix
corresponding
fiber and 1.0%toAM the fiber
EG/Bshowed
ratios ofa 0.2 and 0.3%
reduction of were
15.3%.measured as 1630
The densities of and 1494 kg/m3 ,
the cement-based
respectively. It should be
matrix corresponding to noted
the EG/Bthatratios
the densities
of 0.2 and of 0.3%
the LW werecement-based
measured asmatrices
1630 and were
1494
evaluated by the water
kg/m3, respectively. displacement
It should be noted method
that the[24] after 28of
densities days.
the LW cement-based matrices
wereFigure 8b shows
evaluated by thethe effect
water of the fibermethod
displacement volume[24] content
after 28of days.
the hybrid type on the
compressive
Figure 8b strength
shows of thethe cement-based
effect composites.
of the fiber volume In of
content general, the variation
the hybrid type on the in com-
the
nylon andstrength
pressive AM fiber of contents in the hybrid
the cement-based fiber type
composites. with a total
In general, volume dosage
the variation of 1.5%
in the nylon and
insignificantly
AM fiber contents affected
in thethe compressive
hybrid fiber type strength of the
with a total composite
volume dosagematerial.
of 1.5%Compared to
insignificantly
the control
affected thespecimen
compressivewithout adding
strength fibers,
of the the cement-based
composite mixturestocontaining
material. Compared the control1.0%
spec-
nylon
imen fiber
withoutcombined
addingwith 0.5%
fibers, theAM fiber and 0.5%
cement-based nyloncontaining
mixtures fiber combined with 1.0%
1.0% nylon fiber AM
com-
fiber showed differences of only 3.80% and 2.30%, respectively,
bined with 0.5% AM fiber and 0.5% nylon fiber combined with 1.0% AM fiber showed in the compressive strength.
dif-
Meanwhile, the cement-based
ferences of only 3.80% and 2.30%, mixtures containing
respectively, thecompressive
in the same nylon and AM fiber
strength. dosage of
Meanwhile, the
0.75% showed a reduction of 10.70%.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, 4457 10 of 17

cement-based mixtures containing the same nylon and AM fiber dosage of 0.75% showed a
reduction of 10.70%.

60 50

50 40

40
30
30
20
20

10
10

0 0
Without fibers Nylon 1.0% + AM Nylon 0.5% + AM Without fibers Nylon 1.0% + Nylon 0.75% + Nylon 0.5% +
0.5% 1.0% AM 0.5% AM 0.75% AM 1.0%
EG0.2 EG0.3

50

40

30

20

10

0
Nylon 12 Nylon 6

Figure Effectsofofdifferent
Figure 8. Effects different parameters
parameters on on compressive
compressive strength
strength of lightweight
of lightweight cement-based
cement-based com-
posites: (a) effect of EG amount; (b) effect of fiber volume content; (c) effect of fiber length.
composites: (a) effect of EG amount; (b) effect of fiber volume content; (c) effect of fiber length.

Figure 8c shows
shows the effect of the the nylon
nylon fiber
fiber length
length onon the
the compressive
compressive strength
strength of
cement-based composites. The The compressive
compressive strength
strength ofof the mixture using 6 mm nylon nylon
fibers
fibers was
was measured
measured as as 38.60
38.60 MPa,
MPa, which
which was
was mostly
mostly the
the same
same as the control type without
fibers
fibers (40.20
(40.20 MPa).
MPa). The
The test
test results
results indicate
indicate that
that the
the compressive
compressive strength
strength of
of the
the mixture
mixture
using
using nylon
nylon fibers
fibers with
with aa longer
longer length
length of
of 12
12 mm
mm led to aa reduction
led to reduction of of approximately
approximately 13%13%
compared
compared to to that
that of
of the
the 66 mm
mm nylon
nylon fibers.
fibers. This
This could
could bebe attributed
attributed to
to the
the fact
fact that
that using
using
nylon
nylon fibers
fibers with
with aa longer
longer fiber
fiber length
length negatively
negatively affects
affects the
the fiber
fiber dispersion,
dispersion, asas they
they are
are
clustered together and overlapped, leading to increases in the voids and
clustered together and overlapped, leading to increases in the voids and porosity inside porosity inside the
matrix [25].[25].
the matrix
3.2. Flexural Performance
3.2. Flexural Performance
Based on the test results, the flexural properties of the materials were evaluated in
Based on the test results, the flexural properties of the materials were evaluated in
accordance with ASTM C 1609 [23]. Table 6 summarizes the primary outcomes, including
accordance with ASTM C 1609 [23]. Table 6 summarizes the primary outcomes, including
the flexural strength (fp ), deflection peak load (δp ), and flexural toughness. The flexu-
the flexural strength (fp), deflection peak load (δp), and flexural toughness. The flexural
ral strength, fp , of the test specimens was evaluated as per ASTM C 1609 [23] by the
strength, fp, of the test specimens was evaluated as per ASTM C 1609 [23] by the following
following formula:
formula: Pp Lc
fp = (1)
Pp2cLc
bd
fp = (1)
where Pp is the peak load, Lc is the distance bd c2
between two supports, b is the width of the
specimen, and dc is the height of the specimen.
where Pp is the peak load, Lc is the distance between two supports, b is the width of the
specimen, and dc is the height of the specimen.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
Materials 2023, 16, 4457 11 of 17

Table
Table6.6.Summary
Summary of
of flexural test results.
flexural test results.

Flexural Characteristics
Flexural Characteristics
fp δp Toughness Residual Strength at Lc/150
Test Specimens f(MPa) δp(mm) Toughness
Residual Strength at
Test Specimens
p (KNmm) (MPa)
Lc /150
(MPa) (mm) (KNmm)
Mean COV Mean COV Mean COV Mean (MPa) COV
EG0.2-NY1.0-AM0.5 Mean5.44 COV0.063 Mean0.28 COV 0.357 Mean24.03 0.092
COV 2.52
Mean 0.190
COV
EG0.2-NY0.5-AM1.0
EG0.2-NY1.0-AM0.5 5.448.26 0.080
0.063 0.280.63 0.311
0.357 36.26
24.03 0.089
0.092 3.46
2.52 0.180
0.190
EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5
EG0.2-NY0.5-AM1.0(1) 8.265.69 0.050
0.080 0.630.34 0.311 0.310 36.26
23.01 0.112
0.089 1.76
3.46 0.107
0.180
EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5(2) (1) 5.698.38 0.050 0.340.59 0.310 23.01 0.112 1.76 0.107
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 0.042 0.108 36.18 0.107 2.60 0.284
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 (2) 8.38 0.042 0.59 0.108 36.18 0.107 2.60 0.284
RE-EG0.3 4.97 0.054 0.33 0.293 4.98 0.204 - -
RE-EG0.3
EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5 (1) 4.975.69 0.054
0.050 0.330.34 0.293 0.310 4.98
23.01 0.204
0.112 -
1.76 -
0.107
EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5 (1) 5.69 0.050 0.34 0.310 23.01 0.112 1.76 0.107
EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75
EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75 6.97
6.97 0.099
0.099 0.46
0.46 0.288 0.288 32.86
32.86 0.074
0.074
3.15
3.15
0.010
0.010
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 (2)
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 (2) 8.388.38 0.042
0.042 0.590.59 0.108 0.108 36.18
36.18 0.107
0.107 2.60
2.60 0.284
0.284
EG0.3-NY12-AM10
EG0.3-NY12-AM10 5.585.58 0.050
0.050 0.790.79 0.105 0.105 27.53
27.53 0.025
0.025 2.80
2.80 0.117
0.117
EG0.3-NY6-AM10
EG0.3-NY6-AM10(1)(1) 5.695.69 0.050
0.050 0.340.34 0.310 0.310 23.01
23.01 0.112
0.112 1.76
1.76 0.107
0.107
(1)The
Thesame specimens; the same specimens.
(1) (2)
same specimens; (2) the same specimens.

Furthermore,
Furthermore,the the ductility
ductility of the lightweight
lightweight cement-based
cement-basedcomposites
compositesrepresented
represented
by
bytheir
theirflexural
flexural toughness
toughness was
was computed as as the
the area
areaunder
underthetheload–deflection
load–deflectioncurves curves
until
untilaaspecific
specific deflection value of
deflection value of LLcc/150, as shown in in Figure
Figure9.9.ItItshould
shouldbebenoted
notedthat
thatthe
the
toughness value of the specimen
toughness value of the specimen without adding fibers (RE-EG0.3) was calculated
adding fibers (RE-EG0.3) was calculated as the as the
areaunder
area underthe
theload–deflection
load–deflection curves
curves until
until the
thepeak
peakload
loadpoint
pointowing
owingtotoitsitsbrittleness.
brittleness.
Flexural load

Pp Flexural
toughness

δp Lc / 150 Deflection
Figure 9. Evaluation of flexural properties in accordance with ASTM C 1609 [23].
Figure 9. Evaluation of flexural properties in accordance with ASTM C 1609 [23].
3.2.1. Effect of EG/B Ratios
3.2.1. Effect
Figure of
10EG/B
showsRatios
the effect of the EG/B ratios on the flexural load–deflection curves for
Figure 10 shows
the specimens the 0.5%
containing effectnylon
of thefiber
EG/B ratios
+ 1.0% AMonfiber
the flexural load–deflection
(Figure 10a) curves
and the specimens
for the specimens
containing containing
1.0% nylon fiber 0.5%
+ 0.5%nylon
AMfiber
fiber+(Figure
1.0% AM fiberThe
10b). (Figure
results10a) and that
show the spec-
the
imens
amount containing 1.0% nylon
of EG particles fiber
existing in +the
0.5% AM fibergenerally
composites (Figure 10b). Thethe
affected results show
flexural that the
behavior
of the lightweight
amount cement-based
of EG particles existing incomposites less ingenerally
the composites terms of their initial
affected thestiffness,
flexuralstrength,
behavior
ofand
theductility.
lightweight cement-based composites less in terms of their initial stiffness, strength,
and ductility.
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
Materials 2023,16,
Materials2023, 16,4457
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
12 17

40 40
40 40
EG/B=0.2 EG/B=0.2

(kN)
EG/B=0.2 EG/B=0.2

load(kN)
30 EG/B=0.3 30
30 EG/B=0.3 30 EG/B=0.3
EG/B=0.3

Flexuralload
20 20
20 20

Flexural
10 10
10 10

0 0
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)
(a)
(a)
Figure 10. Effects
Effects of
of EG/B
EG/B ratios on
ratioson flexural
onflexural load–deflection
flexuralload–deflection
load–deflection curves:
curves: (a) nylon 0.5% + AM 1.0%; (b)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Effects of EG/B ratios curves: (a)(a) nylon
nylon 0.5%
0.5% + AM
+ AM 1.0%;
1.0%; (b)
nylon 1.0% + AM 0.5%.
nylon
(b) 1.0%
nylon + AM
1.0% + AM0.5%.
0.5%.

The effectofofthe
The the EG/B ratio
ratio onthe
the flexuralparameters
parameters ispresented
presented inFigure
Figure 11.In In
The effect
effect of the EG/B
EG/B ratio on on the flexural
flexural parameters is is presented in in Figure 11.
11. In
Figure
Figure 11a, when increasing the EG/B ratio from 0.2 to 0.3, for the composites containing
Figure 11a,
11a, when
when increasing
increasing the
theEG/B ratio from
EG/B ratio from 0.2
0.2 to
to 0.3,
0.3, for
for the
the composites
composites containing
containing
1.0%nylon
1.0% nylonfiber
fiber incorporated
incorporated with
with 0.5%
0.5% AM AM
fiberfiber
and and
0.5% 0.5%
nylon nylon
fiber fiber combined
combined with
with 1.0%
1.0% nylon fiber incorporated with 0.5% AM fiber and 0.5% nylon fiber combined with
1.0% AMthe
AM fiber, the differences in the flexural strength obtained were 4.4% and 1.5%, re-
1.0%fiber,
AM fiber, differences in the flexural
the differences strengthstrength
in the flexural obtainedobtained
were 4.4% and4.4%
were 1.5%,and
respectively.
1.5%, re-
spectively. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, in Figure in the
11b, Figure 11b,regarding
values the valuesthe regarding
differencesthe indifferences
the in the
flexural flexural
toughness
spectively. Meanwhile, in Figure 11b, the values regarding the differences in the flexural
toughness
were 4.2% were
and 4.2%respectively.
0.2%, and 0.2%, respectively.
toughness were 4.2% and 0.2%, respectively.

10 50
10 50
EG/B=0.2 EG/B=0.2
(kNmm)

EG/B=0.2 EG/B=0.2
toughness(kNmm)
(MPa)

8 EG/B=0.3 40 EG/B=0.3
strength(MPa)

8 EG/B=0.3 40 EG/B=0.3

6 30
Flexuralstrength

Flexuraltoughness

6 30

4 20
4 20
Flexural

Flexural

2 10
2 10

0 0
0 Nylon 0.5% 0 Nylon 0.5%
Nylon 0.5% Nylon 0.5%
+ AM 1.0% + AM 1.0%
+ AM 1.0% + AM 1.0%
(b)
(b)
Figure 11.
11. Effects of EG/B
Effects ratios on flexural
of EG/B properties: (a) on flexural strength; (b)strength;
on flexural(b)
tough-
Figure
Figure 11. Effects of EG/B ratios ratios on flexural
on flexural properties:
properties: (a) on
(a) on flexural flexural
strength; (b) on on
flexural tough-
ness.
flexural
ness. toughness.

3.2.2.
3.2.2.Effect
Effectof
ofFiber
FiberVolume
VolumeFraction
FractionRatio
Ratio
3.2.2. Effect of Fiber Volume Fraction Ratio
The
Theresults
resultsininFigure
Figure 1212
show
show thethe
effect of of
effect thethe
fiber volume
fiber volume fraction ratioratio
fraction on the
on flexural
the flex-
The results in Figure 12 show the effect of the fiber volume fraction ratio on the flex-
load–deflection curves.curves.
ural load–deflection The results show that
The results showthethat
inclusion of the hybrid
the inclusion of thefibers significantly
hybrid fibers sig-
ural load–deflection curves. The results show that the inclusion of the hybrid fibers sig-
improved
nificantlythe flexural the
improved behavior of the
flexural lightweight
behavior of thecement-based composites compared
lightweight cement-based compositesto
nificantly improved the flexural behavior of the lightweight cement-based composites
the plain type without fibers. In addition, from the figure, the contribution
compared to the plain type without fibers. In addition, from the figure, the contribution of the AM and
compared to the plain type without fibers. In addition, from the figure, the contribution
nylon
of thefiber
AM andcontent
nylonratio within
fiber a total
content ratiovolume
within afraction of the fraction
total volume hybrid type
of theofhybrid
1.5% was
type
of the AM and nylon fiber content ratio within a total volume fraction of the hybrid type
evaluated.
of 1.5% was evaluated. Generally speaking, the flexural strength and deflectionthe
Generally speaking, the flexural strength and deflection capacity at peak
capacity
of 1.5%
load was evaluated.
proportionally Generally
increased with speaking, the flexural
an increasing AM fiberstrength
content andthe
deflection capacity
at the peak load proportionally increased with an increasing AM in hybrid system.
fiber content in the hy-
at the peak load proportionally increased with an increasing AM fiber content in the hy-
brid system.
brid system.
6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Materials2023,
Materials 16,x4457
2023,16, FOR PEER REVIEW 1313ofof17
17

Figure 12. Effect of fiber volume fractions on flexural load–deflection curves.

Figure
Figure12.
12.Effect
Effectofoffiber
fibervolume
volumefractions
fractionson flexural
flexuralload–deflection
load–deflectioncurves.
To be more specific, as indicated in Figure 13a,onthe mean curves.
flexural strength values of
the specimens EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5,
Tobe
To bemore
morespecific,
specific,EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75,
asindicated
as indicatedin inFigure 13a,and
Figure13a, EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0
themean
the mean flexuralstrength
flexural strengthvalues
valuesofof
were computed as 5.69,
the 6.97,
specimens and 8.38 (MPa),
EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5, respectively, with
EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75,COVs
the specimens EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5, EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75, and EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0of
and 0.112, 0.074, and
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 were
0.107, respectively. Such
computed
were values
as 5.69,
computed were
as 6.97,approximately
5.69, and 8.38
6.97, and (MPa), 14.40%, 40.30%,
respectively,
8.38 (MPa), and COVs
with with
respectively, COVs 68.60% of greater
of 0.112, 0.074,0.074,
0.112, and 0.107,
and
respectively.
than that of RE-EG0.3.
0.107, Such Such
Additionally,
respectively. values were were
increasing
values approximately
the AM volume
approximately14.40%, 40.30%,
content
14.40%, from and
0.5%
40.30%, 68.60% greater
andto68.60%
1.0% than
greater
that
than
in a total fraction of of RE-EG0.3.
thatof
1.5% ofhybrid
RE-EG0.3. Additionally,
Additionally,
fibers increasing
increasedincreasing the
the meanthe AM volume
AM volume
flexural content
strength from
content
fromfrom 0.5% to 1.0%
0.5% to 1.0%
22.60% in
a total fraction of 1.5% of hybrid fibers increased the mean flexural strength
in a total fraction of 1.5% of hybrid fibers increased the mean flexural strength from 22.60% from 22.60%
to 47.40%.
toto47.40%.
47.40%.

10 50
10 50
Flexural toughness (kNmm)

Flexural toughness (kNmm)

Flexural strength (MPa)

8 40
Flexural strength (MPa)

8 40

6 6 30 30

4 4 20 20

2 10 10
2
0 0
0 0 1.0% +
Nylon 0.5% + Nylon 0.75% + Nylon Nylon 0.5% + Nylon 0.75% + Nylon 1.0% +
Nylon 0.5% + Nylon 0.75% + NylonAM
AM 1.0% 1.0% +
0.75% Nylon 0.5% + Nylon
AM 0.5% 0.75% + AM
AM 1.0% Nylon 1.0% +AM 0.5%
0.75%
AM 1.0% AM 0.75% AM 0.5% AM 1.0% AM 0.75% AM 0.5%
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 13. Effects of fiber volume fractions on flexural parameters: (a) on flexural strength; (b) on flex-
Figure
Figure 13. Effects ofural 13. Effects
toughness.
fiber volume of fiberon
fractions volume fractions
flexural on flexural
parameters: (a) onparameters: (a) on flexural
flexural strength; (b) onstrength;
flex- (b) on
ural toughness. flexural toughness.
Furthermore, the inclusion of increasing the content of AM fibers within the matrix
Furthermore,
resulted the inclusion
in greater residual stress of
andincreasing the content
flexural toughness asof AMAs
well. fibers within
shown the matrix
in Figure 13b,
Furthermore,resulted
the inclusion
in of
greater increasing
residual stressthe
andcontent of
flexural AM fibers
toughness as within
well. As the matrix
shown in Figure 13b,
the mean flexural toughness of specimens EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75 and EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0
resulted in greaterthe
residual
mean stress and
flexural flexural
toughness of toughnessEG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75
specimens as well. As shown in and Figure 13b,
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0
were computed as 32.86 and 36.18 (kNmm), respectively, which were approximately
the mean flexural42.80%,
toughnessand of
were computed specimens
as 32.86
57.20% andEG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75
greater 36.18that
than (kNmm), and
respectively, EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0
which
of EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5. were approximately
Compared 42.80%,
to the specimen
and
were computed without 57.20%
as 32.86fibers, greater
and RE-EG0.3,than that
36.18 (kNmm), of EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5.
respectively, Compared to the specimen without
the flexural toughness which were approximately
of EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5, EG0.3-NY0.75-
42.80%, and 57.20% fibers, RE-EG0.3,
greater the
thatflexural toughness of EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5, EG0.3-NY0.75-AM0.75, and
AM0.75, andthan of EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5.
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 Compared361.9%,
improved by approximately to the 559.5%,
specimenand 626.1%,
EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 improved by approximately 361.9%, 559.5%, and 626.1%, respectively.
without fibers, RE-EG0.3,
respectively.the flexural toughness of EG0.3-NY1.0-AM0.5, EG0.3-NY0.75-
AM0.75, and EG0.3-NY0.5-AM1.0 improved
3.2.3. Effect of Nylon by approximately 361.9%, 559.5%, and 626.1%,
Fiber Length
respectively. 3.2.3. Effect of Nylon Fiber Length
Figure 14 shows the effect of the length of nylon fibers on the flexural load–deflection
Figure
curves 14 lightweight
of the shows the effect of the length
cement-based of nylon fibers
composites. on theshow
The results flexural load–deflection
that the nylon fiber
curves
3.2.3. Effect of Nylon of
Fiber
length the lightweight cement-based composites. The results show
Lengthnegligible effects on the flexural strength but significantly
exhibited that the affected
nylon fiber
the
length exhibited
deformation negligible
capacity at theeffects
peak on
load the
and flexural
the strength
residual but
strength significantly
in the affected
post-peak the
stage.
Figure 14 shows the effect
deformation of the at
capacity length of nylon
the peak load andfibers on the flexural
the residual strengthload–deflection
in the post-peak stage.
curves of the lightweight cement-based composites. The results show that the nylon fiber
length exhibited negligible effects on the flexural strength but significantly affected the
deformation capacity at the peak load and the residual strength in the post-peak stage.
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

4457 1414of
of 17

Figure 14. Effect of nylon fiber length on flexural load–deflection curves.

Figure 14. Effect of nylon fiber length on flexural load–deflection curves.

The effect of the nylon fiber length on the primary flexural parameters is presented
in Figure 15. As shown Theineffect
The Figure
effect of 15a,
of the
the thefiber
nylon
nylon mean
fiber flexural
length
length on thestrengths
onthe primary of specimens
primaryflexural parameters
flexural parametersEG0.3-
is is
presented in
presented
Figure
in 15. 15.
NY12-AM10 and EG0.3-NY6-AM10,
Figure As As
shownshownin Figure
using 6 15a,
mm-
in Figure theand
15a, mean
the 12flexural
mm-nylon
mean strengths
flexural of specimens
fibers,
strengths EG0.3-NY12-
respectively,
of specimens EG0.3-
were mostly the sameAM10 and EG0.3-NY6-AM10,
(5.58 and
NY12-AM10 and5.69 using 6
MPa, respectively).
EG0.3-NY6-AM10, mm- and 12 mm-nylon
using 6 Nevertheless,
mm- and 12 mm-nylon fibers, respectively,
the deflection ca- were
fibers, respectively,
mostly
were of the
mostly same (5.58 and 5.69
the same (5.58 and MPa, respectively).
5.69observed Nevertheless,
MPa, respectively). the deflection
Nevertheless,twothe timescapacityca-
deflection at
pacity at the peak load EG0.3-NY12-AM10 was to be approximately
the peak load of EG0.3-NY12-AM10 was observed to be approximately two times larger
larger than that of pacity at the peak load(Figure
EG0.3-NY6-AM10
than that of EG0.3-NY6-AM10
of EG0.3-NY12-AM10
15b). 15b). was observed to be approximately two times
(Figure
larger than that of EG0.3-NY6-AM10 (Figure 15b).

10 1.0
10 1.0
Deflection at peak load (mm)

Deflection at peak load (mm)

Flexural strength (MPa)

Flexural strength (MPa)

8 8 0.8 0.8

6 6 0.6 0.6

4 0.4
4 0.4
2 0.2
2 0.2
0 0.0
0 Nylon 12 Nylon
0.06 Nylon 12 Nylon 6
Nylon 12 Nylon 6 (a) Nylon 12 (b) 6
Nylon
30 (a) 5 (b)
Flexural toughness (kNmm)

30 5
Residual strength (MPa)

4
Flexural toughness (kNmm)

20
Residual strength (MPa)

4 3
20
3 2
10
1
2
10
0 0
Nylon 12 Nylon16 Nylon 12 Nylon 6
(c) (d)
0 0
Nylon 12Figure 15. Effects
Nylon 6
of nylon Nylon
fiber length on flexural 12
parameters: Nylon strength;
(a) on flexural 6 (b) on de-
flection;
(c)(c) on flexural toughness; (d) on residual strength. (d)
Regarding
Effectstheofflexural
nylon behavior
fiber lengthinonthe post-peak
flexural stage, Figureon 15d shows the compar-
Figure 15. Effects ofFigure
nylon15. fiber length on flexural parameters: (a) parameters:
on flexural (a) flexural
strength; (b) strength;
on de- (b) on
ative results
deflection; in terms
(c) on flexuraloftoughness;
the residual strength
(d) on residualof the test specimens using different nylon
strength.
flection; (c) on flexural toughness; (d) on residual strength.
fiber lengths. The residual strength was obtained from the flexural stress–deflection curves
after Regarding
the peak load thecorresponding
flexural behaviorto ain the post-peak
specific stage,
deflection Figure
value 15d shows
of Lc/150. the compara-
The results indicate
Regarding thethat flexural
tive results behavior
in terms
the residual in the
of the of
strength post-peak
residual strength
specimen stage, Figure 15d
of the test specimens
EG0.3-NY12-AM10 shows
using using the
a nylon compar-
different nylonof
fiber length fiber
12
ative results in termsmm of
wasthe
lengths. 2.80residual
The residual strengthwas
strength
MPa, approximately of1.6
the testgreater
obtained
times specimens
from the using
flexural
than that different nylon
ofstress–deflection
EG0.3-NY16-AM10 curves after
using a
fiber lengths. The residual strength was obtained from the flexural stress–deflection curves
after the peak load corresponding to a specific deflection value of Lc/150. The results indicate
that the residual strength of specimen EG0.3-NY12-AM10 using a nylon fiber length of 12
mm was 2.80 MPa, approximately 1.6 times greater than that of EG0.3-NY16-AM10 using a
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, 4457 15 of 17

nylon fiber length of 6 mm. Consequently, the flexural toughness of EG0.3-NY12-AM10 was
the peakthan
roughly 1.2 times greater load that
corresponding to a specific deflection
of EG0.3-NY16-AM10, value ofinLcFigure
as presented /150. The
15c.results indicate
that the residual strength of specimen EG0.3-NY12-AM10 using a nylon fiber length of
Generally speaking, the utilization of longer lengths of nylon fibers (12 mm) in the
12 mm was 2.80 MPa, approximately 1.6 times greater than that of EG0.3-NY16-AM10 using
hybrid system could enhance
a nylon the flexural
fiber length of 6 mm.characteristics
Consequently, the inflexural
the post-peak
toughnessstage, such as
of EG0.3-NY12-AM10
the residual resistance and flexural
was roughly toughness,
1.2 times greater than when compared
that of to the shorter
EG0.3-NY16-AM10, ones (6 in
as presented mm).
Figure 15c.
The results emphasizeGenerally
the role of longer-length
speaking, fibers in
the utilization enhancing
of longer theoftensile
lengths stress(12
nylon fibers trans-
mm) in the
hybrid macro-crack
fer mechanism through system could enhance the flexural
development aftercharacteristics
attaining the in the
peakpost-peak
load tostage, such as the
restrain
residual resistance and flexural toughness, when compared to the
the crack opening (Yu et al. [26], Park et al. [27]). Nonetheless, adverse effects regarding shorter ones (6 mm). The
results emphasize the role of longer-length fibers in enhancing the tensile stress transfer
fiber dispersion and workability, which affect the compressive strength, should be con-
mechanism through macro-crack development after attaining the peak load to restrain the
sidered to accomplish
crackaopening
composite(Yu etwith reasonable
al. [26], Park et al.mechanical characteristics.
[27]). Nonetheless, adverse effects regarding fiber
dispersion and workability, which affect the compressive strength, should be considered to
3.3. Fracture Characteristics
accomplish a composite with reasonable mechanical characteristics.
The fracture surfaces of the specimens after the flexural tests are shown in Figure 16.
3.3. Fracture Characteristics
After the peak load, it was observed that the AM fibers were fractured, whereas the nylon
The fracture surfaces of the specimens after the flexural tests are shown in Figure 16.
fibers were pulledAfterout.theThe
peakresults
load, itreveal that the
was observed thatAMthe AMfibers showed
fibers greaterwhereas
were fractured, bonding the nylon
strength inside thefibers
lightweight matrix
were pulled out.than
The their
resultstensile
reveal strength,
that the AM leading
fibers to brittlegreater
showed behav-bonding
ior. Compared to strength
the AMinside
fibers,
the the nylon matrix
lightweight fibers than
showed lowerstrength,
their tensile bonding strength
leading than
to brittle behavior.
their tensile strength and high elongation, leading to the pull-out behavior. Therefore, their
Compared to the AM fibers, the nylon fibers showed lower bonding strength than
tensile strength and high elongation, leading to the pull-out behavior. Therefore, from
from a structural point of view, the high bonding strength of the AM fibers is expected to
a structural point of view, the high bonding strength of the AM fibers is expected to be
be beneficial in thebeneficial
flexuralinbehavior of the composites in the pre-peak stage. Meanwhile,
the flexural behavior of the composites in the pre-peak stage. Meanwhile, the
the pull-out characteristic of the nylon
pull-out characteristic of fibers is expected
the nylon to be beneficial
fibers is expected in the
to be beneficial post-peak
in the post-peak stage
stage and contributeandto residualtostress
contribute resistance.
residual stress resistance.

Figure
Figure 16. Morphology and Morphology
16.SEM image ofand SEM image
fracture of fracture
surfaces surfaces
of test of test specimens.
specimens.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions The present study developed a new type of lightweight and high-performance cement-
based composite
The present study developedfora application
new type in of thin components
lightweight andofhigh-performance
buildings. For fabricating
ce- the
composites, EG particles from industrial refractory materials and
ment-based composite for application in thin components of buildings. For fabricating the a hybrid fiber type made
up of short AM and nylon fibers were utilized. The compressive and flexural properties of
composites, EG particles from industrial refractory materials and a hybrid fiber type made
the developed cement-based composites were experimentally investigated. From the test
up of short AM and nylon
results, thefibers were
primary utilized.
conclusions canThe compressive
be drawn and flexural properties
as follows:
of the developed (1)cement-based
Increasing the EG/B ratio from 0.2 to 0.3 resulted investigated.
composites were experimentally in a reduction ofFrom the
the compressive
test results, the primary conclusions
strength can of
by a range be14.2%
drawn to as follows:
15.3% due to the increase in the hollow extent of
the ratio
(1) Increasing the EG/B matrix. A similar
from 0.2 totendency was observed
0.3 resulted regarding
in a reduction of the
the variation in the nylon
compressive
strength by a range of 14.2% to 15.3% due to the increase in the hollow extent of the
matrix. A similar tendency was observed regarding the variation in the nylon fiber
content of the hybrid fiber type, with a reduction in the compressive strength by a
Materials 2023, 16, 4457 16 of 17

fiber content of the hybrid fiber type, with a reduction in the compressive strength
by a range of 2.3% to 10.7%. In addition, the utilization of nylon fibers with a longer
length of 12 mm resulted in a compressive strength reduction of approximately 13%
compared to that of the 6 mm nylon fibers.
(2) Regarding the fracture characteristics in flexure, the test results reveal that the AM
fibers showed brittle behavior owing to a greater bonding strength inside the
lightweight matrix than their tensile strength; meanwhile, the nylon fibers showed
pull-out behavior due to a high elongation capacity and a lower bonding strength
than their tensile strength.
(3) The amount of EG particles in the composites generally affected the flexural behavior
of the lightweight cement-based composites less in terms of their initial stiffness,
strength, and ductility. When increasing the EG/B ratio from 0.2 to 0.3, the difference
in the flexural strength was in a range of 1.5% to 4.4%, and the values regarding the
difference in flexural toughness were in a range from 0.2% to 4.2%.
(4) Increasing the AM fiber content from 0.5% to 1.0% in the hybrid system proportionally
improved the mean flexural strength from 22.60% to 47.40%, as well as the deflec-
tion capacity at the peak load. In addition, in the post-peak stage, increasing the
content of AM fibers within the matrix resulted in better ductility, represented by
the improvement in the residual stress and flexural toughness. Compared to the
specimen containing an AM volume fraction of 0.5%, the mean flexural toughness of
those containing an AM volume fraction of 0.75% and 1.0% improved approximately
by 42.80% and 57.20%, respectively. Such values regarding the improvement of the
residual strength at a deflection of Lc /150 were 78.9% and 47.7%, respectively.
(5) The nylon fiber length exhibited negligible effects on the flexural strength but signifi-
cantly affected the deformation capacity at the peak load and the residual strength in
the post-peak stage. The utilization of longer lengths of nylon fibers (12 mm) in the
hybrid fiber type enhanced the flexural characteristics in the post-peak stage, such as
the residual resistance and flexural toughness, when compared to the shorter ones
(6 mm). Compared to the specimen using a 6 mm nylon fiber length, the specimen
using a 12 mm nylon fiber length exhibited residual strength 1.6 times and 1.2 times
higher corresponding to Lc /150 and the flexural toughness, respectively.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.-T.D. and N.-H.D.; methodology, C.-T.D. and N.-H.D.;
investigation, N.-H.D. and M.P.; writing—original draft preparation, N.-H.D. and M.P.;
writing—review and editing, C.-T.D.; supervision, C.-T.D.; project administration, C.-T.D. and N.-
H.D.; funding acquisition, C.-T.D. and N.-H.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training under
research project No. B2022-DNA-01.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available upon request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the
Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training under research project No. B2022-DNA-01.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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