Itp Report Tushita Tandon
Itp Report Tushita Tandon
Psychology is a discipline derived from philosophy which is the parent discipline. The word
psychology is derived from two greek words – ‘psyche’ meaning mind and ‘logos’ meaning
study. According to the American Psychological Association psychology is defined as the
scientific study of mind and behavior. Behavior stands for responses and actions that are
directly observed and mind is defined as the internal state and processes that aren’t
observable yet can be inferred through measurable responses
Psychology helps us to comprehend how are brain and body connected. As a scientific
discipline, it provides a very systematic approach without creating any possible biases which
leads to faulty observations.
Goals of psychology
As a science, psychology has four central goals: description, explanation, control, and
prediction
Description: Description is the most basic goal; psychologists seek to describe how people
behave, think, and feel. Simply describing the behavior of humans and other animals helps
psychologists understand the motivations behind it. Such descriptions also serve as
behavioral benchmarks that help psychologists gauge what is considered normal and
abnormal
Explanation: Psychologists strive to explain—to understand—why people act as they do.
Explanations typically take the form of hypotheses and theories that specify the causes of
behavior. The goal of explaining is to provide answers to questions about why people react
to certain stimuli in certain ways, how various factors impact personalities and mental health,
and so on. Psychologists often use experiments, which measure the impacts of variables upon
behaviors, to help formulate theories that explain aspects of human and animal behaviors.
Control: Psychology aims to change, influence, or control behavior to make positive,
constructive, meaningful, and lasting changes in people’s lives and to influence their behavior
for the better. psychologists exert control by designing experiments or other types of
research to test whether their proposed explanations are accurate.
Prediction: Making predictions about how humans and animals will think and act is the third
goal of psychology. By looking at past observed behaviour (describing and explaining),
psychologists aim to predict how that behaviour may appear again in the future, as well as
whether others might exhibit the same behaviour.
Consider Kruger et al.’s (2005) research on the first instinct fallacy. They first
determined that although students are more likely to change multiple-choice answers from
wrong to right than from right to wrong, they still erroneously believe that the best exam
strategy is to “go with your first instinct” (description). Next, they proposed a model
to explain why many students hold this belief (explanation). To test each part of their
model, Kruger et al. conducted additional studies in which they carefully controlled the
situations and questions to which participants were exposed (control). Their findings
supported the model. The knowledge gained has already led other psychologists and
educators to offer correct advice to students about answer-switching strategies (Social
Psychology Network, 2010). Now you can apply this knowledge to your own test-taking
behaviour as well.
Psychology as a science
Despite the differences in their interests, areas of study, and approaches, all psychologists
have one thing in common: They rely on scientific methods. Research psychologists use
scientific methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behavior,
whereas psychologist-practitioners, such as clinical, counselling, industrial-organizational,
and school psychologists, use existing research to enhance the everyday life of others. The
science of psychology is important for both researchers and practitioners.
The empirical methods used by scientists have developed over many years and provide a
basis for collecting, analysing, and interpreting data within a common framework in which
information can be shared. We can label the scientific method as the set of assumptions,
rules, and procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research.
For example, if we want to know how people’s intellectual abilities change as they age, we
don’t rely on intuition, pure reasoning, or folk wisdom to obtain an answer. Rather, we
collect empirical data by exposing people to intellectual tasks and observing how they
perform. Moreover, in science these observations need to be systematic (i.e., performed
according to a system of rules or conditions) so that they will be as objective and precise as
possible (Shaughnessy et al., 2010)
the study of psychology spans many different topics at many different levels of
explanation which are the perspectives that are used to understand behavior. Lower levels of
explanation are more closely tied to biological influences, such as genes, neurons,
neurotransmitters, and hormones, whereas the middle levels of explanation refer to the
abilities and characteristics of individual people, and the highest levels of explanation relate
to social groups, organizations, and cultures (Cacioppo, Berntsen, Sheridan, & McClintock,
2000).
Survey: In the survey method, researchers will ask a series of questions about the topic they
are studying. In survey research, information about a topic is obtained by administering
questionnaires or interviews to many people. Political polls are a well-known example, but
surveys also ask about participants’ behaviors, experiences, and attitudes on wide-ranging
issues. For example, in a carefully conducted national survey of 12- to 17-year-old
Americans, 40 percent of these adolescents reported that they had witnessed violence either at
home or in their community, and 8 percent and 23 percent, respectively, indicated that they
had personally been the victims of sexual and physical assault (Hanson et al., 2006).
To draw valid conclusions about a population from a survey, the sample must be
representative: a representative sample is one that reflects the important characteristics of the
population. To obtain a representative sample, survey researchers typically use a procedure
called random sampling, in which every member of the population has an equal probability of
being chosen to participate in the survey. A common variation of this procedure, called
stratified random sampling, is to divide the population into subgroups based on
characteristics such as gender or ethnic identity. Suppose the population is 55 percent female.
In this case, 55 percent of the spaces in the sample would be allocated to women and 45
percent to men. Random sampling is then used to select the individual women and men who
will be in the survey
There also are several major drawbacks to surveys. First, survey data cannot be used to draw
conclusions about cause and effect. Second, surveys rely on participants’ self-reports, which
can be distorted by social desirability bias, by interviewer bias, by people’s inaccurate
perceptions of their own behavior, and by misinterpreting survey questions. Third,
unrepresentative samples can lead to faulty generalizations about how an entire population
would respond. And finally, even when surveys use proper random sampling procedures,
once in a while—simply by chance—a sample that is randomly chosen will turn out not to be
representative of the larger population
Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology is the study of psychological issues that uses experimental
procedures. The concern of experimental psychology is discovering the processes underlying
behaviour and cognition. Experimental psychologists conduct research with the help of
experimental methods.
According to Eysenck (1996) “An experiment is the planned manipulation of variables in
which at least one of the variables that is the independent variable is altered under the
predetermined conditions during the experiment.” According to Jahoda, “Experiment is a
method of testing hypothesis.” According to Festinger and Katz, “The essence of experiment
may be described as observing the effect of dependent variable after the manipulation of
independent variable.” According to Bootzin (1991), “An experiment is a research method
designed to control the factors that might affect a variable under study, thus allowing
scientists to establish cause and effect.”
Types of experiments:
1)On the basis of the setting:
a) Lab experiments : A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly
controlled conditions (not necessarily a laboratory), where accurate measurements are
possible.
The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which
participants, in what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.
Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group. It is easier to
replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is because a standardized procedure is
used. They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables. This allows a
cause and effect relationship to be established. The artificiality of the setting may produce
unnatural behavior that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it
would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real life setting. Demand characteristics
or experimenter effects may bias the results and become confounding variables.
b) Field experiments: Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment
of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-
life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables). behavior in a field experiment is
more likely to reflect real life because of its natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than
a lab experiment. There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as
participants may not know they are being studied. This occurs when the study is covert. The
limitation is that there is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results.
This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.
2) On the basis of degree of control:
a) True experiments : In true experiments The researcher randomly assigns subjects to control
and treatment groups. The researcher usually have control over design of the treatment and it
requires use of control and treatment groups. For example: To run a true experiment, you
randomly assign half the patients in a mental health clinic to receive the new treatment. The
other half—the control group—receives the standard course of treatment for depression.
Every few months, patients fill out a sheet describing their symptoms to see if the new
treatment produces significantly better (or worse) effects than the standard one.
b) Quasi experiments: in quasi experiments some non random method is used to assign
subjects to the group. The researcher often does not have control over the treatment, but
instead studies pre-existing groups that received different treatments after the fact and control
groups are not required. For example: You discover that a few of the psychotherapists in the
clinic have decided to try out the new therapy, while others who treat similar patients have
chosen to stick with the normal protocol.
You can use these pre-existing groups to study the symptom progression of the patients
treated with the new therapy versus those receiving the standard course of treatment.
Although the groups were not randomly assigned, if you properly account for any systematic
differences between them, you can be reasonably confident any differences must arise from
the treatment and not other confounding variables.
STEPS IN AN EXPERIMENT:
1) Research problem: The first step in the experimental method is raising a problem or
simply say finding a problem. In everyday life, many factors influence our behavior.
Sometimes we are puzzled and ask questions to ourselves as to why people act as they do.
These inquiries lead us to raise problems before us. Experiments can help find answers to
these questions. Experiments start with a problem, without its presence there is no question
for experimentation. It explores to find the solution.
4) Extraneous variable: Independent and dependent variables are not the only variables
present in many experiments. In some cases, extraneous variables may also play a role. This
type of variable is one that may have an impact on the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables.
For example, an experiment on the effects of sleep deprivation on test performance, other
factors such as age, gender, and academic background may have an impact on the results. In
such cases, the experimenter will note the values of these extraneous variables so any impact
can be controlled for.
For example: sleep problems in university students are often influenced by factors such as
stress. As a result, stress might be an intervening variable that plays a role in how much sleep
people get, which may then influence how well they perform on exams.
6) Controlled variable: In many cases, extraneous variables are controlled for by the
experimenter. A controlled variable is one that is held constant throughout an experiment.
In the case of participant variables, the experiment might select participants that are the same
in background and temperament to ensure that these factors don't interfere with the results.
Holding these variables constant is important for an experiment because it allows researchers
to be sure that all other variables remain the same across all conditions.
i) Experimental design: Experimental design refers to the ways participants are assigned to
the different conditions of an experiment. Your experimental design can involve subjecting
the same group of participants to all levels of your independent variable or just one level. An
experimental design is a way to plan out an experiment so that the results of the research is
objective and valid.
ii) Importance of experimental designs: Experimental design methods allow the experimenter
to understand better and evaluate the factors that influence a particular system by means of
statistical approaches. Such approaches combine theoretical knowledge of experimental
designs and a working knowledge of the particular factors to be studied
iii) Types of experimental designs: There are various type of experimental design.
a) Within subject designs: Single-group or within-subjects design is a technique in which
each subject serves as his own control. This single group of subjects serves under all values
or levels or conditions of the research or the independent variable, that is the variable under
study. For example, the experimenter wants to determine whether nicotine (found in tobacco)
has a deleterious or harmful or damaging effect on motor coordination. One powerful means
of studying this problem is as follows: the experimenter would choose a group of subjects
and submit them to a series of motor coordination tests, one test daily. Before some of the
tests, the subjects would be given a dose of nicotine, and before others they would receive a
placebo, an innocuous or harmless substance administered in the same way as the drug
(nicotine) and no-drug conditions. If the drug has a harmful effect on motor coordination,
experimenter should observe that, in general, the performance of subjects is poorer when
tested under the drug (nicotine) than when tested after receiving the placebo. Because each
subject is tested under both conditions, the experimenter need not concern herself or himself
with individual differences in motor coordination ability. Single-group design or within-
subjects design produce quite representative results possible to generalise.
d) Longitudinal design: A correlational research study of this kind called a longitudinal study
examines variables over a lengthy period of time. This investigation may last for several
weeks, months, or even years. Longitudinal research can last for several decades in various
circumstances. Finding correlations between variables that are unrelated to different
background variables is done using longitudinal design. The same group of people will be
observed repeatedly using this observational research method. Data may be acquired
regularly during the course of the study after the first data collection at its beginning. This
enables researchers to track the evolution of several factors.
e) Cross sectional design: A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which you
collect data from many different individuals at a single point in time. In cross-sectional
research, you observe variables without influencing them. For example:You want to know
how many families with children in New York City are currently low-income so you can
estimate how much money is required to fund a free lunch program in public schools.
Because all you need to know is the current number of low-income families, a cross-sectional
study should provide you with all the data you require.
Sometimes a cross-sectional study is the best choice for practical reasons – for instance, if
you only have the time or money to collect cross-sectional data, or if the only data you can
find to answer your research question was gathered at a single point in time.
As cross-sectional studies are cheaper and less time-consuming than many other types of
study, they allow you to easily collect data that can be used as a basis for further research.
g) Pre test and post test designs: In an experiment with a pretest-posttest design,
measurements are made of subjects both before and after they receive a treatment. Both
experimental and quasi-experimental research can make use of pretest-posttest designs,
which may or may not include control groups.
Simple Random Sampling: As the name implies, simple random sampling is the most basic
form of probability sampling. Using a computer programme or random number generator,
psychology researchers randomly choose a sample from among all the members of a
population.
Random Sampling with Stratification: A simple random sample is taken from each subgroup
once the population has been divided into segments for stratified random sampling. For
instance, research might segment the populace into subgroups according to race, sex, or age
before selecting a straightforward random sample from each of these categories. Stratified
random sampling helps guarantee that specific groups are fairly represented in the sample and
frequently offers statistical accuracy that is higher than ordinary random sampling.
Cluster sampling: In cluster sampling, a population is divided into smaller clusters, frequently
based on boundaries or location. Then, all of the subjects in a cluster are measured after a
random sample of these clusters is chosen.
One issue with this type of sample is that volunteers and non-volunteers may differ on certain
characteristics, which could make it challenging to generalise the findings to the full
community.
Purposive Sampling: In a purposeful sample, people who fit certain requirements are sought
out. For instance, a researcher might be curious to know what college grads between the ages
of 20 and 35 think about a particular subject. They might conduct phone interviews where
they specifically look for and speak with persons who fit their criteria.
6) Data collection: The process of gathering, measuring, and analysing precise insights for
research using accepted, established methods is known as data collection. Based on the
evidence gathered, a researcher can evaluate their hypothesis. No of the subject of study,
gathering data is typically the first and most crucial phase in the research process. Depending
on the type of data needed, different disciplines of research require different approaches to
data gathering.
b)Quantitative data collection: The quantitative approach uses numbers and statistics to
quantify change and is often expressed in the form of digits, units, ratios, percentages,
proportions, etc. Compared to the qualitative approach, the quantitative approach is more
structured, straightforward and formal. Quantitative approach is utilized to derive answers to
the questions ‘how much’ or ‘how many’. Types of quantitative data collection:
A structured closed-ended interview: this type of interview systematically
follows carefully organised questions that only allow a limited range of
answers, such as “yes/no” or expressed by a rating/number on a scale. For
quantitative interviews to be effective, each question must be asked the same
way to each respondent, with little to no input from the interviewer.
Closed ended surveys and questionnaires: is an ideal choice when you want
simple, quick feedback which can easily translate into statistics for analysis. In
quantitative research, surveys are structured questionnaires with a limited
number of closed-ended questions and rating scales used to generate numerical
data or data that can be separated under ‘yes’ or ‘no’ categories. These can be
collected and analysed quickly using statistics such as percentages.
Experimental research: is guided by hypotheses that state an expected
relationship between two or more variables, so an experiment is conducted to
support or disconfirm this experimental hypothesis. Usually, one set of
variables is manipulated (treatment group) and applied to the other set of
dependent variables (control group) to measure their effect on the latter. The
effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables is observed and
recorded to draw a reasonable conclusion regarding the relationship between
the two groups. This research is mainly used in natural sciences.
Correlational research: is a non-experimental research that studies the
relationship between two or more variables that are similar and interdependent
and assesses their statistical relationship – how one variable affects the other
and vice versa but with no influence from any extraneous variable. It uses
mathematical analysis to analyse collected data and the results are presented in
a diagram or generated in statistics.
Causal-comparative: also known as quasi-experimental research, compares
two variables that are not related. Variables are not manipulated. One variable
is dependent and the other independent. Variables not randomly assigned.
Statistical data review: entails a review of population censuses, research
studies and other sources of statistical data.
Laboratory testing: are precise measurement of a specific objective
phenomenon, e.g. infant weight or water quality test.
7) Analysis of data and drawing conclusions: Once the study is complete and the
observations have been made and recorded the researchers need to analyse the data and draw
their conclusions. Typically, data are analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics are used to summarize the data and inferential statistics are used to
generalize the results from the sample to the population. In turn, inferential statistics are used
to make conclusions about whether or not a theory has been supported, refuted, or requires
modification.
Evaluation
Advantages of the Experimental Method
i)Experimental method is the only method that allows the experimenter to infer cause-and-
effect relationship.
(ii) In experimental method, the experimenter can exercise control over other confounding
variables.
(iii) It helps in conducting a systematic, objective, précised, planned, wellorganised, and a
well-controlled scientific study.
(iv) This method makes any subject a science because a subject is a science not by “what” it
studies but by “how” it studies. This method makes Psychology a science.
Disadvantages of the Experimental Method
i)Its control is its weakness. It makes the set up or the situation artificial. A situation in which
all the variables are carefully controlled is not a normal, natural situation. As a result, the
researcher or the experimenter may have difficulty generalising the findings from
observations in an experiment to the real world (Christensen, 1992). For example, researcher
may not be able to generalise from a study conducted that examinee’s memory for non-sense
syllables presented on a computer screen in a psychological laboratory and draw conclusions
about the student’s learning about introductory Psychology in a college classroom. It is very
difficult to know and control all the intervening variables.
(ii) All the psychological phenomena can’t be studied by this method.
(iii) The experimental method is costly in terms of money and time. A welle stablished
laboratory and trained personnel are needed to conduct experiments.
Ethical issues
1) Informed consent: Whenever possible investigators should obtain the consent of
participants. In practice, this means it is not sufficient to simply get potential participants to
say “Yes”. They also need to know what it is that they are agreeing to. In other words, the
psychologist should, so far as is practicable explain what is involved in advance and obtain
the informed consent of participants.
Before the study begins the researcher must outline to the participants what the research is
about, and then ask their consent (i.e. permission) to take part. An adult (18ys +) capable of
giving permission to participate in a study can provide consent. Parents/legal guardians of
minors can also provide consent to allow their children to participate in a study.
2) Debriefing: After the research is over the participant should be able to discuss the
procedure and the findings with the psychologist. They must be given a general idea of what
the researcher was investigating and why, and their part in the research should be explained.
Participants must be told if they have been deceived and given reasons why. They must be
asked if they have any questions and those questions should be answered honestly and as
fully as possible.
Debriefing should take place as soon as possible and be as full as possible; experimenters
should take reasonable steps to ensure that participants understand debriefing.
“The purpose of debriefing is to remove any misconceptions and anxieties that the
participants have about the research and to leave them with a sense of dignity, knowledge,
and a perception of time not wasted” (Harris, 1998).
3)Protection of participants: Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research will
not be caused distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means
you must not embarrass, frighten, offend or harm participants. Normally, the risk of harm
must be no greater than in ordinary life, i.e. participants should not be exposed to risks
greater than or additional to those encountered in their normal lifestyles.
The researcher must also ensure that if vulnerable groups are to be used (elderly, disabled,
children, etc.), they must receive special care. For example, if studying children, make sure
their participation is brief as they get tired easily and have a limited attention span.
Researchers are not always accurately able to predict the risks of taking part in a study and in
some cases, a therapeutic debriefing may be necessary if participants have become disturbed
during the research (as happened to some participants in Zimbardo prisoners/guard study.
4) Deception: This is where participants are misled or wrongly informed about the aims of
the research. Types of deception include (i) deliberate misleading, e.g. using confederates,
staged manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions; (ii) deception by omission, e.g.,
failure to disclose full information about the study, or creating ambiguity. The researcher
should avoid deceiving participants about the nature of the research unless there is no
alternative – and even then this would need to be judged acceptable by an independent expert.
However, there are some types of research that cannot be carried out without at least some
element of deception.
For example, in Milgram study of obedience the participants thought they there giving
electric shocks to a learner when they answered a question wrong. In reality, no shocks were
given and the learners were confederates of Milgram.
This is sometimes necessary in order to avoid demand characteristics (i.e. the clues in an
experiment which lead participants to think they know what the researcher is looking for).
Another common example is when a stooge or confederate of the experimenter is used (this
was the case in both the experiments carried out by Asch).
However, participants must be deceived as little as possible, and any deception must not
cause distress. Researchers can determine whether participants are likely to be distressed
when deception is disclosed, by consulting culturally relevant groups. If the participant is
likely to object or be distressed once they discover the true nature of the research at
debriefing, then the study is unacceptable.
If you have gained participants’ informed consent by deception, then they will have agreed to
take part without actually knowing what they were consenting to. The true nature of the
research should be revealed at the earliest possible opportunity, or at least during debriefing.
Some researchers argue that deception can never be justified and object to this practice as it
(i) violates an individual’s right to choose to participate; (ii) is a questionable basis on which
to build a discipline; and (iii) leads to distrust of psychology in the community.
5)Confidentiality: Participants, and the data gained from them must be kept anonymous
unless they give their full consent. No names must be used in a lab report.
What do we do if we find out something which should be disclosed (e.g. criminal act)?
Researchers have no legal obligation to disclose criminal acts and have to determine which is
the most important consideration: their duty to the participant vs. duty to the wider
community.
Ultimately, decisions to disclose information will have to be set in the context of the aims of
the research.
6) Withdrawal from investigation: Participants should be able to leave a study at any time
if they feel uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to withdraw their data. They should
be told at the start of the study that they have the right to withdraw. They should not have
pressure placed upon them to continue if they do not want to (a guideline flouted in Milgram
research).
Participants may feel they shouldn’t withdraw as this may ‘spoil’ the study. Many
participants are paid or receive course credits, they may worry they won’t get this if they
withdraw Even at the end of the study the participant has a final opportunity to withdraw the
data they have provided for the research.