PID

ASSIGNMENT

NAME: Tushita Tandon

DEPARTMENT: Psychology

ROLL NO. 22/PSY/87

QUES) DEFINE PERSONALITY AND CRITICALLY ANALYZES THE
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH OF PERSONALITY.

Definition:
Personality is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that are
organized and relatively enduring and that influence his or her interactions with, and adaptations
to, the intrapsychic, physical, and social environments. Gordon Allport (1937) and Henry Murray
(1938)
Allport's definition of Personality. “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to the environment.”
(1937)
“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems
that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought” (Allport, 1961, p. 28).

According to Murray and Kluckohn (1948)

There are three level of personality:
1. Like all others (the human nature level).
2. Like some others (the level of individual and group differences)
.3. Like no others (the individual uniqueness level)

Human Nature
The general characteristics and mechanisms of personality that characterize our species and are
shared by everyone or almost everyone are described at the first level of personality analysis. On
a psychological level, all people have basic psychological mechanisms, such as the need to live
with others and be a part of social groups, and these mechanisms are inherent to all people.

Individual and Group Differences

These are traits that distinguish individuals from one another, such as extraversion, desire for
sensation, and strong self-esteem, for example. Some people have a high sense of self-worth and
live relatively anxiety-free lives; others worry continuously and struggle with self-doubt, etc.
Additionally, personality traits can be identified by examining group differences. In other words,
a group of people may share particular personality traits, and these traits distinguish that group
from other groups. Groups from various cultures, age ranges, political parties, and
socioeconomic origins are a few examples of groups that personality psychologists may study.

Individual Uniqueness
No two people are precisely alike, not even identical twins raised in the same household by the
same parents in the same society. Every person has unique personality traits that no other person
in the world possesses. Allowing for individual uniqueness and finding ways to capture the depth
of unique individual lives are two objectives of personality psychology.

The definition of personality given by Allport and Murray can be broken down into further small
elements and can be studied more deeply:

a)Personality is the Set of Psychological Traits

Psychological characteristics serve as markers of how people differ from one another. When you
call someone shy, you're highlighting one way they're different from people who are more
outspoken. In addition, qualities show how similar people are. For instance, shy people have
traits in common with one another.

are prone to feeling anxious in social situations, particularly when an audience is present. In this
view, characteristics are a person's typical tendencies. A high talker tends to initiate more
discussions than a low talker does.
Psychology has at least three consequences that can be inferred from it. They initially aid in
characterising people and understanding the scope of variations between people.. Second,
characteristics are helpful since they can be able to explain certain behaviours. People's
personality features may play a role in why they behave the way they do. Thirdly, qualities are
helpful because they may be used to predict future behaviour, such as the types of occupations
people will find fulfilling, who will handle stress better, and who is more likely to get along with
others. Personality can therefore be used to describe, explain, and forecast individual variations.

b)And Mechanisms
Similar to traits, psychological mechanisms focus more on personality processes than traits do.
The three main components of the majority of psychological systems are inputs, decisional rules,
and outputs. People may be more susceptible to certain environmental cues (inputs), more
inclined to consider particular options (decision rules), and more likely to direct their behaviour
towards particular types of activity (outputs) thanks to psychological mechanisms. An
extroverted individual, for instance, could seek opportunities to communicate with others, think
about such opportunities in every scenario, and even encourage others to do the same. Our
personalities contain many psychological mechanisms of this sort—information-processing
procedures that have the key elements of inputs, decision rules, and outputs

c)That Are Organized and Relatively Enduring

Organised refers to the fact that a certain person's psychological characteristics and systems are
not just a random assemblage of components. Instead, personality is organised because of the
ways in which the mechanisms and qualities are related to one another.
Additionally, psychological qualities are often consistent across contexts and rather long-lasting
throughout time, particularly in maturity. A person's current level of rage has nothing to do with
their moral character. An individual could be angry right now but not tomorrow or in other
situations. Anger is more of a state than it is a personality attribute. To imply that someone is
quickly annoyed or typically quick to anger, on the other hand, is to describe a psychological
characteristic. When compared to other people, someone who is anger-prone displays their wrath
regularly and repeatedly in a variety of situations.

d)And That Influence

An emphasis on the influencing factors of personality in the definition of personality indicates
that personality traits and mechanisms can have an impact on people's lives. The way we act,
think, feel, engage with others, choose our environments (especially our social environments),
pursue our life's objectives and ambitions, and respond to our circumstances are all influenced by
our personalities.

e)His or Her Interactions with

This part of personality may be the most difficult to define because of the complexity of person-
environment interaction. How we "see" or "interpret" our surroundings is what we call a
perception. The method through which we choose which scenarios to enter is called selection.
One person might like to go parachuting, while another might prefer to spend their free time
quietly gardening. We pick what life presents us, and our personalities have an impact on these
choices.
The reactions we unintentionally elicit in other individuals are known as evocations. We are
partially responsible for shaping the social context in which we live.
A child with a high activity level, for example, may evoke in parents attempts to constrain the
child, even though these attempts are not intended or desired by the child. Manipulations are the
ways in which we intentionally attempt to influence others. Someone who is anxious or
frightened easily may try to influence the group h or she is a part of to avoid scary movies or
risky activities.

f)And Adaptations to
An emphasis on adaptability expresses the idea that achieving goals, coping, adjusting, and
dealing with the difficulties and obstacles we encounter in life are fundamental aspects of
personality. Few aspects of human behaviour are as clear as the fact that it is goal-directed,
practical, and intentional. Even actions that don't seem to serve a purpose, like obsessive
worrying or neurotic behaviour, may in reality serve a purpose. People who worry a lot, for
instance, frequently get a lot of support and encouragement from others.

g)The Environment
The physical environment often poses challenges for people. Some of these are direct threats to
survival. For example, food shortages create the problem of securing adequate nutrients for
survival. The ways in which we cope with our social environment—the challenges we encounter
in our struggle for belongingness, love, and esteem from others—is central to an understanding.
In addition to our physical and social environments, we have an intrapsychic environment.
Intrapsychic means “within the mind.” For example, our self-esteem—how good or bad we feel
about ourselves at any given moment—may depend on our assessment of the degree to which we
are succeeding in attaining our goals
Personality is also defined in Indian context. In Indian thought, as in modern psychology, the
idea that individuals manifest stable and persistent characteristics or traits is widely accepted. In
Sanskrit, the term svabhāva is used to suggest that each individual has distinctive characteristics
that distinguish her/him from others. A common synonym of the word svabhāva is prakŗti, which
is a term from the Sāmkhya system to designate everything in the material world. According to
the Sāmkhya system, all events are guided by natural laws; all things develop according to their
inherent features, and so do all humans. All changes in the material world arise from the mutual
interaction of the three components or “strands” (guņas) of Prakŗti, namely sattva which is
mainly light and enlightenment, rajas meaning energy and movement, and tamas which involves
darkness and inertia.

The Psychodynamic Approach of Personality

The psychodynamic approach to psychology has its roots in the work of Sigmund Freud, an
Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who lived from 1856 to 1939. Freud's ideas laid the
foundation for the development of the psychodynamic approach and greatly influenced the field
of psychology
Soon after graduating from medical school, Freud began working in private medicine. When he
was awarded a research grant to go to Paris and watch Jean-Martin Charcot's work, who was
employing hypnosis at the time to treat various mental problems, it marked a turning point in his
early career. When Freud went back to Vienna, he collaborated with a colleague named Joseph
Breuer who was using hypnosis to treat hysteria, a condition in which sufferers experienced
physical symptoms like blindness, deafness, or paralysis of the arms or legs without any apparent
physical cause. These encounters helped Freud create his views about human personality and
mental illness, which he then steadily refined as his clinical practice expanded.

Freud's early work focused on neurology, and he developed the technique of hypnosis as a
treatment for various psychological disorders. However, he eventually abandoned hypnosis and
developed a new therapeutic method known as psychoanalysis. Freud believed that the
unconscious mind played a crucial role in shaping human behaviour and personality.
Freud wrote that instincts were the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that
drive behavior and determine its direction. Freud’s German term for this concept is Trieb, which
is a driving force or impulse (Bettelheim, 1984). Instincts are a form of energy—transformed
physiological energy—that connects the needs of the body with the wishes of the mind.

Freud grouped the instincts into two categories: life instincts and death instincts.
The Life Instincts: The life instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the
species by seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex. Life instincts are oriented
toward growth and development. The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the
libido. The libido can be attached to or invested in objects a concept Freud called cathexis.

The Death Instincts: In opposition to life instincts, Freud postulated destructive or death
instincts. Drawing from biology, he stated the obvious fact that all living things decay and die,
returning to their original inanimate state, and he believed that people have an unconscious wish
to die. One component of the death instincts is the aggressive drive, which he saw as the wish to
die turned against objects other than the self. (Schultz and Schultz,2013 p.44)

His ideas included the level of consciousness, the structure of personality, defence mechanisms
and psychosexual stages

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS:
Freud came to the shocking realization that the majority of the mind is hidden beneath the
threshold of conscious perception. The conscious world lies above this line. This includes the
thoughts we are having right now, as well as any feelings or experiences we may be having.
Below our conscious world is the much more expanded preconscious. This contains recollections
that are not currently on the mind, but why easily accessible when necessary. The unconscious,
which makes up the majority of the human mind and lies beneath the preconscious, contains
ideas, desires, and impulses that we are usually unaware of. (Baron and Misra)
Freud's theory of the unconscious was derived from experiences in hypnotism and catharisis. The
spectacular phenomenon of amnesia and the restoration of memory in therapy called for the
assumption of a continuum in which memories, loss of memories, and regaining of memories
could be presented. Freud actually did was to make an indirect analysis of the unconscious; this
analysis the observable phenomena of dreams, free association, slips of the tongue, and
symptoms of mental disorder were studied as representatives of the great mental province of the
unconscious
The tension-provoking stimuli force the infant to perceive them, to cope with them, and to try to
master them. This is probably the origin of the conception of reality, and this is the way the
conscious emerges out of the unconscious. Tension leads to the development of the conscious.
The development of the conscious depends on the infant's growing ability to utilize his
memories. The memories accumulate, as it were, on the "surface" of the unconscious, easily
accessible, and easily becoming conscious. This part of the unconscious forms the preconscious

The terms "conscious," "preconscious," and "unconscious" do not indicate any dynamic forces in
personality but, as Freud finally concluded, the mental provinces. They are topographic concepts
indicating the depth" of the mental processes, their relative distance from the surface. What the
individual is aware of is conscious; what he is not aware of but may become so at any time is
preconscious; what he cannot become aware of without definite effort or cannot become aware
of at all is unconscious.

STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY:
Freud asserted that the id, ego, and superego make up the majority of a person's personality.
These generally equate to desire, reason, and conscience, as we'll see in a moment.

Id:
All of our natural, primal urges are contained in the id. These include a range of physical
requirements, sexual longing, and violent tendencies. The id, according to Freud, is completely
unconscious and functions in line with what he called the pleasure principle: It desires complete,
instant gratification and is unable to weigh the potential costs of pursuing this aim.
 Ego:
In Freud’s theory, the part of personality that takes account of external reality in the expression
of instinctive sexual and aggressive urges and the principle according to which the ego operates,
in which the external consequences of behavior are considered in the expression of impulses
from the id. The ego is partly conscious but not entirely so; thus, some of its actions—for
example, its eternal struggle with the id—are outside our conscious knowledge or understanding

Super ego:
The final aspect of personality described by Freud is the superego. It too seeks to control
satisfaction of id impulses; but, in contrast to the ego, it is concerned with morality—with
whether various ways that could potentially satisfy id impulses are right or wrong. The superego
permits us to gratify such impulses only when it is morally correct to do so—not simply when it
is safe or feasible, as required by the ego.
Defense mechanisms:

Defense Mechanism Brief Description Example

Displacement Taking feelings out on others Being angry at your boss but taking it out
on your spouse instead
Denial Denying that something exists Being the victim of a violent crime, yet
denying that the incident occurred
Repression Unconsciously keeping Being abused as a child but not
unpleasant information from remembering the abuse
your conscious mind
Suppression Consciously keeping Being abused as a child but choosing to
unpleasant information from push it out of your mind
your conscious mind
Sublimation Converting unacceptable Being upset with your spouse but going
impulses into more acceptable for a walk instead of fighting
outlets
Projection Assigning your own Feeling attracted to someone other than
unacceptable feelings or your spouse, then fearing that your
 qualities to others spouse is cheating on you
Intellectualization Thinking about stressful things Losing a close family member and
in a clinical way staying busy with making the necessary
arrangements instead of feeling sad
Rationalization Justifying an unacceptable Being denied a loan for your dream
feeling or behavior with logic house, then saying it's a good thing
because the house was too big anyway
Regression Reverting to earlier behaviors Hugging a teddy bear when you're
stressed, like you did when you were a
child
Reaction Formation Replacing an unwanted impulse Being sad about a recent breakup, but
with its opposite acting happy about it

All behaviours, according to Freud, are defensive, but not everyone employs defenses in the
same way. The same id impulses govern us all, but the nature of the ego and superego differs
from one person to the next. Nevertheless, these structures of

Although the duties of the personality are the same for everyone, the content differs from
individual to person. Because they are produced via experience, they vary. Freud also sensed
strong sexual conflicts in the infant and young child, conflicts that seemed to revolve around
specific regions of the body. He noted that each body region assumed a greater importance as the
center of conflict at a different age. From these observations he derived his theory of the
psychosexual stages of development; each stage is define by an erogenous zone of the body. In
each developmental stage a conflict exists that must be resolved before the infant or child can
progress to the next stage. Sometimes a person is reluctant or unable to move from one stage to
the next because the conflict has not been resolved, or because the needs have been so supremely
satisfied by an indulgent parent that the child doesn’t want to move on. In either case, the
individual is said to be fixated at this stage of development. In fixation, a portion of libido or
psychic energy remains invested in that developmental stage, leaving less energy for the
following stages.
The various stages of development were:

1)Oral Stage (Birth To 1 Year)

In the first stage of psychosexual development, the libido is centered in a baby’s mouth. During
the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to
satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands.

Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding. An example of this stage would be an infant who derives pleasure from sucking
on a pacifier or bottle. This gives them pleasure and satisfaction, and helps them learn about their
environment.

Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities
around us, such as smokers, nail-biters, over-eaters, and thumb-suckers. Oral personalities
engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

2)Anal Stage (1 To 3 Years)

The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development happens between the ages of 18
months and three years. During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the
child derives great pleasure from defecating. An example of this stage would be a child who
takes pleasure in controlling and releasing their bowels.

Freud believed this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults
impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict
with authority can determine the child’s future relationship with all forms of authority.
Unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as excessive
cleanliness, stubbornness, or a need for control. Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child
becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual, and
respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to the pleasure of holding on to their faeces when toddlers and their mum insist
they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform. Not as daft as it sounds.
The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal
stage. In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you.” An
anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized, and rebellious.

3)Phallic Stage (3 To 6 Years)

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of three to
six years, wherein the infant’s libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone.
During this stage, children become more aware of their bodies and develop a fascination with
their genitals, as well as with those of the opposite sex. The child becomes aware of anatomical
sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry,
jealousy, and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in
girls). This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting
the characteristics of the same-sex parent. According to Freud, unresolved conflicts or issues
during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as sexual dysfunction, gender identity
issues, or difficulties with relationships.

Oedipus Complex

The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud’s
most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright. The name of the Oedipus
complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries
his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the
generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes. In the young boy, the
Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual
(pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of
his father to enable him to do so. Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out
about all this, his father would take away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what
the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety. The little boy then
sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type
behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his
Oedipus complex. Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of
another person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and
adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego. Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans
case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.

Electra Complex

For girls, the Electra Complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but
realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the
wish to be a boy. The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the
wish for a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her “castrated state,”
and this creates great tension. The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and
identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role.

4)Latency Stage (6 Years To Puberty)

The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the period of six
years to puberty. During this stage, the libido is dormant, and no further psychosexual
development takes place (latent means hidden). The latency stage is the fourth stage of
psychosexual development, according to Freud’s theory, which happens between the ages of 6
and 12. During this stage, children’s sexual impulses become suppressed (the libido is dormant),
and no further psychosexual development takes place (latent means hidden). Children focus on
developing social and intellectual skills, including school, friendships, and hobbies, instead of on
sexual or romantic interests, Freud thought most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent
stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. Much
of the child’s energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and
play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender. An example of this stage
would be a child who engages in hobbies and interests rather than sexual activities. According to
Freud, unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as
difficulty expressing emotions or forming healthy relationships.

5)Genital Stage (Puberty To Adult)

The genital stage is the fifth and final stage of Freud’s theory of psychosexual development,
which begins in puberty and continues to adulthood. During this stage, individuals start to
become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and desires more maturely and
responsibly. During this stage, individuals start to experience romantic and sexual feelings and
begin to form intimate relationships with others. An example of this stage would be a teenager
who begins to experience sexual attraction and begins to explore their sexuality. It is a time of
adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving
one-to-one relationship with another person in her 20s. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual
pleasure, rather than self-pleasure, like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of
the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may
prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. For example, fixation at
the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex,
rather than sexual intercourse. According to Freud, if individuals have unresolved conflicts or
issues during this stage, it can lead to problems such as sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming
healthy relationships, or other emotional problems.

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason
for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have
been adequately met in which case there is frustration.

Or possibly the person’s needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave
the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence

Both of these can lead to fixation.

Criticism of psychodynamic approach:

Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality, while influential and groundbreaking in its time,
has also received significant criticism over the years. Some of the key criticisms are as follows:
1.Lack of Empirical Evidence: Freud's theory relies heavily on introspection and clinical case
studies, which are subjective and difficult to generalize. Many of his concepts, such as the
Oedipus complex and the unconscious mind, lack empirical support and cannot be scientifically
tested or observed.
2.Overemphasis on Sexuality: Freud's theory places a disproportionate emphasis on sexuality
as the driving force behind human behavior. Critics argue that this narrow focus ignores other
important motivational factors, such as social and cultural influences, and fails to adequately
account for the complexity of human experiences.
3.Lack of Falsifiability: Freud's theories are criticized for being difficult to falsify. His
concepts, such as the unconscious mind and the interpretation of dreams, are often based on
subjective interpretations that cannot be objectively tested or disproven. This lack of falsifiability
raises concerns about the scientific validity of his theory.
4.Sexist and Misogynistic Views: Freud's theory has been criticized for its sexist and
misogynistic elements. His portrayal of women as inherently inferior and the concept of "penis
envy" have been seen as perpetuating harmful gender stereotypes. Critics argue that Freud's
views on women were influenced by the cultural biases of his time and lacked empirical support.
5.Neglect of Social and Cultural Factors: Freud's theory tends to overlook the importance of
social and cultural factors in shaping personality. Critics argue that individual development is
influenced by a wide range of environmental and contextual factors, such as family, education,
and societal norms, which Freud's theory does not adequately address.
6.Limited Generalizability: Freud's theory is based on observations from a limited sample of
patients, primarily from the upper-middle-class Viennese society of the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. This raises concerns about the generalizability of his concepts to diverse populations
and different cultural contexts.
7.Lack of Progression: Critics argue that Freud's theory has not evolved significantly over time
and has not kept pace with advancements in psychology and neuroscience. Many of his ideas
have been largely abandoned or modified by contemporary psychologists who have developed
alternative theories with stronger empirical support.
It is important to note that while Freud's theory has faced criticism, his contributions to
psychology cannot be completely dismissed. Freud's work initiated important discussions and
influenced subsequent theories, even if his specific ideas have been subject to criticism and
revision.

Ideas of Neo Freudians:

At first, the expanding field of psychologists and doctors rejected and mocked Freud's theories.
Eventually, a number of early psychoanalysts disassociated from a strict interpretation of
psychoanalytic theory in response to Freud's emphasis on biology, particularly sexuality, and
shifted the focus of psychoanalysis (the term Freud used to describe both his theory explaining
how the unconscious mind shapes personality and the therapy he based on it) to the influence of
the social environment.
JUNG: Regarding the nature of the unconscious mind, Carl Gustav Jung disapproved of
Sigmund Freud's theory. In Jung's opinion, the unconscious contained far more than only the
individual's desires, wants, and memories. He thought that there was more to the unconscious
than just one's own but also a communal unconscious, as defined by Freud (Jung, 1933).
A sort of "species" memory, memories of old phobias, and motifs that seem to recur in many
folktales and civilizations can all be found in the collective unconscious, according to Jung.
Jung referred to these common, universal human memories as archetypes. The anima/animus
(the feminine side of a man/the masculine side of a woman) and the shadow (the dark side of
personality, known as the "devil" in Western cultures) are two of the most well-known
archetypes, though there are many others. The side of one’s personality that is shown to the
world is termed the persona

ADLER: Alfred Adler disagreed with Freud on the subject of the significance of sexuality in the
formation of personality. According to Adler (1954), when individuals compare themselves to
helpless toddlers, they all experience sentiments of inadequacy to the stronger, more intelligent
adults in their surroundings. For Adler, the desire for pleasure was not the motivation behind all
human endeavours, feelings, and ideas trying to be better. Adler's theory heavily emphasised the
defence mechanism of compensating, in which individuals attempt to get rid of feelings of
inferiority in one area of life by aiming to be superior in another. Adler (1954) also created the
hypothesis that a child's personality was influenced by their birth order. When their younger
siblings receive all the attention, firstborn children with siblings frequently feel inferior and
overcompensate by becoming overachievers.
Middle children have it a little bit easier because they can feel superior to the elder child who has
been deposed while controlling the smaller siblings. They frequently exhibit intense rivalry.
Children who are younger are apparently spoiled and sheltered, but they feel inferior since they
lack the independence and authority that older children have. Although some researchers have
discovered evidence in favour of Adler's birth order theory (Stein, 2001; Sulloway, 1996), and
some have even connected birth order to career choices (Leong et al., 2001; Watkins & Savickas,
1990), other researchers have criticised shoddy methodology and the bias of researchers towards
the birth order idea (Beer & Horn, 2001; Freese et al., 1999; Leong et al., 2001)

HORNEY: Karen Horney disagreed with Freudian theories regarding the distinctions between
men and women, particularly the idea of penis envy. She responded with her own idea of "womb
envy," contending that men felt the need to pursue achievement in other areas in order to make
up for their inability to carry children (Burger, 1997).
Horney chose to focus on the fundamental anxiety that a kid has upon entering a world that is so
much larger and more powerful than them rather than on sexuality. People with stable
upbringings and loving parents would be able to overcome this anxiety, but those with less
secure upbringings would grow to have neurotic personalities and unhelpful ways of handling
relationships.

ERIKSON Erik Erikson, a teacher of art who lived from 1950 until 1982, trained under Anna
Freud to become a psychoanalyst. Additionally, he rejected Freud's emphasis on sex in favour of
emphasising the value of social connections at all stages of life.

Object Relation Theory of Psychoanalytical Approach: Melanie Klein was a psychoanalyst

who made significant contributions to the field of object relations theory. Her work focused on
understanding the early development of the infant's mind and the formation of internalized object
relations. Here is an explanation of Klein's object relations theory:

Internalized Objects: According to Klein, infants from a very early age form internalized
representations of important people in their lives, particularly their primary caregiver (usually the
mother). These internalized objects are mental representations that influence the infant's
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. They shape the infant's perception of themselves, others, and
the world around them.

Paranoid-Schizoid Position: Klein proposed that during the early stages of development, infants
go through a phase called the paranoid-schizoid position. In this phase, the infant's experiences
are characterized by primitive anxieties, splitting, and projections. The infant perceives the world
in a polarized manner, splitting their experiences into good and bad, and projecting their own
unwanted or unacceptable feelings onto external objects. This splitting and projection are part of
the infant's defense mechanisms to manage overwhelming emotions and maintain a sense of
control.

Internal Good and Bad Objects: As a result of the paranoid-schizoid position, the infant develops
internalized representations of good and bad objects. Good objects are associated with
pleasurable experiences and feelings of love and nurturance, while bad objects are associated
with negative experiences and feelings of frustration, aggression, or abandonment. These
internalized objects shape the infant's expectations, fantasies, and interactions with others.

Depressive Position: Following the paranoid-schizoid position, Klein proposed the existence of
the depressive position. In this phase, which typically emerges around the age of six months, the
infant begins to integrate their experiences and objects into a more unified and coherent whole.
The infant recognizes that the same person can have both good and bad qualities, and they begin
to feel a sense of guilt and remorse for their destructive fantasies towards the internalized
objects. This position involves the capacity for empathy and the recognition of the existence of
others as separate and whole individuals.
Resolution of Internal Conflicts: Klein believed that the resolution of internal conflicts between
the good and bad objects is crucial for healthy psychological development. Through the process
of working through these conflicts, individuals can develop a more nuanced and realistic
understanding of themselves and others. They can internalize more integrated and whole object
representations, leading to healthier interpersonal relationships and emotional well-being.

Overall, Melanie Klein's object relations theory emphasizes the importance of early relationships
and the formation of internalized object representations. It highlights the infant's capacity for
fantasy, splitting, and the integration of experiences. Klein's work has had a significant impact on
the field of psychoanalysis, particularly in understanding the dynamics of early development and
the influence of internalized objects on an individual's psychological functioning.

QUES) CRITICALLY DISCUSS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL, TRAIT

APPROACHES, BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE AND THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Humanistic perspective:
Psychology should concentrate on the characteristics that make humans truly human, such as
subjective feelings and the ability to determine one's own course in life, according to the
humanistic perspective, which was promoted by psychologists like Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow. They contend that human aspirations for development, dignity, and self-determination
play at least equal importance in the formation of personality to the instinctual drives Freud
highlighted. Because of their more optimistic ideas about human nature, such views are known
as humanistic theories (Maslow, 1970; Rogers, 1977, 1982). This striving for fulfilment is called
the self-actualizing tendency. An important tool in human self-actualization is the development
of an image of oneself, or the self-concept. The self-concept is based on what people are told by
others and how the sense of self is reflected in the words and actions of important people in one’s
life, such as parents, siblings, coworkers, friends, and teacher

First, humanistic views place a focus on one's own responsibility. These ideas hold that the
majority of what occurs to us is our own fault. We are not just pieces of furniture being tossed
here and there; our fate is largely in our own hands.

Second, these theories tend to be present-oriented even while they acknowledge the value of
prior experience. It's true that traumatic experiences early in life may have an impact on us. But
they don't have to dictate how we live as adults; we have a real and potent ability to get past them
and continue.

Third, humanistic ideologies emphasize the value of growth as an individual. People are not
content with merely meeting their current needs. They wish to progress toward “bigger” goals
such as becoming the best they can be.

The Humanistic perspective of personality was studied in detail and was put forward by
two major psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Ideas of Carl Rogers:

Carl Rogers originated a popular approach to psychotherapy known initially as non-directive or
client-centred therapy, which later came to be called person-centered therapy. This form of
psychotherapy has generated an enormous amount of research and is widely used today in
counselling situations (Cain, 2014; Kirschenbaum, 2009). Rogers’s personality theory is rooted
in humanistic psychology, which Rogers made the framework for the patient–therapist
relationship. Rogers did not develop his theory from experimental research conducted in
laboratories, but rather from his experiences working with patients, or clients as he preferred to
call them. Rogers’s view of the therapeutic situation tells us much about his view of human
nature. Carl Rogers planned to become a minister, but after taking several courses in psychology,
he changed his mind and decided instead to focus on human personality.
Roger believed in the idea of development and a deeper understanding of self in order to
decipher a person’s personality. He stated several factors that provided insights about the self of
an individual:

1) Self-insight: Rogers also investigated a potential internal influence, the child’s self-
understanding or self-insight. Rogers described self-insight as an acceptance of self and
reality, and a sense of responsibility for the self. Counselors traditionally focus on
external factors such as a poor family environment and alter the circumstances by
removing children from a threatening home situation and placing them in foster care.
Instead, they should be trying to modify the children’s self-insight. That realization was
important to Rogers personally

2) Actualizing tendency: Rogers believed people are motivated by an innate tendency to

actualize, maintain, and enhance the self. This drive toward self-actualization is part of a
larger actualization tendency, which encompasses all of our physiological and
psychological needs. By attending to basic requirements, such as the needs for food,
water, and safety, the actualization tendency serves to maintain the organism, providing
for sustenance and survival.

3) Organismic valuing process: The governing process throughout the life span, in
Rogers’s view, is the organismic valuing process. Through this process, we evaluate all
life experiences by how well they serve the actualization tendency. Experiences that we
perceive as promoting actualization are evaluated as good and desirable; we assign them
a positive value. Experiences perceived as hindering actualization are undesirable and,
thus, earn a negative value.

According to Carl Rogers, the development of self occurs during childhood when infants
gradually develop a more complex experiential field from widening social encounters, one part
of their experience becomes differentiated from the rest. This separate part, defined by the words
I, me, and myself, is the self or self-concept. The formation of the self-concept involves
distinguishing what is directly and immediately a part of the self from the people, objects, and
events that are external to the self.
Ideally, the self is a consistent pattern, an organized whole. All aspects of the self-strive for
consistency. For example, people who are disturbed about having aggressive feelings and choose
to deny them dare not express any obvious aggressive behaviors. To do so would mean behaving
in ways that are inconsistent with their self-concept, because they believe they should not be
aggressive.

Concept of positive regard

As the self emerges, infants develop a need for what Rogers called positive regard. It includes
acceptance, love, and approval from other people, most notably from the mother during infancy.
This need is probably learned, although Rogers said the source was not important. The need for
positive regard is universal and persistent. There are two kinds of positive regard:

1) Unconditional Positive regard: Even though infants may receive sufficient acceptance,
love, and approval, some specific behaviors may bring punishment. However, if positive
regard for the infant persists despite the infant’s undesirable behaviors, the condition is
called unconditional positive regard. By this, Rogers meant that the mother’s love for the
child is granted freely and fully; it is not conditional or dependent on the child’s behavior.
Because of the importance of satisfying the need for positive regard, particularly in
infancy, we become sensitive to the attitudes and behaviors of other people. By
interpreting the feedback we receive from them (either approval or disapproval), we
refine our self-concept. Thus, in forming the self-concept we internalize the attitudes of
other people

2) Conditional positive regard: Approval, love, or acceptance is granted only when a

person expresses desirable behaviours and attitudes. Some behaviours annoy, frighten, or
bore them and for those behaviors they may not provide affection or approval. Thus,
infants learn that parental affection has a price; it depends on behaving in certain
acceptable ways. They come to understand that sometimes they are prized, and
sometimes they are not children as a result develops a condition of worth which means
 that they find themselves worthy only under certain conditions and their self-concept
becomes a surrogate to their parents approval.

3) Positive self- regard: Positive self-regard can be defined as a feeling of contentment

with oneself and is related to positive mental health (Leising, Borkenau, Zimmermann,
Roski, Leonhardt, & Schutz, 2013). Like positive regard, positive self-regard is
reciprocal. When people receive positive regard and develop positive self-regard, in turn
they may provide positive regard to others.

Experiences that are incongruent or incompatible with our self-concept become

threatening and are manifested as anxiety. For example, if our self-concept includes the
belief that we love all humanity, once we meet someone toward whom we feel hatred, we
are likely to develop anxiety. Our level of psychological adjustment and emotional health
is a function of the degree of congruence or compatibility between our self-concept and
our experiences. Psychologically healthy people are able to perceive themselves, other
people, and events in their world much as they really are.

Fully Functioning Person

To Rogers, the fully functioning person is the most desirable end result of psychological
development and social evolution (Rogers, 1961). He described several characteristics of
fully functioning (self-actualizing) people.

1)Awareness of all experiences;

2) open to positive as well as negative feelings
3)The freshness of appreciation for all experiences
4)Trust in one’s own behaviour and feelings Freedom of choice, without inhibitions
5)Creativity and spontaneity
6)The continual need to grow, to strive to maximize one’s potential
7) In a state of actualizing
Being fully functioning involves continually testing, growing, striving, and using all of
one’s potential, a way of life that brings complexity and challenge. Rogers did not
describe fully functioning persons as happy, blissful, or contented, although at times they
may be. More appropriately, their personality may be described as enriching, exciting,
and meaningful.

MASLOW’S IDEAS:

Abraham Maslow is considered the founder and spiritual leader of the humanistic
psychology movement. He objected to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, particularly
Freud’s approach to personality. According to Maslow, when psychologists study only
abnormal or emotionally disturbed examples of humanity, they ignore all the positive
human qualities such as happiness, contentment, and peace of mind. Only in this way is it
possible to determine the full range of human potential. His theory does not derive from
case histories of clinical patients but from research on creative, independent, self-
sufficient, fulfilled adults. He concluded that each person is born with the same set of
instinctive needs that enable us to grow, develop, and fulfill our potential

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow proposed a hierarchy of five innate needs that activate and direct human
behavior (1968, 1970b). They are the physiological, safety, belongingness and love,
esteem, and self-actualization needs. Maslow described these needs as instinctive, by
which he meant that they have a hereditary component. Although we come equipped with
these needs at birth, however, the behaviours we use to satisfy them are learned and,
therefore, subject to variation from one person to another. According to Maslow, lower-
order needs must be satisfied before we can turn to more complex, higher-order needs
(Neher, 1991). Presumably, higher-order needs can’t serve as motives until lower-level
needs have been satisfied. Thus, we are not driven by all our needs at the same time. In
general, only one need will dominate our personality at any one point in time
1. Physiological Needs: At the base of the hierarchy are the physiological needs necessary for
survival, such as food, water, shelter, and sleep. These needs must be satisfied before higher-
level needs can be addressed.
2. Safety Needs: Once physiological needs are met, individuals seek safety and security. This
includes physical safety, stability, protection from harm, and a desire for order and predictability.
3. Love and Belongingness Needs: The next level involves the need for love, affection, and a
sense of belonging. This includes forming relationships, being part of a family or community,
and experiencing acceptance and intimacy.
4. Esteem Needs: The fourth level pertains to the need for self-esteem and recognition from
others. This involves developing a positive self-image, gaining confidence, and seeking
achievement, respect, and prestige.
5. Self-Actualization: The highest level in Maslow's hierarchy is self-actualization. It represents
the desire to reach one's full potential, engage in personal growth, and pursue meaningful goals.
Self-actualization involves fulfilling individual talents, finding purpose, and experiencing
personal fulfilment.
Maslow has also devoted much attention to the study of people who, in his terms, are
psychologically healthy. These are individuals who have attained high levels of self-actualization
—a state in which they have reached their fullest true potential.
People who have achieved self-actualization accept themselves as they are, including their flaws
and their talents. They are less constrained and less willing to conform than the majority of us
because they are in touch with their own selves. Despite being well aware of the restrictions
placed on them by society, self-actualized people feel more liberated than other people to flout
them. They appear to still be as awestruck by the world and wonder at it as children, unlike the
majority of us. They still view life as an exciting adventure rather than a mundane routine. Last
but not least, self-actualized people occasionally have what Maslow refers to as peak experiences
—moments when they experience overwhelming waves of power and awe as well as strong
sensations of unity with the cosmos.
Such experiences appear to be linked to personal growth, for after them individuals report feeling
more spontaneous, more appreciative of life, and less concerned with the problems of everyday
life.

The following conditions are necessary in order for us to satisfy the self-actualization need:
• We must be free of constraints imposed by society and by ourselves.
• We must not be distracted by the lower-order needs.
• We must be secure in our self-image and in our relationships with other people, and we must be
able to love and be loved in return.
• We must have a realistic knowledge of our strengths and weaknesses, virtues and vices

Since self-actualization is the highest of all needs in Maslow’s hierarchy, it is the weakest of all
and can easily be discarded or inhibited. But it is extremely important for a person to strive
towards self-actualization to develop as a fully functioning person.

Strengths of the humanistic model of personality:

Overall, the development of therapies intended to encourage self-growth and aid individuals in
developing a better understanding of themselves and others has benefited most from applying
humanistic ideology. For instance, when viewed through the prism of psychotherapy and
therapist variables, there seems to be a consistent relationship between Rogers' concepts of
unconditional positive regard and the degree of therapist empathy perceived by clients, positively
influencing improvements in clients' self-evaluation and improving clients' relationships with
others (Watson et al., 2014).
Positive psychology draws some of its ideas from humanistic psychology. Maslow originally
coined the phrase "positive psychology" in 1954 when he emphasized the need for psychology to
concentrate on human potential rather than problems (Maslow, 1954).

The humanistic model of personality emphasizes the unique qualities and potential of
individuals, focusing on their subjective experiences and self-directed growth. Here are some
strengths of the humanistic model:

Holistic Approach: The humanistic model views individuals as whole beings, considering their
thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and experiences as interconnected. It recognizes the importance
of understanding a person within their social and cultural context, promoting a comprehensive
understanding of personality.

Self-Actualization: Humanistic psychology places a strong emphasis on self-actualization,

which refers to the innate drive of individuals to fulfill their potential and become the best
version of themselves. It highlights personal growth, self-awareness, and self-improvement as
fundamental aspects of human nature.

Subjective Experience: The humanistic model values subjective experiences, such as personal
meaning, emotions, and the individual's unique perspective of the world. It acknowledges that
each person has their own subjective reality, emphasizing the importance of understanding their
internal world and subjective feelings.

Personal Responsibility: Humanistic psychology emphasizes personal responsibility and

accountability. It promotes the idea that individuals have the capacity to make choices and take
responsibility for their actions and the direction of their lives. This perspective empowers
individuals to take an active role in shaping their personality and personal development.
Focus on Positive Aspects: Unlike some other models that primarily focus on psychopathology
or dysfunction, the humanistic model emphasizes positive aspects of human nature, including
strengths, potential, and the pursuit of happiness and fulfillment. It encourages individuals to
explore their strengths and develop their unique qualities.

Therapeutic Relationship: Humanistic therapy places a strong emphasis on the therapeutic

relationship between the therapist and client. It emphasizes empathy, genuineness, and
unconditional positive regard. This supportive and non-judgmental environment fosters personal
growth and facilitates the client's self-exploration and self-discovery.

Cultural Relevance: The humanistic model recognizes the importance of cultural factors in
shaping an individual's personality and experiences. It acknowledges that cultural values, beliefs,
and norms significantly influence a person's self-concept and development. This aspect helps to
make the model more inclusive and relevant across different cultural backgrounds.

Limitation of the humanistic model of personality:

Humanistic views of personality paint a very rosy picture ignoring the negative aspects of human
personality.
1.Lack of Empirical Evidence: The humanistic approach relies heavily on subjective
experiences and self-report measures, which can be difficult to quantify and objectively measure.
It lacks the same level of empirical evidence and scientific rigor as other approaches, such as the
psychodynamic or trait theories. The concepts and ideas proposed by humanistic psychologists
are often difficult to operationalize and test using traditional scientific methods.

2.Limited Generalizability: Humanistic theories are often based on the study of a small, select
group of individuals, typically those who are psychologically healthy and self-actualized. As a
result, the theories may not fully capture the complexity and diversity of human personality
across different cultures, socio-economic backgrounds, and clinical populations. The focus on
positive aspects of human experience may overlook or downplay negative aspects and
psychopathology.
3.Subjective Bias: The humanistic approach places a strong emphasis on individuals' subjective
experiences, personal narratives, and self-perception. This emphasis on subjectivity can
introduce biases, as individuals may have limited self-awareness or may present a distorted view
of themselves. Additionally, self-report measures used in humanistic research can be influenced
by social desirability biases, leading to inaccurate or incomplete information.

4.Lack of Clear Framework: Unlike other personality theories that offer well-defined
frameworks and concepts, the humanistic approach can be considered vague and less structured.
The concepts of self-actualization, personal growth, and the hierarchy of needs are somewhat
abstract and open to interpretation, making it difficult to develop precise and universally
applicable theories.

5.Neglect of Biological and Environmental Factors: The humanistic approach tends to focus
primarily on internal, individual factors and often neglects the impact of biological, genetic, and
environmental influences on personality development. Biological and environmental factors,
such as genetics, neurobiology, and socio-cultural contexts, play significant roles in shaping
personality, and an exclusive focus on personal growth and self-actualization may overlook these
important influences.

TRAIT APPROACH OF PERSONALITY:

The goal of trait theories is to describe personality and make predictions about behaviour based
on that description, rather than to explain how personality changes and grows over time. Trait
theories try to explain personality in terms of a person's traits, which are enduring, consistent
ways of thinking, feeling, or doing. These theories concentrate on determining the most
significant personality traits that distinguish individuals. This strategy's fundamental premise is
as follows: Once we've determined the main characteristics that separate persons, we can gauge
how different they are, and we can connect those differences to a variety of significant types of
behaviour. Under trait theories, psychologists look for a cluster of traits where related traits are
grouped together and the personality is compared on the grounds of these traits.
Two major psychologists were the pioneer in the development of the trait approach: Gordon
Allport and Raymond Catell

ALLPORT THEORY OF PERSONALITY TRAITS: One of the earliest attempts to list and
describe the traits that make up personality can be found in the work of Gordon Allport (Allport
& Odbert, 1936). Allport and his colleague H. S. Odbert literally scanned the dictionary for
words that could be traits, finding about 18,000, then paring that down to 200 traits after
eliminating synonyms.(Ciccarelli, pg.527)

According to Allport, personality traits are predispositions to react the same way or similarly to
various stimuli. In other words, characteristics are steadfast, long-lasting methods of responding
to our surroundings. In his summary of features, he stated the following (Allport, 1937):
1.Each of us has true personality qualities. They are not hypothetical ideas or labels created to
explain behaviour.

2. Traits influence or determine behaviour. They don't just appear in reaction to specific stimuli.
They encourage us to look for the right stimuli, and they work in conjunction with the
environment to cause behaviour.

3. Empirical evidence can back up traits. Continually tracking behaviour allows us to

the consistency of a person's responses to the same or similar stimuli can be used to infer the
existence of characteristics.

4. Despite representing various characteristics, traits are interconnected and may overlap. For
instance, hostility and aggression are two separate but related traits that are frequently seen co-
occurring in a person's behaviour.

5. Traits change based on the circumstance. For instance, a person might exhibit a neatness trait
in one environment and a disorderliness feature in another.

Allport initially put forth two categories of traits: individual and common.
A person's individual characteristics characterize him or her as a person. People with similar
traits include those who belong to the same culture or other groups of people.
Therefore, persons from different cultures will have different qualities in common. As social
norms and beliefs evolve, it is also possible that common characteristics will change over time.
This highlights how common characteristics can be influenced by social, environmental, and
cultural factors.

Personal Dispositions:
Allport then changed his nomenclature after realising that labelling both of these phenomena
characteristics would cause some confusion. He renamed individual qualities as personal
dispositions and shared traits as traits. Our individual tendencies do not all have the same degree
of importance or intensity. They could be primary, secondary, or cardinal features.

Cardinal Traits: One's life is impacted by a cardinal trait if it is so ubiquitous and powerful that
it permeates practically every facet of existence. According to Allport, it is a powerful desire that
rules behavior. He cited chauvinism and sadism as examples. Not everyone has a passion for
ruling, and those who do might not always show it.

Central Traits: Each person has five to ten main characteristics that best reflect their behaviour.
These are referred to as central traits. Allport uses violence, self-pity, and cynicism as examples.
When discussing a friend's personality or composing a letter of recommendation, we might bring
up these kinds of qualities.

Secondary Traits: The secondary qualities, which appear far less frequently than cardinal and
central features, are the least significant individual traits. Only a close friend would likely spot
secondary features if they were so subtle or weak. For instance, they might be a little predilection
for a certain kind of music or a specific sort of food.

Functional Autonomy:
According to Allport's concept of functional autonomy, mature, emotionally stable individuals'
motivations are not functionally related to the earlier situations in which they first surfaced.
Early-life motivating factors become autonomous or separate from their initial surroundings.
Allport used a tree as an illustration. It is clear that the tree's growth can be linked to its seed.
However, the seed is no longer needed as a food source once the tree has reached full maturity.
The tree has become independent and is no longer dependent on its seed for survival.
Similar to how we become independent of our parents as we get older.

Allport proposed two levels of functional autonomy: perseverative functional autonomy and
propriate functional autonomy:

1) Preservative Functional Autonomy: The more fundamental level of functional

autonomy, perseverative autonomy, is concerned with repetitive physical acts and
behaviours like addictions as well as ordinary, everyday tasks. The actions carry on or
endure on their own without any outside reward. The acts formerly had a function, but
they no longer do, and they are too primitive and low in sophistication to be regarded as
essential components of personality. In support of perseverative functional autonomy,
Allport provided examples from both human and animal species. When a rat that has
been trained to navigate a maze in search of food is given an abundance of food, it may
still do so, but undoubtedly for a different reason. At the human level, he noted our
preference for routine, familiar behaviors that we continue to perform even in the absence
of external reinforcement

2) Propriate Functional Autonomy: Understanding adult motivation requires an

understanding of propriate functional autonomy, which is more significant than
perseverative functional autonomy. Proputem, Allport's phrase for the ego or self, is
whence the word propriate gets its root. Propriate motivations are particular to each
person. Which reasons will be upheld and which will be rejected is decided by the ego.
We hold onto reasons that improve our self-worth or self-image. Our interests and skills
are directly related since we enjoy doing what we are good at. It's possible that mastering
a skill, like how to play the piano, wasn't originally motivated by our interests. For
 instance, during our formative years, our parents into taking piano lessons and practice.
As we become proficient, however, we may become more committed to playing the
piano. The original motive (fear of parental displeasure) has disappeared, and the
continued behavior of playing the piano becomes necessary to our self-image.

CATTELLS TRAIT THEORY:

Cattell found 200 traits a large number of descriptors and thus confined them into bigger cluster
of traits. He defined traits as relatively permanent reaction tendencies that are the basic structural
units of the personality. He classified traits in several ways:
Common and unique traits:
Cattell made a distinction between common and unique characteristics. A characteristic that all
people share to some extent is called a common trait. Some common features include wits,
extraversion, and gregariousness. All humans possess these qualities, however, some people
possess them more strongly than others. Cattell contends that common features are universal
because, at least within one culture, everyone has similar inherited potential and is exposed to
similar social forces.
As we previously stated, persons vary in how much or how little of these universal
characteristics they have. Their unique traits, those facets of personality that only a small number
of other people have, also set them apart. Our interests and attitudes stand out as notably
distinctive characteristics.

Ability, Temperament and Dynamic Traits

A second way to classify traits is to divide them into ability traits, temperament traits, and
dynamic traits. Ability traits determine how efficiently we will be able to work toward a goal.
Intelligence is an ability trait; our level of intelligence will affect the ways in which we strive for
our goals.
Temperament traits describe the general style and emotional tone of our behaviour; for example,
how assertive, easygoing, or irritable we are. These traits affect the ways we act and react to
situations.

Dynamic traits are the driving forces of behaviour. They define our motivations, interests, and
ambitions. (Schultz and Schultz,2013 p.217)

Surface and Source traits

Raymond Cattell (1990) defined two types of traits as surface traits and source traits. Surface
traits are like those found by Allport, representing the personality characteristics easily seen by
other people. Source traits are those more basic traits that underlie surface traits. For example,
shyness, being quiet, and disliking crowds might all be surface traits related to the more basic
source trait of introversion, a tendency to withdraw from excessive stimulation. Using a
statistical technique that looks for groupings and commonalities in numerical data called factor
analysis, Cattell identified 16 source traits (Cattell, 1950, 1966), and although he later
determined that there might be another 7 source traits to make a total of 23 (Cattell & Kline,
1977), he developed his assessment questionnaire, The Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF)
Questionnaire (Cattell, 1995), based on just 16 source traits. These 16 source traits are seen as
trait dimensions, or continuums, in which there are two opposite traits at each end with a range
of possible degrees for each trait measurable along the dimension. For example, someone scoring
near the “reserved” end of the “reserved/outgoing” dimension would be more introverted than
someone scoring in the middle or at the opposite end. (Ciccarelli and White, 2017 p.528)

FIVE-FACTOR THEORY OF PERSONALITY:

Later researchers attempted to reduce the number of trait dimensions to a more manageable
number, with several groups of researchers arriving at more or less the same five trait dimensions
(Botwin & Buss, 1989; Jang et al., 1998; McCrae & Costa, 1996). These five dimensions have
become known as the five-factor model, or the Big Five Five and represent the core description
of human personality.
The factors were confirmed through a variety of assessment techniques including self-ratings,
objective tests, and observers’ reports. McCrae and Costa then developed a personality test, the
NEO Personality Inventory, using an acronym derived from the initials of the first three factors.
It posits that personality can be described and categorized into five broad dimensions or traits,
which are as follows:

Openness to Experience: This dimension captures an individual's inclination towards openness,

creativity, and intellectual curiosity. People high in openness tend to be imaginative,
adventurous, and open to new ideas, while those low in openness may be more conventional,
conservative, and resistant to change.

Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness refers to an individual's level of organization,

responsibility, and self-discipline. Those high in conscientiousness are typically reliable,
organized, and goal-oriented, while those low in conscientiousness may be more spontaneous,
impulsive, and less focused on long-term planning.

Extraversion: Extraversion measures an individual's level of sociability, assertiveness, and

preference for external stimulation. People high in extraversion are often outgoing, energetic,
and seek social interaction, whereas introverted individuals are typically more reserved,
introspective, and prefer solitary activities.

Agreeableness: This dimension reflects an individual's tendency to be cooperative, empathetic,

and accommodating in their interpersonal relationships. Those high in agreeableness are often
described as warm, friendly, and compassionate, while individuals low in agreeableness may be
more competitive, sceptical, and assertive in their interactions.

Neuroticism: Neuroticism measures emotional stability and proneness to negative emotions

such as anxiety, depression, and irritability. Individuals high in neuroticism tend to experience
negative emotions more frequently and intensely, whereas those low in neuroticism are generally
more emotionally stable and resilient.
These five dimensions provide a comprehensive framework for describing and understanding
individual differences in personality. It's important to note that the FFM does not attempt to
explain the underlying mechanisms or origins of these traits but rather serves as a descriptive
framework for organizing and measuring personality traits.
Many academics think that these characteristics are in fact quite fundamental, despite the fact
that there is far from universal agreement in this regard (see, for instance, Friedman &
Schustack, 1999). This is demonstrated, in part, by the fact that most individuals in a wide range
of cultures use these dimensions to describe themselves (Funder & Colvin, 1991), as well as by
the fact that we can frequently determine where people stand along at least some of these
dimensions from a brief initial meeting (e.g., Zebrowitz & Collins, 1997) with them. From a
number of experiments in which complete strangers briefly engage before rating one another on
the big five dimensions. When these evaluations by unrelated parties are contrasted. The
significant agreement is found for at least some of the big five dimensions when ratings are made
by other persons who are very familiar with the research participants (such as their parents or
closest friends; see Funder & Sneed, 1993; Watson, 1989).

Trait theory of personality focuses on identifying and describing stable, enduring traits that
characterize individuals. Like any psychological theory, it has its own set of pros and cons:
Pros:
1.Descriptive Power: Trait theory provides a descriptive framework for understanding and
categorizing individual differences in personality. It offers a systematic way of organizing and
explaining various patterns of behavior, allowing for better prediction and understanding of
individuals.

2.Measurement and Assessment: Trait theory provides a basis for the development of reliable
and valid measurement tools to assess personality traits. These assessments, such as self-report
questionnaires, provide quantifiable data that can be used for research and practical purposes.

3.Stability: Traits are assumed to be relatively stable and consistent across time and situations.
This stability allows for the prediction of behavior and provides a framework for understanding
the relative consistency of personality traits across a person's lifespan.
4.Practical Application: Trait theory has practical applications in various fields, such as
personnel selection, counseling, and therapy. It can assist in identifying individuals' strengths and
weaknesses, matching individuals to appropriate occupations, and guiding interventions for
personal growth and development.

5.Empirical Support: Trait theory has accumulated a substantial body of empirical evidence
supporting the existence and reliability of many personality traits. This evidence reinforces the
validity and utility of trait-based approaches in understanding human behavior.

Cons:
1.Reductionism: Trait theory reduces complex human behavior to a limited set of traits,
potentially oversimplifying the richness and uniqueness of individual personalities. It may fail to
capture the full complexity and dynamic nature of personality.

2.Limited Explanatory Power: Trait theory does not explain the underlying mechanisms or
causes of personality traits. It does not address the cognitive, genetic, or environmental factors
that contribute to the development and expression of traits.

3.Situational Factors: Trait theory tends to downplay the influence of situational factors on
behavior. It may underestimate the impact of external circumstances, social roles, and context-
specific influences on how individuals express their personality traits.

4.Lack of Developmental Perspective: Trait theory often focuses on adult personality traits and
may not fully address how personality develops and changes over the lifespan. It may not
adequately account for the impact of socialization, maturation, and life experiences on the
formation and modification of traits.

5.Cultural Bias: Trait theory may be influenced by cultural biases, as traits are often derived
from studies conducted in specific cultural contexts. Cultural differences in the expression and
understanding of personality may not be adequately captured by trait-based approaches.
It is important to consider these pros and cons when utilizing trait theory to ensure a balanced
understanding of personality. Integrating trait theory with other theoretical perspectives can
provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of human behaviour and individual
differences.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY

A theory of behaviour suggests that human behaviour is influenced by many cognitive factors as
well as by reinforcement contingencies and that human beings have an impressive capacity to
regulate their own actions. (Baron and Misra,2016 p.410) Approaches to personality that
emphasize the significance of emphasise the function of experience and education. Although
these viewpoints were not initially offered as formal theories of personality, in order to separate
them from other viewpoints, they are frequently labelled as learning theories of personality
(Bandura, Rotter (1982), Skinner (1974), and 1986, 1997) Early learning-oriented views of
personality took what now seems to be a somewhat extreme position: They denied the
importance of any internal causes of behaviour—motives, traits, intentions, goals (Skinner,
1974). The only things that matter, these early theorists suggested, are external conditions
determining patterns of reinforcement.

According to the social cognitive theory, cognitive processes including anticipating, judging, and
memorizing, as well as learning through the imitation of models, also have a role in determining
behaviour in addition to the influence of external stimuli and response patterns.

Bandura and Rotter and the pioneers who added their theory to this field of social cognitive
theory:

Bandura (1989) believes that three factors influence one another in determining the patterns of
behaviour that makeup personality: the environment, the behaviour itself, and personal or
cognitive factors that the person brings into the situation from earlier experiences. These three
factors each affect the other two in a reciprocal, or give-and-take, relationship. Bandura calls this
relationship reciprocal determinism.
Bandura’s approach to personality, the self is not some psychic agent that determines or causes
behavior. Rather, the self is a set of cognitive processes and structures concerned with thought
and perception. Two important aspects of the self are self-reinforcement and self-efficacy.
Self-Reinforcement

For older children and adults in particular, self-reinforcement is just as crucial as external
reinforcement. We establish rules for our own conduct and performance.
When we achieve or surpass these goals, we reward ourselves, and when we fall short, we punish
ourselves. Self-administered reinforcement might take the form of anything material, like
purchasing a new set of athletic shoes or a car, or it can be something more sentimental, like
pride or satisfaction at a job well done. A significant portion of human behaviour is governed by
a continuous self-reinforcing process. It calls for internal performance standards, subjective
norms, or benchmarks by which we assess our actions. Our former actions could serve as a
benchmark for assessing our current actions and as a motivator for better performance.

Self-efficacy

In Bandura’s system, self-efficacy refers to feelings of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in

coping with life. Meeting and maintaining our performance standards enhance self-efficacy;
failure to meet and maintain them reduces it (Bandura, 2012, 2013). Another psychologist
defined self-efficacy quite simply and effectively as the “power of believing you can,” and added
that “believing that you can accomplish what you want to accomplish is one of the most
important ingredients … in the recipe for success” (Maddux, 2002, p. 277).

Low self-efficacy

People with poor self-efficacy feel helpless and unable to influence the course of their lives.
They think that whatever effort they put forth is useless. When faced with challenges, they
swiftly quit up if their initial attempt to solve a problem was unsuccessful. People with really low
levels of self-efficacy won't even try to cope because they believe that nothing they do would
change anything Low self-efficacy has a negative impact on physical and mental health, lowers
aspirations, interferes with cognitive function, and destroys motivation.

High self-efficacy

People with high levels of self-efficacy are confident in their ability to handle events and
circumstances. They persist at projects and frequently execute at a high level because they
believe they will be successful in overcoming challenges. These people have greater confidence
in their abilities than do those who are low in self-efficacy, and they express little self-doubt.
They view difficulties as challenges instead of threats and actively seek novel situations. High
self-efficacy reduces fear of failure, raises aspirations, and improves problem-solving and
analytical thinking abilities.

Our judgment about our self-efficacy is based on the following four sources of information:
• Performance attainment: Performance attainment is the source of efficacy judgements that
has the highest weight. Previous successes serve as clear indicators of our level of ability and
mastery. Previous successes serve as proof of our ability and boost our confidence. Failures in
the past, especially persistent failures during childhood, reduce self-efficacy.
• Vicarious experiences: Watching others perform successfully strengthens self-efficacy,
especially if the persons we watch are comparable to ourselves in terms of their ability.

• Verbal persuasion: Simply reminding people that they can accomplish anything they set their
minds to can boost self-confidence through verbal persuasion.

• Physiological and emotional arousal: If we are not anxious, tense, or plagued by headaches,
we are more inclined to assume we will solve a problem successfully. Our sense of calm and
composure affects how effective we feel about ourselves. Our self-efficacy decreases as our
physiological and emotional arousal levels rise.

Bandura concluded that certain conditions increase self-efficacy:

1. Exposing people to successful experiences by arranging reachable goals increases
performance attainment.
2. Exposing people to appropriate models who perform successfully enhances vicarious success
experiences.
3. Providing verbal persuasion encourages people to believe they have the ability to perform
successfully.
4. Strengthening physiological arousal through proper diet, stress reduction, and exercise
programs increases strength, stamina, and the ability to cope. (Schultz and Schultz, 2013, p.353)

ROTTERS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

EXPECTANCIES:
Thorndike's rule of effect provided the foundation for Julian Rotter's (1966, 1978, 1981, 1990)
theory of motivation, which states that people are motivated to seek rewards and avoid
punishment. He thought of personality as a reasonably consistent collection of possible responses
to different circumstances. According to learning theorists, a response pattern or aspect of the
"personality" would develop if a particular style of responding in the past resulted in a rewarding
or reinforcing effect feel that external influences, rather than internal ones, substantially
determine their outcomes. Internals are frequently happier and better adjusted than externals.
LOCUS OF CONTROL:
In Rotter's opinion, the tendency for people to feel they either have control or do not have control
over events and consequences in their life generated his idea of locus of control, which is a very
significant pattern of response. Those who believe that

People who believe that their lives are more heavily influenced by powerful persons, luck, or fate
are said to have an external locus of control (MacDonald, 1970; Rotter, 1966), whereas those
who believe that their own actions and decisions directly affect the results they experience are
said to have an internal locus of control. Rotter correlated high levels of internal locus of control
with high levels of success motivation (the desire to succeed in any endeavour).

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) of personality, also known as Social Learning Theory,
emphasizes the reciprocal interaction between individuals and their social environment in
shaping personality and behavior. Here are some pros and cons of the Social Cognitive Theory:

Pros:

Emphasis on Social Factors: SCT recognizes the significant influence of social factors, such as
observation, imitation, and social reinforcement, on the development of personality. It highlights
the importance of social interactions, modeling, and learning in shaping behavior and personality
traits.

Cognitive Processes: SCT emphasizes cognitive processes, such as perception, interpretation,

and self-efficacy beliefs, in understanding personality development. It acknowledges the role of
internal mental processes in mediating between external stimuli and behavioral responses.

Practical Application: SCT has practical implications in various domains, including education,
therapy, and behavior change interventions. It provides strategies for promoting positive
behavioral change by addressing cognitive processes, self-regulation, and modeling.
Adaptability and Flexibility: SCT recognizes that individuals have the capacity to adapt their
behavior and personality based on their cognitive processing and learning experiences. It
acknowledges the potential for change and growth throughout the lifespan.

Integration of Multiple Factors: SCT integrates various factors that contribute to personality
development, including cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. It offers a
comprehensive framework that considers both internal and external factors in understanding
individual differences in personality and behavior.

Cons:

Reductionism: SCT may oversimplify the complexity of personality and behavior by reducing
them to observable behavior, cognitive processes, and environmental factors. It may not fully
capture the intricacies of subjective experiences, emotions, and individual uniqueness.

Limited Emphasis on Biological Factors: SCT tends to downplay the influence of biological
and genetic factors on personality development. It may not fully account for the biological
predispositions and innate characteristics that contribute to individual differences.

Lack of Predictive Power: While SCT provides insights into how personality develops and
changes, it may have limited predictive power in explaining specific behaviors or outcomes. It
may not account for the multitude of factors that influence behavior in complex real-life
situations.

Cultural Context: SCT's emphasis on social learning and observation may not fully address
cultural variations in personality and behavior. Cultural norms, values, and socialization
processes may significantly shape personality in ways that are not adequately captured by SCT.

Overemphasis on Environmental Determinism: SCT's focus on the influence of the social

environment may downplay the role of personal agency and individual choices in shaping
personality and behavior. It may not fully recognize the active role individuals play in selecting
and influencing their social environment.

It is important to consider these pros and cons when applying the Social Cognitive Theory to
understand and explain personality. Integrating SCT with other theoretical perspectives can
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions between cognitive
processes, social factors, and personality development.

BIOLOGICAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY

According to Eysenck, heredity is the primary factor that determines traits and dimensions,
despite the fact that the data suggests that extraversion and neuroticism have a higher hereditary
influence than psychoticism. Eysenck did not discount the possibility of environmental and
contextual factors.
Family relationships during childhood, but he thought they had very modest effects on
personality (Eysenck, 1990a). Comparing identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins
was a key component of his research approach. The studies showed that identical twins are more
alike in their personalities than fraternal twins, even when the identical twins were reared by
different parents in different environments during childhood. Studies of adopted children
demonstrate that their personalities bear a greater similarity to the personalities of their
biological parents than of their adoptive parents, even when the children had no contact with
their biological parents. This is additional support for Eysenck’s idea that personality owes more
to our genetic inheritance than to our environment.

Their work led to the development of a three-dimensional personality theory, which is defined as
the combination of qualities or factors. Super factors are a good way to describe the dimensions
(Eysenck, 1990a, 1990b; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). The three personality traits are as follows:

1) E—Extraversion versus introversion

2)N—Neuroticism versus emotional stability
3)P—Psychoticism versus impulse control (or superego functioning)
These are explained in detail below:

Extraversion/Introversion: Eysenck believed that extraversion and introversion are rooted in

differences in cortical arousal levels. According to his theory, extraverts have lower baseline
levels of arousal and therefore seek out stimulating activities to increase their arousal. Introverts,
on the other hand, have higher baseline levels of arousal and prefer lower-stimulus environments
to avoid overstimulation.

Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: This dimension refers to the tendency to experience negative

emotions and emotional instability. Eysenck suggested that neuroticism is influenced by the
reactivity of the autonomic nervous system. Individuals high in neuroticism tend to have a more
reactive nervous system and are prone to experiencing negative emotions like anxiety, fear, and
sadness.

Psychoticism: Psychoticism refers to a predisposition toward aggression, impulsivity, and a lack

of empathy. Eysenck proposed that psychoticism is associated with higher testosterone levels
and is linked to certain biological factors, such as increased activity in the reticular activating
system.

Strengths and Weaknesses of biological theory of personality:

Pros:

Biological foundation: Eysenck's theory emphasizes the role of biological factors in shaping
personality traits. This focus on genetics, brain functioning, and physiological processes provides
a scientific framework for understanding individual differences in personality.
Simplicity and clarity: The theory proposes three primary dimensions
(extraversion/introversion, neuroticism/emotional stability, psychoticism) that are relatively easy
to comprehend and measure using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). This simplicity
makes it accessible and useful for both researchers and practitioners.

Empirical support: Eysenck's theory has garnered support from various empirical studies. For
example, research has shown that extraverts tend to have lower baseline arousal levels and seek
external stimulation, while individuals high in neuroticism exhibit higher reactivity to stressors.

Cons:

Oversimplification: While the simplicity of Eysenck's theory can be advantageous, it may also
be considered a limitation. Personality is a complex and multifaceted construct, and reducing it
to only three dimensions may not capture its full complexity.

Lack of comprehensive explanation: Eysenck's theory primarily focuses on biological factors

and does not adequately address the influence of social and environmental factors on personality
development. It may overlook the significant impact of culture, upbringing, and life experiences
on personality traits.

Controversies and criticisms: Eysenck's theory has faced criticism and controversy. Some
researchers argue that the biological underpinnings proposed by Eysenck are oversimplified and
lack strong empirical evidence. Others have criticized the theoretical framework for its limited
scope and lack of inclusivity regarding other important personality dimensions.

Cultural and individual variations: Eysenck's theory was developed primarily based on studies
conducted in Western societies, which may limit its applicability and generalizability to other
cultures. Additionally, individuals may exhibit unique combinations of traits that do not neatly
align with the three dimensions proposed by Eysenck.
These were the various theories of personality that have grown and developed over the years and
each of them is used extensively in therapies according to the needs of the client.