CHAPTER-3

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric Current, Resistance and Cells
Concepts covered: Mobility, Drift velocity, Ohm’s law, Resistance,
Resistivity, Conductivity, Electrical energy and power,
Topic-1 Temperature dependence of resistance and resistivity, Internal
resistance , Potential difference and emf of a cell, Combination
of cells

Revision Notes
 Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, i.e.,
dq
I=
dt
When charge flows at a constant rate, the corresponding electric current can be written as
q
I=
t
 A current from a cell in the external circuit flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This is
called conventional current. Actually, the free electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal
in the external circuit.
 1 ampere = 6.25 × 1018 electrons flowing per second.
 When an electric current is set up in a conductor, then the electrons drift through the conductor with velocity vd,
is given by
I
vd = .
neA
where, e is the charge on an electron, E is electric field, m is mass of electron and T is the relaxation time.
where, I is the electric current through the conductor, n is the number density of free electrons, A is the area of
cross-section and e is the charge on the electron.
 The drift velocity of the electrons under ordinary conditions is of the order of 0.1 mm/s.
 Free electrons move from a region of low potential to a region of high potential.
 The resistance wires are generally made of high resistivity materials such as manganin and eureka.
 The composition of manganin is Cu-84%, Mn-12%, and Ni-4%.
 The composition of eureka is Cu-60% and Ni-40%.
 Ohm’s law: Current I flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference V applied across
the ends of the conductor provided the physical conditions such as the temperature, mechanical strain, etc.
remain unchanged.
I∝V
I = GV
1
Here, G = which is known as the conductance of the conductor
R
1
So, I= V
R
or V = IR
where, R is a constant and is called resistance of the conductor.
 Resistance and Resistivity: Resistance is directly proportional to the length of a conductor and inversely
proportional to the area of cross-section. The resistance of the conductor is given as
l
R= r ,
A
m
Here, r= is the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the conductor.
ne 2 t
  In the series combination of resistances, the current is the same through each resistor.
 When a cell is short-circuited, the terminal potential difference across it becomes zero.
 Energy is dissipated in the cell due to its internal resistance.
 The terminal potential difference across a cell decreases as more current is drawn from the cell.

R
 If a wire of resistance R is cut into n equal parts, then the resistance of each part is .
n
 The temperature coefficient for conductors is positive i.e., resistance increases as the temperature rises.
 The temperature coefficient for the insulators and semiconductors is negative i.e., their resistance decreases as
the temperature increases.
 For the same emf, the availability of current from the secondary cell is greater as compared to the primary cell.
 The internal resistance of the cell depends on the area of the plates, the separation between the plates,
concentration of the electrolyte, and temperature.
The emf of the cell does not depend on the above-mentioned factors.
 The terminal potential difference of a cell depends on internal resistance.
 The internal resistance of a cell is,
E −V 
r=   R.
 V 
 The voltmeter measures the terminal potential difference across the cell.
 The ideal voltmeter must have infinite resistance. However, it is not possible in practice. It is connected parallel
in the circuit.
 The ideal ammeter must have zero resistance. However, such an ammeter is not possible in practice. It is
connected in series in the circuit.
 The emf and terminal potential difference of a cell: Let the emf of a cell be E and its internal resistance be r. If an
external resistance R is connected across the cell through a key, then
IR = V = potential difference across the external resistance R.
This is equal to the terminal potential difference across the cell.
E = V + IR
E−V
⇒ I=
R
⇒ For internal resistance, E = V + Ir
So V = E – Ir
\ V < E. [if I > 0]
When current is drawn from a cell, its terminal potential difference is less than the emf.
 • Series combination of cells: This combination is used when external resistance (R)
of the circuit is much larger as compared to the internal resistance (r) of the cell. i.e.,
R > > r, for maximum current drawn.
Let n cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r are connected in series across an external
resistance R, then the current in the circuit will be
nE
IS =
R + nr
• Parallel combination of cells: This combination is used when the external resistance R, is much smaller as
compared to the internal resistance (r) of the cell i.e., R < < r, for maximum current drawn.
When n cells are connected in parallel across a resistance R, then current through the resistance is given by,
E nE
IP = = .
R + r / n nR + r
• Mixed combination of cells: This type of combination is used when the external resistance R is of the same
order as the internal resistance r of the cell i.e.,
R ≈ r, for maximum current drawn.
The current through the external resistance is given by
net EMF
Current =
net resistance

nE nE mnE
Im = = = .
R + R′ nr mR + nr
R+
m

Here, m is the number of rows and n is the number of cells in each row.
  Variation of resistance on stretching a wire: Consider a wire of length l1, area of cross-section A1, volume V,
density d and mass m. It is stretched to length l2 and area of cross-section changes to A2. However volume,
density, and mass remain unchanged. Suppose the resistance of the stretched wire be R2, then
l1

Now, R1 = ρ
A1
l2
R2 = ρ
A2

R2  A  l 

or, =  1   2  ...(i)
R1  A2   l1 
But , volume will remain same, V1 = V2
A1 l1 = A2 l2
A1 l2

or, =
A2 l1
2 2
R2 l   A 

So, =  2   1  ...(ii)
R1  l1   A2 
When r1 and r2 be the radii of cross-section, then
Al = πr12 and A2 = πr22
4 2 2
R2 r   A  l 
Hence, =  1  =  1   2 
R1  r2   A2   l1 

Kirchhoff’s Laws
Topic-2 Concepts covered: Kirchhoff’s laws , Wheatstone Bridge,
Metre Bridge

Revision Notes
 Kirchhoff’s Laws:
Kirchhoff’s first law - (Kirchhoff’s Current Law ) KCL
Kirchhoff’s second law - (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ) KVL
First law: The algebraic sum of currents at a junction is zero i.e.,

SI = 0. This implies that the total current entering a junction (node) is equal to the total current leaving the

junction.
Second law: In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the emfs is equal to the algebraic sum of the product of
resistance and the respective current in them i.e.,
Kirchhoff's Ist law is based on the conservation of charge. Kirchhoff's 2nd law is based on the conservation of
energy.
SE = SIR.
 Wheatstone bridge:
If in a circuit consisting of four resistances P, Q, R and S, a galvanometer and a battery as shown in figure:
B

P Q

A C i
G
K2
i R K2 S

D
K1
 The Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current through the galvanometer. It means
potential at B is equal to that at D. In such a case
P R
= .
Q S
 Metre bridge or Slide wire bridge:
It is an application of Wheatstone bridge in which R is fixed and a balance point is obtained by varying P and Q,
i.e., by adjusting the position of a jockeys on a 100 cm long resistance wire between two terminals. If the balance
point is obtained at length l then
P R l
= 
Q S 100 l

 100  l 
or S =  R
 l 

SA r 2
Resistivity r =  S
l l

Potentiometer and its Applications

Revision Notes
 Potentiometer is a device mainly used to measure emf of a given cell and to compare emf ’s of cells. It is also used
to measure the internal resistance of a given cell.
 Superiority of potentiometer over voltmeter: An ordinary voltmeter cannot measure the emf
accurately because it draws some current to show the deflection. As per the definition of emf, it is
the potential difference when a cell is in an open circuit or no current through the cell. Therefore
voltmeter can only measure the terminal voltage of a given cell.
Potentiometer is based on the no deflection method. When the potentiometer gives zero
deflection, it does not draw any current from the cell i.e., the potentiometer is effectively an ideal
instrument of infinite resistance for measuring the potential difference.
 Circuit diagram: Potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire AB of length L (about 6 m to 10 m) made of
manganin or constantan. A battery of known voltage E1 and internal resistance r called supplier battery or drive
cell, is connected across AB through a key and rheostat in series. This is called primary circuit.
One terminal of another cell E2 (whose emf to be measured) is connected at one end of the primary circuit and
the other terminal at any point on the resistive wire through a galvanometer G. This forms the secondary circuit.

where, J = Jockey
K = Key
R = Resistance of potentiometer wire

Rh = Variable resistance which controls the current through the wire AB.
 • The specific resistance (r) of the potentiometer wire must be high but its temperature coefficient of resistance
(a) must be low.
• All higher potential points (terminals) of primary and secondary circuits must be connected together at point

A and all lower potential points must be connected to point B or jockey.
• The value of the known potential difference must be greater than the value of the unknown potential

difference to be measured.
• The potential gradient must remain constant. For this, the current in the primary circuit must remain constant

and the jockey must not be in contact with the wire.
 • The diameter of the potentiometer wire must be uniform everywhere.

 Potential gradient (k): Potential difference (or fall in potential) per unit length of potentiometer wire is called
potential gradient. i.e.,
V ( volt )  E  V IR I  E R
k = where V  IR   R. So k     
L (m )  R  R h  r  L L A  R  R h  r L

V ( volt )  E  V IR I  E R
where, where V  IR   R. So k     
L (m )  R  R h  r  L L A  R  R h  r L

 E  V IR I  E R
 IR   R. So k     
 R  R h  r  L L A  R  R h  r L
 Potential gradient k directly depends Upon:
• the resistance per unit length (R/L) of potentiometer wire.
• the radius of potentiometer wire (i.e., Area of cross-section).
• the specific resistance of the material of potentiometer wire (i.e, r).
• the current flowing through potentiometer wire (I).
 Potential gradient k indirectly depends upon:
• the emf of battery in the primary circuit (i.e., E1).
• the resistance of rheostat in the primary circuit (i.e., Rh).
 Sensitivity of a potentiometer: A potentiometer is sensitive, if:

• it is capable of measuring very small potential differences, and
• it shows a significant change in balancing length for a small change in the potential difference being

measured.
 Ideal voltmeter: A potentiometer can be regarded as an ideal voltmeter with infinite resistance because it does
not draw any current from the source of emf at the null point.

Key Formulae
 To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell

• Initially in secondary circuit, key K′ remains open and balancing length (l1) is obtained. Since cell E2 is in
open circuit so its emf balances on length l1 i.e.,
E1 = kl1.  ... (i)

• Now key K′ is closed so cell E2 comes in closed circuit. If the process is repeated again then potential
difference V balances on length l2 i.e.,
V = kl2.
E 
• Internal resistance,
r =  2 − 1  ⋅ R′
V 
l − l 
r =  1 2  R′
 l2 

 Comparison of emf’s of two cells: Let l1 and l2 be the balancing lengths with the cells E1 and E2 respectively then
E l
E1 = kl1 and E2 = kl2 ⇒ 1 = 1
E2 l2
  Let E1 > E2 and both are connected in series. If balancing length is l1 when cells assist each other and its length
l2 when they opposes each other as shown:

then, (E1 + E2) = kl1; (E1 – E2) = kl2

 Comparison of resistances: Let the balancing length for resistance R1(when XY is connected) be l1 and let the
balancing length for resistance R1 + R2 (when YZ is connected) be l2.
Then IR1 = kl1 and I(R1 + R2) = kl2
K Rh

J
A B
G
X Y Z

R1 R2
E
K1 Rh1
R1 l1 − l2
=
R2 l2

Mnemonics
Concept : Factors on which the potential G : Gradient
gradient of potentiometer depends D : depends on
Mnemonics : Post-Graduates and Doctorates A : Area of cross-section
All Reside at Chennai. R : Resitivity of wire
Interpretation: C : Current through wire
P : Potential