‘/ Map Reading Skills

Identify the characteristics of a map

Characteristics of a map (also called attributes/elements of a map)

 Title: tells us what the map is all about

 Direction: use cardinal points to indicate the direction of one place from another
 Key: explains what the symbols on a map represents
 Scale: shows the relationship between a distance measured between two points on the map and the actual
distance between the same points on the ground.
Types of scale
a) The statement scale: The statement scale is when you make a statement saying what the distance on the
map represents on the ground.
Example
You may say 1 centimeter measured on the map represents 1 kilometer measured on the ground or 1
centimeter to 1 kilometer. Notice that the statements mention two distances. The smaller distance refers
to the map and the larger distance refers to the ground. For the statement scale, the distance on the
ground is always given in kilometers or metres. Thus, in this case, the distance of 1 cm on the map
represents a distance of 1 kilometre on the ground.
b) The Representative Fraction (R. F.)/Ratio scale: The scale is given as a fraction: 1/10 or as a ratio: 1:10.
What it means is that one unit measured on the map stands for ten of the same units on the ground. On
most maps, the Representative Fraction is given as a ratio, which is usually 1:50, 000 on topographic
maps.
Note that the larger the Representative Fraction denominator, the smaller the scale and the less detail
that can be shown. A scale of 1:25 000 will show more detail than a scale of 1:100 000. The smaller the
denominator of the Representative Fraction, the larger the scale and more detail can be shown for a given
area.
c) The linear scale or line scale:This is the most common scale used for maps and you need to really know
how to use it. This is a special ruler that is drawn below a map that can be used to measure an area or
distance. It is divided into a number of equal parts as shown in the figure below.
The divisions on the line scale measures map distances and the labelling will give you the distance on the
ground. To the right of zero – each scale division represents a distance of 1 kilometre. To the left of zero –
the distance representing 1 km is shown and this is subdivided into ten equal parts, each part
representing a distance of 100m.
Distances can be measured and read off directly from the scale.
On many maps, two linear scales are drawn to show distance measured in the metric units, in kilometres
and metres and in imperial units, in miles, yards and feet. If asked to measure distance on a map, be sure
to use the one that measures in metric units (kilometres and metres), because Commonwealth countries
use the metric unit of measurement.

Now

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Exercise
Change the following statement scales to Representative Fraction scale: [3marks]
a) 1centimetre to 2 kilometres
______________________________________
b) 1/2 centimetre to 1 kilometre
______________________________________
c) 1 centimetre to 1/2 kilometre
______________________________________

Demonstrate the ability to use instruments to measure distance to use a scale in measuring distance

Measuring Distance on Maps

 Distance is the measurement of how far we travel between two places. On a map, it is the measurement
between any two points.
 The Statement Scale, the Representative Fraction and the Linear Scale all give you the map distance and the
actual distance represented on the ground by each unit.
 We can use different instruments such as string, piece of paper and mathematical dividers to measure
distances on maps which may be along a route such as a road, railway line, a footpath or a river and distance
between settlements and sometimes may be straight distances but others may be curved.
 NB: 1000m=1km
o 100 000cm=1km
o 100cm=1m
o 10mm=1cm

Measuring Distance along Routes which are straight

(a) Straight edged paper method

1. Draw a straight line joining the Police Station (PS) and the Post Office (P0).
2. Get a piece of paper of a suitable length, which has a straight edge.
3. Place the straight edge of paper on the map next to the line joining the Police Station and the Post Office.
Mark off PS on the paper at the point where the Police Station is and PO where the Post Office is.
4. Take the marked straight-edge of paper and put it against the linear scale given at the bottom of the map.
You can see that the distance between the Post Office and the Police Station is greater than 3 km but less
than 4 km.
5. Mark off a distance of 3 Km on the paper and label it A.
6. The remaining distance B is measured using the part of the scale to the left of zero. Measure this distance
in metres. You should get 80 metres.
7. The total distance between the Police Station and the Post Office is:
Distance A + Distance B
= 3 km + 80 metres
= 3 km 80/3.08 km

(b) The pair of dividers method

With this method you can follow the procedure given below:
1. Draw a pencil line joining the places on a map; in this case the Police Station and the Post Office.
2. Open the pair of dividers to obtain the distance between the two places.
3. Use the dividers to read off the distance from the linear scale.
Distance A + Distance B = PS to PO
3 km + 80 m = 3 km 80 m
= 3.08 km
Note that if you use a pair of dividers, do not change the span until you have read the distance in the linear scale.

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(c) The string method
You can also use a string and follow the same steps as those you followed when using a piece of paper. Use a string
that does not stretch.

Example
Look at the map given below and then measure the distance between the police station (PS) and the post office
(PO).

Measuring Distance along Routes which are not straight

You know that roads, railway lines, rivers and distances between settlements are not always straight.
These may follow irregular patterns and you need to take great care when measuring them. There are many ways
of measuring these irregular distances. You may use the following methods:

a) Using a string
When measuring using a string, follow the given instructions:
 Lay a piece of string, preferably white in colour, along the route to be measured following the curves carefully.
 Make a mark on the string with a pen or pencil where the line begins.
 Make a mark on the string with a pen or pencil where the line ends.
 Then lay the string against the linear scale and read off the distance.

b) Using the straight edge of a piece of paper.

 Put the edge of a piece of paper along the first straight section of the line to be measured.
 Use your pencil to mark the edge of the paper from A to B.
 Move the paper so that it lies on B along BC.
 Mark out C on the edge of your paper.
 Keep on moving the paper along the curves or bends, each time making a mark on the edge of your paper
where a new curve starts and ends until you reach the end of the line, in this case F.
 Measure the length of the marked paper against the linear scale. Read off the distance.

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c) Using a pair of dividers
 Divide the line by pencil marks into sections that are almost straight as shown below.

 Measure each of these sections with a pair of dividers and write down each measurement.
 Add the length of each of the straight sections.
 Then use the linear scale to find out the actual distance on the land.

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Demonstrate the ability to use a scale in Calculating area and gradient

How to calculate area

Steps to calculating area

1. Identify the shape of the area you are supposed to calculate

a) If it is a regular shape, measure the necessary lengths and then use the formula of that shape to calculate
the area. e.g. formula for an area of a square=Side*Side
Area of a triangle =1/2 base*height
Then convert the units from centimeters to kilometers
b) If it is an irregular shape then there are two methods to use, however the formula is:
Area= {total number of complete squares + (total number of incomplete squares/2)} km2
i. If you have been provided with a transparent square paper
 Cover the area with a single transparent square paper and trace the outline of the area you
are to calculate
 Then draw the outer edges of all the complete squares you see on the transparent square
paper within the marked area
 Number each complete square
 Put dots in the incomplete squares/part squares and count them
 Divide the number of incomplete squares by 2, then add it to the number of the complete
squares and multiply everything by 1km2
ii. If there is no transparent square paper then
 Count the number of complete squares on the map within the area you are supposed to
calculate/ Number each complete square
 Put dots in the incomplete squares/part squares and then count them
 Divide the number of incomplete squares by 2, then add it to the number of compete
squares and multiply everything by 1km2

NB: the half squares that are usually on the boarder of a map are counted as incomplete squares.

Example
In the figure below there are 12 whole squares and 20 part squares. Part squares are counted as half squares.
Remember to change 20 part squares into complete squares you divide by 2 thus 20/2 = 10
The total area is therefore 12 +10=22 *1km2 =22 km2

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How to calculate gradient

 Gradient is the steepness of the land between two points

The formula is:

Gradient (G) = Vertical Interval (VI)/Horizontal Equivalent (HE)

Steps to calculating gradient

1. Identify the points which you are calculating the gradient for either spot height, trigonometrical station or
contour line
2. Then calculate the vertical interval (VI is the difference in height between the two given points/heights)
a) If the gradient is calculated between any two spot heights then the VI will be the difference between the
two heights in meters.
b) If there are no spot heights you have to identify and trace the contour lines that pass through or close to
the features until you see the contour values of the two lines and calculate the difference between the
lines.
3. Then calculate the horizontal equivalent (HE is the measured distance between the two points). So you
measure the distance in kilometers.
a) Convert the kilometers to meters by multiplying the measured distance by 1000 (because 1Km is
equivalent to 1000m)
4. Then calculate the gradient, which must be always represented in the form of a ratio. The numerator (VI),
which will be the number on the left side of the ratio must always remain as 1, hence you need to divide the

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 number by itself to get one. The rule is whatever is being done at the numerator must be done in the
denominator so the number that was used to divide the VI divides the HE as well. Thus G=VI/VI/HE/VI

Example1
Q: Given that the distance between the spot heights 1367 and 1443 (Rusape) is 5.4km, calculate the average
gradient between the two spot heights.

G=VI/HE
Calculate the vertical interval, in this case the gradient is calculated between two spot heights then the VI
will be the difference between the two heights in meters.
VI=1443m-1367m=76m

HE=5.4km 5.4*1000=5400m

G=76m/5400m
=76/76/5400/76
=1/71.1
G= 1:71.1 or G=1in71.1

Example2
Given that the horizontal distance between A and B in the map given below is 5 km, work out the gradient from A
to B.

Steps to calculating gradient

1. Identify the points which you are calculating the gradient for, A and B
2. Then you have to identify and trace the contour lines that pass through or close to the features until you see
the contour values of the two lines and calculate the difference between the lines. Thus:
VI=80m-50m=30m
3. Then the horizontal equivalent/HE 5km
HE=5km 5*1000=5000m
4. Then calculate the gradient

G=30m/5000m
=30/30 /5000/30
=1/166.67
=1:166.67

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Demonstrate the ability to use instruments to find direction and calculate bearing

How to measure/calculate bearing

 Bearing is the angle at which a feature lies in relation to another. It is measured in a clockwise direction.

Steps to measuring bearing

1. Identify the two features or points you are to calculate their bearing e.g. X and Y
2. Then draw a straight thin line (with a pencil) to connect/join the two points which you have to calculate the
bearing for. In the example below the line will be XY
3. Then identify the starting point, which is the feature that comes after the word “from”. In this example,
assuming the starting point is X
4. Then draw a straight vertical line (north line) running north to south through the starting point. That is draw a
line through point X and label N thus the line will be NX as shown below.

5. Make a mark in a clockwise direction from the top of the north line up to the line that connects the two
points. Thus marking the angle in a clockwise direction from the north line up to the line that connects the two
features/points. Thus move from line NX to line XY

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6. Then measure the angle using a protractor, ensuring that the 0 mark on the protractor is in line with the north
line and the center of the protractor at the center of the symbol of the starting point, which is X.

Example 2
Q: Find the bearing of B from A.

Steps to follow
1. Join points AB with a straight line.

2. At A draw the north line

3. Then measure the angle using a protractor, ensuring that the 0 mark on the protractor is in line with the
north line and the center of the protractor at the center of the symbol of the starting point. From north to
south in a clockwise direction it is 180o (a straight line).

This means you still need to measure the remaining angle SAB. Place your protractor along the NS line and
read angle SAB from your protractor as shown.

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 It is 70o.
To get the total bearing from A to B you add 180o (from north to south) and 70o (from south to B).
Thus, the bearing of A to B is 250o pointing south west.

Direction

Finding direction

An instrument like a compass can help you to locate the direction/a compass is an instrument that is used for
finding direction. Figure below shows a typical magnetic compass.

It has a pointer which always shows the direction north. There are four main direction points in a compass known
as cardinal points. These are north, south, east and west.
On a map, the key always shows the north direction with an arrow pointing to the top of the map. So, the south
will be at the bottom of the map, west to the left and east to the right. If a map does not have the north direction,
you should take the top of the map as north and the bottom part as the south.
There are other points which are the inter-cardinal or intermediate compass points or directions north east (NE),
North West (NW), south east (SE), south west (SW) making the eight compass as shown in Figure below.

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The eight point compass may have further subdivisions into 16 points as shown below

How to find direction using a Compass

1. Identify the two features or points you are to find their direction e.g. X and Y
2. Then identify the starting point, which is the feature/place that comes after the word “from”.
3. Then at the starting point, draw straight thin lines (with a pencil) to represent the cardinal points, making the
symbol the center of the compass
4. Then draw a straight line running from the centre of the compass/starting point to the point you are finding its
direction and state the direction.

Example 1
Points A and B represent two places A and B.
.A .B

Q: What do you think is the direction of B from A?

Imagine you are standing at A and looking towards place B. Which direction are you facing? You are looking
towards the east. Therefore we can say that B is east of A, or A is west of B.

Locate features on a map using the 4 and 6 figure grid references

A grid is a network of equally spaced horizontal and vertical lines intersecting at right angles to form perfect
squares. The vertical lines running from the north to the south are known as Eastings. Diagram below shows you
the Eastings 88, 89, 90 and 91.

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Note that Eastings figures increase as you go eastwards from the grid origin. For example, in the above diagram,
easting 90 lies east of easting 89.

The horizontal lines which run from the south to the north are known as Northings. The northings increase in a
northwards direction. In the diagram below, for example, northing 73 is north of northing 72.

If we combine the eastings and the northings we get a grid with equal squares as shown below

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NB: The vertical lines are the eastings increasing eastwards and the horizontal ones are the northings increasing
northwards. Smaller figures that appear on the bigger figures should be disregarded when giving grid references.

Locating Places Using the Four Figure Grid Reference

Example

Q: What is the grid reference of the shaded square P?

1. Locate the bottom left corner of the shaded square P. At this point, two grid lines, an easting and a northing
intersect. The easting forms the western edge of the square and the northing forms the southern edge.
2. State the number of the easting that forms the western edge of the square. The number is 88.
3. State the number of the northing that forms the southern edge of the square. The number is 72.
4. The four-figure grid reference for square P is 8872.

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Locating Places Using the Six Grid Reference
The four-figure grid reference can only locate the position of the whole square. A more accurate method of
locating places is the six-figure grid reference. Carefully study the example given below.

Example

The diagram above shows a grid for 1:50,000 scale map. There is a Church (B) in one of the grid squares. The 4-
figure grid reference to this square is 6613. You should fix the position of the church more accurately using a 6-
figure grid reference.
To fix the position of the church you should follow the steps given below:
1. Draw lines AB, BC as in the diagram.
2. Estimate the position of A in relation to 66 and 67 by imagining the line between 66 and 67 is divided into ten
equal parts (using the part on the left of zero in a linear scale provided at the bottom of the map). A is 8/10 of
the distance between 66 and 67. The easting is written as 668.
3. Estimate the position of C in relation to 13 and 14 as you did in Step 2. B is 3/10 of the distance between 13
and 14. The northing is written as 133.
4. The 6-figure reference of the church (B) is therefore 668133.

Locate features on a map using longitudes and latitudes

Lines of Latitude
Lines of latitude are imaginary lines that cut horizontally across the map in an east-west direction. Figure below
shows some of the lines of latitude as they appear on the globe.

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If you look at the above diagram, you will note that there is a horizontal line that divides the earth into two halves.
This is the Equator and it is the longest latitude line (40075 Km around the middle of the earth). It divides the earth
into two hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere (places north of the Equator), the latitudes increase as you go
north and in the Southern hemisphere (places south of the Equator), they increase as you go south from 0o at the
Equator to 90o at the poles. Note that the number showing latitude is always followed by the letter N if the place
located is in the Northern hemisphere and S if the place is located in the Southern hemisphere.

Important lines of latitude are the Equator (0 degrees), the Tropic of Cancer (23½ degrees N) the Tropic of
Capricorn (23½ degrees south). The Tropic of Capricorn passes just 40 Km south of Mahalapye. Besides
understanding that latitude is important for locating various part of the globe, you also need to understand that
different latitudes are also related to seasons. Seasons are caused by the tilt of the earth’s axis. As the areas closer
to the Tropic of Capricorn come closer to the sun, they become warmer , which causes summer in the southern
hemisphere. Obviously the areas farthest away from the sun experience cold temperatures and hence becomes
winter for them. Note that areas that are close to the equator have high temperatures throughout the year.

Lines of Longitude
Lines of longitude are imaginary vertical lines that connect the North Pole to the South Pole. These lines are called
meridians. They show the angular distance to places east or west of the Greenwich Meridian. Figure below shows
you the lines of longitude. Longitude line 0 degrees runs through a place in London known as Greenwich, and this
zero line is referred to as the Greenwich Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian divides the earth into two
hemispheres: the eastern and western hemispheres. The lines of longitude on the eastern hemisphere increase in
degrees eastwards while those in the western hemisphere increase in degrees westwards. The lines of longitude
start from 0o to 180o either east or west. Each degree of meridian consists of 60 minutes (’) of arc and 1 minute
consists of 60 seconds (”) of arc.

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A network of lines of latitude and longitude is referred to as graticule. In most topographic maps, the values of
these lines of longitude and latitude are often marked on the edge of a map as shown below.
Botswana is in the Southern Hemisphere and therefore, lies south of the Equator. The lines of latitude increase
southwards. While the lines of longitudes increase towards the east because Botswana lies east of the Greenwich.

Can you identify Ghanzi? It is near latitude 21o 46’S and longitude 21o45’E.

\\\

Locating Positions Using Latitudes and Longitudes

The procedure when reporting longitudes and latitudes to give the position of a place is to mention the latitude
first before the longitude. The identified latitudes and longitudes should be quoted in degrees and minutes.

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Example 1
Use the map of Botswana above to locate the position of Molepolole.

Steps to follow
1. Locate/identify Molepolole on the map (South Eastern Botswana).
2. Identify the latitude that passes near Molepolole. It is 24o S.
3. Then identify the longitude that passes near Molepolole. It is 25o E
4. Therefore, the position of Molepolole is latitude 24o S and longitude 25 oE.

Example 2
Now, calculate the latitude and longitude of Gantsi using the same map.
1. First, you must decide whether Gantsi is in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere. Are the latitudes increasing
southwards or northwards? They are increasing southwards which means Gantsi is in the Southern
Hemisphere. It means those latitudes should be labelled o South (o S).
2. Look carefully at the longitude lines. Are they increasing in an easterly or westerly direction? They are
increasing in easterly direction. This means that Gantsi is in the eastern hemisphere. It means all the longitude
lines should be labelled o East (oE).
3. Read off the latitude Gantsi, which is 23o45’S and the longitude of Gantsi which is 22o45’S.

Demonstrate the ability to read and calculate time with reference to the Greenwich Meridian
Using Lines of Longitude to Calculate Time
Lines of longitude are sometimes used for calculating time. The earth takes 24 hours to complete a rotation. In
other words, it takes 1440 minutes for it to turn360 degrees. From these figures it is clear that the earth takes 1
hour to turn around 15 degrees. It takes 4 minutes to turn around 1 degree. Using these basic facts, we can
calculate time for any given area.
However, you need to first understand the role of the Greenwich Meridian in the calculation of time. The
Greenwich Meridian is the 0 degrees longitude. Time is calculated from the Greenwich Meridian. The areas which
are to the east (right) of the Greenwich meridian are always ahead in time. All the areas to the west of the
Greenwich Meridian are behind in time.

Standard time (local time)

Different areas within the same country or region often use the same time. They use the same line of longitude to
calculate their time. This helps to avoid confusion between areas in the same region. Countries in the Southern
African region use the 30 degrees line of longitude for calculating their local time. This is the reason why Botswana,
South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe have similar times. When calculating standard time you will need to find the
following:
1. The differences in the longitude lines used, that is the number of degrees between the two places
(Longitudinal Difference).
NB: when the areas in question are both in the eastern side or both in the western side of the Greenwich
Meridian then you calculate the longitudinal difference by subtracting the smaller longitude line from the
larger longitude line. If they are in different directions, that is one place in the east and the other in the west
then the longitudinal difference is calculated by adding the two lines of longitude.
2. Then calculate the total number of hours in between the two places which would be the time difference. The
time difference is calculated by dividing the longitudinal difference by 15 o to change to hours
NB: because the earth takes 1 hour to turn around 15 degrees anything less than15 o means it is less than an
hour so it has to be changed to minutes by multiplying by 4 minutes since it takes 4 minutes to turn around
1 degree.
3. Then find/calculate the time by determining whether it lies to the east or west. When you move from west to
east you gain time therefore you add the calculated time difference to the time stated in the question and
when you move from east to west you lose time therefore you subtract the calculated time difference from
the time given in the question.
Example 1

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It is 2.00 p.m. at the Greenwich Meridian. What time would it be at a place X, 45o east?
Time at Greenwich Meridian = 2.00 p.m.
Longitude at Greenwich = 0o.
Longitude at the place X = 45o E
Steps to follow
1. Calculate the longitudinal difference (LD)/Difference in degrees = 45o- 0o = 45o
2. Then calculate the time difference (TD)/Difference in time = 45/15= 3 hours.
3. Since X is east of the Greenwich Meridian then it means that it is ahead in time.
Thus 3 hours ahead of 2 pm = (1400 +3 hours) = 1700 hours
Therefore the time at X = 5 p.m. the same day.

Example 2
It is 2.00 p.m. at the Greenwich Meridian. What time would it be at a place Y, 45 o west?
Time at Greenwich Meridian = 2.00 p.m.
Longitude at Greenwich = 0o.
Longitude at the place Y = 45o W
Steps to follow
1. Calculate the longitudinal difference (LD)/Difference in degrees = 45o+ 0o = 45o
2. Then calculate the time difference (TD)/Difference in time = 45/15= 3 hours.
3. Since Y is west of the Greenwich Meridian then it means that it is behind in time.
Thus 3 hours behind of 2 pm = (1400 - 3 hours) = 1100 hours
Therefore the time at Y = 11a.m. the same day.

Example 3
The time in Gaborone is 6 p.m. on Monday. Gaborone lies along 30o East longitude. Calculate the time at Singy,
which lies along 45 o East longitude.
Steps to follow
1. Calculate the longitudinal difference (LD)/Difference in degrees between Gaborone and Singy = 45 o -30 o = 15o
2. Then calculate the time difference (TD)/Difference in time = 15/15= 1 hour
3. Since Singy is east of Gaborone then it means that it is ahead in time.
Thus 1 hour ahead of 6 pm = (1800 +1 hour) = 1900 hours
Therefore the time at Singy = 7:00 p.m.

Example 4
A Zambian woke up at 0530 hours at the Copper Belt (28 oE) to give a friend who is studying in Bolivia (65 oW) a
telephone call. At what time should a friend in Bolivia expect a call?

Time at Zambia Copper Belt = 0530hrs

Longitude at Zambia Copper Belt = 28 oE

Time at Bolivia =?
Longitude at Bolivia =65 oW

LD =28 o + 65 o = 93o
TD = 93o /1 5 o = 6hrs remainder 3 o
Thus: 3 o * 4 mins = 12 minutes
So TD = 6hrs 12 mins

Since Bolivia is west of Zambia Copper Belt then it means that it is behind in time. Thus 6hrs 12 minutes behind of
0530hrs, which means it, will be a different day in Bolivia
So Time = 2400 + 0530 hours = 2930 hours
=2930hrs – 0612hrs = 2318hrs
Example 5

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A newscaster at Los Angeles, 120 oW announces the time to be 1800 hrs. on Monday. A listener to the news at
Lagos finds his time to be 0300 hrs. on Tuesday. On what longitude is the listener in Lagos?

Time at LA = 1800 hrs. on Monday

Longitude at LA = 120 oW

Time at Lagos = 0300 hrs. on Tuesday

Longitude at Lagos =?

TD = since the times of the two places are in different days (one on Monday and the other Tuesday) then you have
to calculate the hours remaining from 1800hrs on Monday to get to Tuesday, 2400 – 1800 = 6 hrs.
Then add the calculated remaining hours (6 hrs.) to the time for Lagos = 6 + 0300 hrs. = 9 hrs.

LD =15 o * 9 hrs. = 135o

Since Lagos is ahead of Los Angeles in time, then it is in the eastern side
So calculating the LD is by addition Thus X + 120o =135o
Solve for X, X = 135o - 120o = 15o

Longitude = 15oE

Identify landforms on maps using contours

Ways of Showing Relief
The earth’s surface is made of many types of land forms like mountains, hills, valleys, lakes, rivers among many
others. These features or landforms have to be represented on a map so that the map can serve the purpose of
guiding people who use the earth’s surface.

1. Profiles
The earliest method of showing landforms on maps was by using profiles or outlines. These showed the physical
features as they appear when viewed from the ground. This method does not indicate distances and heights and it
does not show all the details.
2. Hill Shading
Another method of showing landforms is by hill shading. In such instances the light area usually represents the
higher areas. The shadows are drawn as if the light rays are vertical. This gives the wrong impression that lighter
coloured slopes are less steep. Hill shading is sometimes accompanied by spot heights.
Note that in hill shading the steeper the slope, the darker the shadow will be. Flat land will appear well lit.
3. Hachuring
This method uses short lines known as hachures to show the direction water would flow. If the slope is very steep,
the hachures are close together, on a gentle slope, the lines are widely spaced. On flat land there is no shading. In
steep areas hachures can be so close that you cannot see other features.
4. Layer Shading
This method is sometimes referred to as layer colouring and is used to show height on physical maps in atlases. For
example, in most Atlases, green is used to show low lands while the brown colour shows high areas. In this case,
hills and mountains will be shown by a brown colour.
5. Point Elevations
When map- makers are carrying out a mapping survey of an area, heights of certain points such as summits of hills
are accurately measured to a fraction of a metre. These are referred to as point elevations. Point elevations
include trigonometrical stations or, beacons and spot heights.
a) Trigonometrical stations
These are sometimes known as triangulation stations. These are concrete pillars or beacons erected by
surveyors on hill summits from which there are good views of the surrounding country.

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 A trigonometrical beacon adapted from flickr.com/photos/kinetawherlock/3759010364/

In topographic maps they are represented as

12 → number of trig. station
▲
1835 → height above sea-level
b) Spot height
These are usually measured to the nearest metre. There is no physical evidence of them on the ground.
They are represented on maps by the following symbol:

A Spot Height
The symbol above means the spot height given on the map is 3452 metres above sea level. Note that land
height or altitude is measured from the sea level.

c) Bench marks
Sometimes, land height or altitude is shown on walls of buildings or brass plugs on concrete blocks. These
are known as benchmarks. The symbols used are like the following:

A Bench Mark
The above symbol would mean that the mark on a wall or a concrete block is 1523 metres above sea level.

6. Contours
Contour lines are the most common way of showing height on topographical maps. Contour lines are lines
drawn on a map passing joining areas with the same height above sea level.

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 Sample of contour lines

Identifying Major landforms using Contour Lines

You can tell the different landforms by carefully looking at the contour lines and considering the following:
i. The height of the contours. This will tell you if the area is lowland or highland.
ii. The shape of the contours will tell you the shape of the land form. For instance, circular contours tell you
that the landform has a circular shape.
iii. The spacing of the contours will tell you about the steepness of the land.

What is the height of X and Y in the above diagram? The height of X and Y is 30m
The heights of A, B, C and D are all 10m above the sea.
Now, what is the height of R?

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To find R you will first have to find the height between the 10m and 20m contour lines. The difference between
two contour lines that follow each other is known as the vertical interval (VI). To calculate the vertical interval, you
calculate the difference between two consecutive contour lines. The vertical interval in the diagram is 20m - 10m =
10m. R lies halfway between 10m and 20m, which mean it is 15m. R is 15m above sea level.
NB: in most topographic maps the VI is always given in the key/legend

1. Slopes
a) A gentle slope
This is a slope where the land rises gradually. You can identify a gentle slope in a map by widely spaced
contours.

If the steepness of the land is the same from the top to the bottom of the slope, the slope can be referred to
as a uniform slope or an even slope.

b) A steep slope
This is when the land falls or rises sharply. You can identify a steep slope by contour lines that are very close
together as shown between A and B.

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c) A convex slope
Some slopes are very steep at the bottom and gentle at the top. Such slopes are known as convex slopes. You
can identify a convex slope by contour lines which are very close together on lower ground indicating that the
slope is steep at the bottom and widely spaced contours on higher ground indicating that the slope is gentle as
you go higher.

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d) A concave slope
In a concave slope, the land rises gentle at the lower end of the slope and rises steeply at the higher end of the
slope.

e) Vertical slope / cliff

It is a vertical slope where the land suddenly drops a few meters or more. Contour lines lie on top of each
other to show the vertical slope. That is when contours are extremely close together that they touch, or
almost touch each other

f) Flat land
Flat areas have no slope and therefore, no contours are shown on a map or they are far apart indicating that
the land is flat.

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2. Hills
A hill is a small area of land rising higher than the land surrounding itBotswana’s landscape, particularly around
Kanye and Moshupa. There are many types of hills. The most common one is the rounded hill known as a knoll or a
cone shaped hill. It is rounded at the base and has a cone-shaped top or apex. You can identify it by its circular
contours.
a) A conical hill
A conical hill looks like a cone and is very regular in shape, with a wide base and a narrow top. On a map, it is
shown by evenly spaced concentric contour lines/the contour lines look like concentric circles with the
smallest circle in the centre, showing the pointed top.

b) A round-topped hill/butte
A round-topped hill may have regular or irregular sloping sides. It is a hill with a flat top. Its distinguishing
shape is a rounded top. On a map, you can identify it by the more oval shaped contours and the highest
contour being round. The slopes are gentler than those of a conical hill. The oval shape in the centre is also
larger than the centre of a conical hill and it shows the flat top

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Examples of round topped hills are inselbergs or kopjies which are found in drier areas and are often isolated.

c) A flat topped hill/ A plateau

A flat-topped hill or aplateau is a high piece of land that has a flat surface at the top with steep sides on either
side. The highest contour line encloses a wide open space that is the contour in the centre is even larger than
that of a flat-topped butte. Rivers may carve valleys along the sides of the plateau. Flat topped hills like Kanye
and Thaba Bosio were used for defence purposes during the pre-colonial era.

The steep sides are sometimes known as the scarp slopes. The gentle slope of an escarpment is known as a dip
slope. A plateau with a dip and a scarp slope is known as an escarpment. It could provide good grazing land
accessible from the dip slope and can be used for defence purposes.

d) A Ridge
A ridge is a long and narrow upland area. It can be a hill ridge or a mountain ridge depending on its height. If it
is higher than 100 metres, it is a mountain ridge and if it is lower, then it is a hill ridge

e) A spur
A spur is high land that extends/juts into low land. You can identify a spur by its V-shaped contour lines. The
contour lines of a spur point towards low ground. Do not confuse a spur with a valley. Look at the contours at
b, the V points downwards. a spur is the ‘opposite’ of a valley, where the ‘V’ points in the direction of lower
land.

f) A saddle
The low-lying area between two mountain peaks /hills is called a saddle. See the arrow. It is usually at high
altitude. The low point (saddle) is still higher than surrounding landscapes

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 g) A pass
A pass is low land between high lands. These low lands are usually used as routes for roads or railway lines.
Some passes can be dammed to provide drinking water and water for irrigation.

3. River Features
There are many landforms that are closely related to rivers such as river valleys, spurs, meanders and many others.
a) A river valley
A valley is a stretch of low land between high lands, along which rivers usually flow. The contour lines are ‘V-
shaped. Valleys are formed when the ‘V’ points in the direction of higher land. Rivers run in valleys – always
from a high to a low point. At times the contours of a river valley may be ‘U’ shaped.

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 b) A gorge
This is a deep steep sided and narrow valley enclosed by rocky cliffs. In very hard resistant rocks, rivers may
cut very narrow, deep steep sided valleys. You can identify a gorge by contours that are ‘V-shaped ‘and very
close together as shown.

Describe human activities in relation to the features on the map

Relating Human Activities with Landforms
 The landforms will help you explain why certain areas have been used for particular activities. That is, you
should be able to use the landforms to explain the human activities in a particular area. You must use the key
to find out the facilities and the services on the map.
 A facility is the structure while the service is the assistance attained from the facility. Examples:
Facility Service
Hospital, Clinic Health, medical
Church Religion/religious services
Police station Security
Post office Postal services
Road, Railway line Transport
Houses Accommodation
Schools Education

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