Physical Sciences Learner's Book

Solutions for all
Physical Sciences
Grade 12
Learner’s Book
C McLaren F Gray
B Nozaic D du Plessis
Solutions for all Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book
© McLaren, Gray, Nozaic, du Plessis, 2013
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Contents
Introduction........................................................................................ v
How to use the Solutions for all Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book......................................v
Topic 0 Skills for practical investigations............................................................................................... 1
Knowledge area: Mechanics (Physics)
Topic 1 Momentum and impulse......................................................................................................... 13
Momentum................................................................................................................................. 15
Newton’s second law in terms of momentum....................................................................... 20
Conservation of momentum and elastic and inelastic collisions........................................ 28
Impulse........................................................................................................................................ 41
Extend yourself.......................................................................................................................... 50
Summary..................................................................................................................................... 52
Topic 2 Vertical projectile motion in one dimension (1D).............................................................. 53
Vertical projectile motion represented in words and equations.......................................... 55
Vertical projectile motion represented in graphs................................................................... 70
Extend yourself.......................................................................................................................... 81
Summary..................................................................................................................................... 84
Knowledge area: Matter and materials (Chemistry)
Topic 3 Organic chemistry..................................................................................................................... 85
Organic molecular structures................................................................................................... 86
Structure and physical property relationships.................................................................... 113
Applications of organic chemistry........................................................................................ 121
Types of reactions of organic compounds............................................................................ 128
Plastics and polymers.............................................................................................................. 143
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 156
Summary................................................................................................................................... 163
Topic 4 Work, energy and power........................................................................................................ 165
Work........................................................................................................................................... 168
The work-energy theorem...................................................................................................... 178
Conservation of energy........................................................................................................... 183
Power......................................................................................................................................... 192
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 204
Summary................................................................................................................................... 208
Knowledge area: Waves, sound and light (Physics)
Topic 5 Doppler effect.......................................................................................................................... 211
Doppler effect with sound and ultrasound.......................................................................... 213
The Doppler effect with light................................................................................................. 219
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 222
Summary................................................................................................................................... 224
Knowledge area: Chemical change (Chemistry)
Topic 6 Rate and extent of reaction.................................................................................................... 225
Rates of reaction and factors affecting rate.......................................................................... 227
Measuring rates of reaction.................................................................................................... 233
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 242
Summary................................................................................................................................... 247
Topic 7 Chemical equilibrium............................................................................................................ 248
Chemical equilibrium and factors affecting equilibrium................................................... 250
The equilibrium constant........................................................................................................ 267
Application of equilibrium principles – equilibrium graphs............................................ 274
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 278
Summary................................................................................................................................... 282
Topic 8 Acids and bases....................................................................................................................... 283
Acid-base reactions.................................................................................................................. 285
The application of acids and bases........................................................................................ 320
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 323
Summary................................................................................................................................... 325
Knowledge area: Electricity and magnetism (Physics)
Topic 9 Electric circuits......................................................................................................................... 326
Internal resistance.................................................................................................................... 332
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 346
Summary................................................................................................................................... 349
Topic 10 Electrodynamics...................................................................................................................... 352
Revision of electromagnetic induction................................................................................. 355
Electrical machines: generators and motors........................................................................ 356
Alternating current (AC)......................................................................................................... 380
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 389
Summary................................................................................................................................... 392
Knowledge area: Matter and materials (Physics)
Topic 11 Optical phenomena and properties of materials.............................................................. 395
The photoelectric effect........................................................................................................... 398
Atomic emission and absorption spectra............................................................................. 416
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 427
Summary................................................................................................................................... 431
Topic 12 Electrochemical reactions...................................................................................................... 432
Galvanic and electrolytic cells................................................................................................ 434
Understanding of the processes and redox reactions taking place in cells..................... 444
Standard electrode potentials................................................................................................. 453
Relation of current and potential to rate and equilibrium................................................. 458
Writing of equations representing oxidation and reduction half-reactions
and redox reactios.................................................................................................................... 460
Oxidation numbers and application of electrolytic processes........................................... 466
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 472
Summary................................................................................................................................... 478
Knowledge area: Chemical systems (Chemistry)
Topic 13 Chemical industry................................................................................................................... 479
Elements in fertilisers.............................................................................................................. 481
The industrial manufacture of fertilisers.............................................................................. 485
The impact of the use of inorganic fertilisers....................................................................... 494
Extend yourself........................................................................................................................ 498
Summary................................................................................................................................... 500
Topic 14 Revision.................................................................................................................................... 501

Answers to calculation based questions............................................................................... 540
Periodic table............................................................................................................................ 547
Data sheets................................................................................................................................ 548
Table of Standard Reduction (Electrode) Potentials........................................................... 549
Introduction
Welcome to the Solutions for all Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book.
In your study of Physical Sciences you will investigate physical and chemical
phenomena. This is done through scientific inquiry, application of scientific models,
theories and laws in order to explain and predict events in the physical environment.
The purpose of Physical Sciences is to become aware of your environment.
The study of Physical Sciences includes obtaining certain knowledge (the theory). In
addition you perform practical work in which you practice the skills necessary to study
and investigate physical and chemical phenomena. Through the process of learning and
doing we hope you develop an interest and appreciation for the physical world around us.
The Solutions for all Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book contains content knowledge
and background information to ensure that you acquire enough, and a bit more,
knowledge than required by the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS).
The Solutions for all Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book, includes sufficient practical
tasks to ensure that you develop the skills necessary to become a true scientist.
The subject matter of physical sciences is organised in six main knowledge areas. These
are:
• Matter and Materials
• Chemical Systems
• Chemical Change
• Mechanics
• Waves, Sound and Light
• Electricity and Magnetism
All the knowledge areas are covered in Grade 10, 11 and 12 but not in any particular
order.
Physical Sciences has the following specific aims:
• knowledge and skills in scientific inquiry and problem solving;
• the construction and application of scientific and technological knowledge;
• a n understanding of the nature of science and its relationships to technology, society
and the environment.
How to use the Solutions for all Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book
The content knowledge in the Solutions for all Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book is
organised according into Topics. Each topic is structured in the same way:
Topic opener page: The topic starts with full colour photograph of something that is
related to the content of the topic. The What you will learn about in this topic, lists the
content and concepts to be covered in the topic and links to what you should know after
you have worked through the topic. The Let’s talk about ... introduces the topic. It includes
questions related to the photograph and comments about the content in the topic. The
idea is for you to start thinking about new things you will learn about in the topic.
Introduction • v
What you know already: On the second page of a topic is What you know already and
Check myself. These two features tell you what you already know from previous grades
and then makes sure that you know what you need to know by giving you a question or
two to complete before continuing with the new work. It is revision of a previous
grade’s work.
Units and lessons: The content of each topic is divided into units and lessons. The lessons
break the work up in smaller chunks of information. This helps you to make sure you
know and understand a certain section of the work before moving on to the next new
section of work. A lesson consists of content and then an Exercise or a Practical task. The
Exercise might be done in class or given as homework. The Exercise and Practical tasks are
opportunities for formal and informal assessment. Your teacher will inform you which
activities would be assessed. One Practical task per term is a formal assessment task. The
Exercises and Practical tasks can be done alone, in pairs or in groups.
Extend yourself: The topic ends with a variety of additional questions and problems to
give you extra practice. Some of the problems will require that you extend yourself to get
to the solution.
Definitions box: The Definitions box at the end of the topic contains definitions of all
important terms within the topic. Always keep a dictionary handy to find the correct
meaning of new words. If you know what a word means you will understand the content
better and this will make your learning much easier.
Summary: Each topic ends with a Summary of the content covered in the topic. Use these
summaries to recap the content of the topic.
Other features include
Worked examples: Throughout the book there are examples that are explained step-by-
step and a full solution given. Work through them before attempting problems in the
Exercises. The worked examples explain the process of how to get to the correct solution
and answer.
Checkpoints: Checkpoints are included along the way during a topic. They are positioned
at regular intervals throughout a topic and are designed to consolidate your
understanding of a particular concept. You should attempt each Checkpoint before
continuing with the topic.
Science around us: This is some interesting information on how the science you are
learning relates to something in everyday life.
Diagrams and illustrations: Diagrams are included to help you understand the written
words. Make good use of the pictures when working through the text. When you see
something you will remember it a lot better.
Representation of vectors: The symbols for vectors are shown in bold and italics, for
example F (to represent a force) or p (to represent momentum). The symbol for the
magnitude of a vector is shown in italics only, for example F = 400 N or p = 2 kg.m.s–1.
The publisher and authors wish you the best in your study of Physical Sciences Grade 12.
Good luck!
vi • Introduction
Practical safety information
There are Practical activities throughout this book. Safety information for each Practical
activity is given at the start of the activity. Please take note of this safety information to
ensure your own the safety and that of the other learners. The symbols in the table are
used throughout the Solutions for all Physical Sciences Grade 12 Learner’s Book. Use this table
as a reference to find the meaning of each symbol. Follow these instructions carefully
when performing experiments.
Symbol Meaning
Irritant or harmful • This symbol with the word “harmful” should appear on
the label of a substance which, if it is inhaled or ingested
or if it penetrates the skin, may involve limited health risks.
• This symbol with the word “irritant” is meant for a
noncorrosive substance which, through contact with the
skin, can cause inflammation.
Poisonous • This symbol with the word “toxic” denotes a highly
hazardous substance.
• This symbol with the words “very toxic” is used to label
a substance which, if it is inhaled or ingested or if it
penetrates the skin, may involve extremely serious health
risks and even death.
Flammable or extremely • This symbol with the words “highly flammable” substance
flammable which may become hot and catch fire.
• This symbol with the words “extremely flammable”
denotes a liquid that would boil at body temperature and
would catch fire if exposed to a flame.
Oxidising chemical These substances provide oxygen which allows other materials
to burn more fiercely.
Corrosive This symbol with the word “corrosive” will be found on the
label of a substance which may destroy living tissues on
contact with it. Severe burns on the skin and flesh might result
from splashes of such substances on the body.
Environmental hazard Relatively rare with laboratory chemicals (most of which pose
some environmental hazard if not got rid of correctly), these
require particular care to be taken on disposal.
Introduction • vii
Explosive Noise and movement can also trigger explosion, not just
sparks/ flames.
Wear a lab coat or lab apron when performing experiment
Wear safety goggles when performing the experiment.
Use of electrical To avoid electric shock, never use electrical equipment around
equipment water, or when the equipment is wet or your hands are wet.
Be sure cords are untangled and cannot trip anyone. Unplug
equipment not in use.
• Toxic fumes are formed during this experiment.

• This experiment must be performed in a fume cupboard.
Bunsen burner usage • Ensure your clothes are safely tucked in. No loose clothing.
• Before starting, make sure Bunsen burner is off.
• Ensure gas tap is closed at the beginning and end of
experiment.
• Be certain that whatever you are heating can be heated
safely and will not explode.
viii • Introduction
Topic
0 Skills for practical investigations
What you will learn about in this topic

Process skills needed for practical investigations:
• Writing an investigative question
• Writing a hypothesis
• Design an experiment
• Identifying variables, for example, the independent, dependent and
controlled variables.
• Precautions (laboratory procedures)
• Observation
• Determining the accuracy and precision of experimental results
• Data collection (tables)
• Data handling (general types of graphs)
• Analysis (quantitative and qualitative)
• Writing conclusions
Let’s talk about this topic
A famous scientist once said: “Teaching science without practical work is like
teaching English without books.” It is possible to teach Science without experiments
and to teach English without books, but the final result is bound to be poor. Practical
experiments and investigations allow you to apply the theoretical scientific concepts
in practical everyday life and makes Science exciting. Practical work must be
integrated with theory to strengthen the Physical Sciences concepts that have to be
learnt.
Topic: Skills for practical investigations • 1

What you know already
The scientific process is a way of investigating things about the world. Scientists use this
process to find out about the world and to solve problems. The steps that make up the
scientific process include:
• Step 1: Identify a problem and develop a question. What is it that you want to find
out?
• Step 2: Form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is your idea, answer, or prediction about
what will happen and why.
• Step 3: Design an activity or experiment. Do something (investigate) that will help
you test your idea or prediction to see if you are correct.
• Step 4: Observe/note changes/reactions (through measuring) and record your
observations. What are the results of the investigation or experiment? Write about
what happened.
• Step 5: Make inferences about the observations recorded in the tables, graphs,
drawings and photographs. Make some conclusions. What did you find out? Do your
results support your hypothesis? What did you learn from your investigation?
Put the steps of the scientific method in a logical order.
k
Chec
lf • Construct a hypothesis
myse
• Draw conclusions
• Test with an experiment
• Do background research
• Ask a question
• Analyse results
2 • Topic: Skills for practical investigations

Skills needed for practical investigations
The purpose of this topic is to provide a detailed description of each of the skills needed
to do practical work in the Physical Sciences classroom. The skills are explained and
illustrated through a practical experiment. The relevant skill is given as a sub-heading.
Wherever possible, the prescribed experiment on page 32 in Topic 1 Momentum and
impulse is used to illustrate some of the practical process skills. The practical experiment
requires the verification of the conservation of linear momentum.
Trace the historical development of a scientific

principle or theory
A scientific model is a simplified abstract view of something that is often far more
complex. It takes a concept that is difficult to picture and puts it into a model that we can
understand. In science, there are often concepts that develop over time, as the world
becomes more advanced and it is possible to gather more information about the topic in
question. We use a model as an explanation of a concept until a better explanation and/or
model is formulated based on newly discovered information and constructed knowledge.
For example, scientists accept that an atom is made of a positively charged nucleus that
contains protons and neutrons and that the nucleus is surrounded by electrons spinning
in orbits. However, scientists did not reach this theory at their first attempt. It is a theory
that was proposed and then developed over hundreds of years as more experimentation
was done and more information was obtained. Below are just three models that were
proposed during the formation of the atomic model as we know it today:
Name of Model Billiard Ball Model Plum Pudding Model Planetary Model
Scientist who John Dalton Joseph Thomson Ernest Rutherford
proposed it
Date +/– 1800 +/– 1890 +/– 1910
Diagram of model
Description of model Atoms are made of Discovered protons and electrons, but Discovered that the
small indestructible thought that they were evenly distributed protons are found in
spheres throughout the atom the centre of the atom
and that the electrons
spin around the nucleus

You can see how each model is a development of the model that came previously. As
more information was obtained about the atom, so the model of the atom could be
modified and updated.
The development of a scientific theory has 4 steps:
Step 1: Observation and description of the phenomenon to be tested.
Step 2: Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon.
Step 3: Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict
quantitatively the results of new observations.
Step 4: Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent
experimenters and properly performed experiments.
If the experiments bear out the hypothesis, it may come to be regarded as a theory or law.
If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified.
Identify an answerable question and formulate a

hypothesis
The hypothesis is usually a statement of the expected result of the experiment. The
hypothesis may or may not be proved to be correct at the end of the experiment. Do not
be afraid of making a hypothesis, in case it is ‘wrong’ – that doesn’t matter – as long as
you prove your hypothesis to be true or false at the end of the experiment. A hypothesis
has to be testable experimentally in order to falsify or support it. The hypothesis guides
the experiment. A possible hypothesis for the experiment could be:
The linear momentum of the system is conserved. In other words, the total linear momentum
before the explosion is equal to the total linear momentum after the explosion.
A scientific investigative question will be asked, which the experiment will then
endeavour to answer. You must ask a question that is well defined, measurable and
controllable. A possible question for this experiment could be:
Is the total linear momentum before the explosion equal to the total linear momentum after the
explosion?
Design the experiment

The design gives the apparatus and method that is to be used in the experiment to test
the hypothesis. In this investigation we need to measure the mass and velocity of the
trolleys before and after the explosion. We do this by measuring time taken for each
trolley to cover a distance of 1 m. The design must define the dependent variable, the
independent variable and the controlled or fixed variable(s).
Independent variable: The independent variable is the quantity that can be changed by
the experimenter. Changes in the independent variable cause changes in the dependent
variable.
Dependent variable: The dependent variable is measured by the experimenter. It is the
outcome of the investigation.

Fixed variable(s): Many variables will affect the outcome of the experiment unless
controlled. The variables that are kept constant are called fixed or controlled variables.
We must ensure that we are changing just one variable and measuring another if it is to
be a fair test.
Next you will decide on an experimental method by which you plan to test you
hypothesis. List your method in point form and explain clearly what to do and what
measurements should be taken.
Laboratory procedures
The laboratory procedures include:
° Safety precautions applicable in any laboratory
° Methods used to measure physical quantities, such as time, distance, etc on a small
scale
° Small scale objects are used to simulate larger scale events.

Possible laboratory procedures for the experiment could be:
Safety precautions: Apart from the normal safety measures applicable to any laboratory,
this experiment has only one dangerous aspect that must be considered. The spring-
loaded mechanism that provides the explosion between the two trolleys, which can cause
injuries when not handled with care.
Methods of measurement: The momentum of the two trolleys requires the measurement
of their masses and their velocities before and after the explosion.
° The masses can be determined with a mass scale.
° The velocities are determined by measuring the time taken to travel 1 m.

Small scale objects are used to simulate larger scale events: Small scale wooden trolleys
are used to simulate collisions between life size vehicles
Select appropriate tools and technology to collect

accurate quantitative data
Possible appropriate tools could be:
° Two trolleys with spring-loaded plungers that can be released by a push-button to

force the trolleys apart in an explosion.
° The masses of the two trolleys are determined to the nearest gram.
° A smooth laboratory bench can be used as a runway.
° A measuring tape or ruler to measure the distances travelled by the trolleys.
° Ensure that the trolley wheels run freely. If necessary, add a little oil to the axles.

Correct measurements
The recording of accurate and precise measurements is one of the most important skills in
experimental work. The accuracy of your results is improved by increasing the number of
repeat readings that are taken. The precision is determined by the measuring instruments.
For example, a tape measure in which the smallest unit is the millimetre, is more precise
than a tape measure in which the smallest unit is the centimetre.
Learners need to be sure that they are able to take correct measurements using the
following apparatus:
° Thermometer ° Mass balance
° Metric ruler ° Graduated cylinder
° Pipette ° Burette
Recording the data

Decide on the best way to record your results. A table of results is recommended. Points
to note when drawing up a table:
° The table must have a heading, stating what is being recorded.
° The independent variable is recorded in the left hand column and the dependent
variable is recorded in the right hand column.
° There must be headings to each column, and the heading must include the units of
measurement.
° You must not include units in the body of the table.

In the Ohm’s law experiment that determines the relationship between the potential
difference and current for a resistor, the independent variable is the potential difference
and the dependent variable is the current. A sample set of results for this experiment
could be tabulated as follows:
Table A Potential difference (V) across a conductor and current (I) in the conductor
Potential difference (V) Current (A)

0,352 0,031
0,364 0,032
0,374 0,034
0,394 0,034
0,403 0,038
0,439 0,040
0,451 0,041
0,475 0,042
0,209 0,046
0,548 0,049

Presenting the data
Experimental data can be represented in a graph. Special attention must be given to the
drawing and labelling of graphs. Marks are allocated for the following:
° The correct heading. A correct heading should be a statement that includes both
variables. For example,
A line graph to show the relationship between the potential difference across a conductor and the
current in the conductor
° The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal axis (x-axis).
° The dependent variable is plotted on the vertical axis (y-axis).
° Ensure that the scales that you choose result in you using more than half of the space
given on the graph paper, to ensure that the graph is not too small.
° That the line joining the dots is one of best fit. Use a ruler to draw a straight line of
best fit if the graph is clearly supposed to be a straight line. If the plotted points do
not form a straight line, use a smooth curve to represent the data. Do not join the dots
with short, straight lines.
A graph for the values give in Table A is shown in Figure 1. There is clearly one reading
that is an anomalous reading. An anomalous reading is a reading that falls very far out of
the trend that the other points are following. There must have been an error when
performing the experiment at that time, or else the results must have been recorded
incorrectly. This point on the graph can therefore be ignored.
Potential difference (V) vs current (A)
Fig 1: Graph drawn from data in Table A

Figure 2 shows two further sample graphs.
Fig 2a: A curved line graph Fig 2b: A straight line graph
For the graphs in Figure 2, note that:
° Concentration is the independent variable and is drawn on the x-axis.
° Time and rate are dependent variables and are drawn on the y-axis.
° The curve in graph Figure 2a is a smooth freehand curve.
° The solid red line in Figure 2b does not pass through all the points. However, it is
clear that the graph should be a straight line. A ruler is used to draw the line that best
fits the plotted points. Do not join the plotted points (dots) as is illustrated by the
green line.
Analyse the information

Sometimes it will be necessary to use the graph to perform calculations or to analyse the
graph and make a prediction from it.
Calculating gradient
If asked to calculate the gradient of a graph, choose two points on the graph use them to
calculate the gradient. For example, if asked to calculate the gradient of the graph in
Figure 1, let us use the first and last points plotted (ensure that they fall on the line of best
fit) and calculate the gradient of that line:
Δy ____________
0,049 − 0,031
gradient =  ___  =       = 0,092
Δx 0,548 − 0,352
You may then be asked to interpret what is understood by the value that you
have calculated.
In this csae the gradient has the following unit:
A
gradient =  __
V
= Ω–1
Therefore the gradient represents ‘the inverse of resistance’.

Predicting results, using the graph
Once the graph had been drawn, you may be asked to use the graph to predict a result
outside of the set of points that you have plotted. For example, in the graph in Figure 1,
if you were asked to predict what the current reading would be if the potential difference
reading is 0,2 V, use the graph as shown by the dotted green line. Start at 0,2 V, dot the
line upwards until you meet the graph and then continue the line horizontally until you
meet the y-axis. So a predicted current reading, when the potential difference is 0,2 V
would be approximately 0,017 A.
Determine the accuracy and precision of the

experimental results
Accuracy: how close a measured value is to the true value.
Precision: how close the measured values are to each other.
Measured values may be close together but they may all be wrong due to a systematic
error such as friction in an experiment that assumes a non-friction situation.
The difference between accuracy and precision is shown in Figure 3 below, assuming that
hitting a ‘bulls’eye’ was the target.
a) Precise and inaccurate b) Imprecise and inaccurate c) Precise and accurate d) Imprecise and accurate
Figure 3: The difference between accuracy and precision
Sources of error in experiments are usually due to:
° controlled variables not being controlled
° errors in the measurement of dependent and independent variables
° calculation errors.
Percent error: A measure of the accuracy is the percent error (% error), which is used
ONLY when the actual measured quantity is known or an accepted value such as
g = 9,8 m.s–2 or speed of light c = 3 × 108 m.s–1 etc.
(Experimental result) − (Accepted value)
% error =  _____________________________________
           × 100
(Accepted value)

Example:
In an experiment where the gravitational acceleration (g) was measured, a value of
10,07 m.s–2 was obtained. The accepted value of g is 9,8 m.s–2.
10,07 − 9,8
% error =  __________
  × 100 = 2,76%
9,8
Note that this formula can be used only for accepted values ≠ 0.
Factors that can cause this deviation from the true value and therefore the variation
between the three sets of measurements are:
° friction between the wheels and the plank, which is an external force acting on the
movement of the trolleys. This means that the system is not an isolated system as is
stated by the law of conservation of momentum
° errors in the measurements of the masses of the trolleys
° errors in the measurement of the distances
° calculation errors.
Analyse experimental results and identify sources

of error
Once the results of the experiment have been obtained, they can be analysed for any
possible sources of experimental error or inaccuracy. If there are deviations in the results,
a possible source of error needs to be identified.
General causes for inaccuracy in experiments include:
° inaccuracy of measurement
° inaccuracy when reading instruments
° time delay between observing something and recording time
° difference of opinion between people about when a certain observation was made
° a zero error in an instrument.
Recognise, analyse and evaluate alternative

explanations for the same set of results
Learners should develop the ability to listen to and to respect the explanations proposed
by other students. They should remain open to and acknowledge different ideas and
explanations, be able to accept the skepticism of others and consider alternative
explanations.
Evaluation includes reviewing the experimental procedures, examining the evidence,
identifying faulty reasoning, pointing out statements that go beyond the evidence and
suggesting alternative explanations for the same observations.

Design of a model based on the correct hypothesis
for further investigation
If there is/are a factor/s that caused a wrong result, it some cases it may be possible to
design an experiment to eliminate the effect of the problem factor/s.
Once the experiment has been performed, the results can then be analysed, and if there
are any specific reasons that the experimenter can identify that may have caused incorrect
results to be obtained, a model can then be designed so that the experiment can be
performed again, attempting to eliminate such errors.
For example, in this experiment, friction may be identified as a variable that could
adversely affect the results. Therefore one could make the following changes:
° Set up the trolleys on a linear air track, rather than on a wooden lab bench. This will
drastically reduce friction.
° Perform the experiment with different apparatus, such as a Newton’s cradle, which
consists of 5 balls hanging on strings which hit against each other.
Know the difference between qualitative and

quantitative analysis
Qualitative analysis is used to describe a process or observations using words rather
than numbers. For example, a qualitative analysis of this experiment could be:
When the two trolleys are exploded apart, they move apart in opposite directions.
Since qualitative analysis does not rely on numbers for its explanation, conclusions
regarding conservation of momentum cannot be drawn.
Quantitative analysis makes use of numbers and calculated values to describe a process.
In this experiment, the actual values of velocities and momenta are calculated, so a
quantitative conclusion can be drawn, such as:
The total momentum of the system before the collision is equal to the total momentum of the
system after the collision.
Ideally, any experiment should be analysed qualitatively and quantitatively.

Practical activity
The following practical skills need to be acquired. Try wherever possible during the
course of the year to cover these skills in your practical tasks:
1. Analyse the components of a properly designed scientific investigation.
2. Choose an experiment and determine the appropriate tools to gather precise and
accurate data.
3. Defend a conclusion based on scientific evidence.
4. Determine why a conclusion is free from bias.
5. Compare conclusions that offer different but acceptable explanations for the
same set of experimental data.
6. Investigate methods of knowing by people who are not necessarily scientists.
Also, make sure that by the end of the year, you are able to correctly read a:
• Thermometer
• Mass balance
• Metric ruler
• Graduated cylinder
• Pipette
• Burette
Definitions
accuracy how close a measured value is to the true value

dependent variable the variable that is measured by the experimenter
fixed variable the variable that is kept constant
independent variable the quantity that can be changed by the experimenter
percent error a measure of the accuracy of the experiment
precision how close the measured values are to each other
scientific model a simplified abstract view of something that is often far more complex
qualitative analysis used to describe a process or observations using words rather than numbers
quantitative analysis makes use of numbers and calculated values to describe a process

Topic
1 Momentum and impulse
• Momentum
• Newton’s second law in terms of momentum
• Conservation of momentum and elastic and inelastic collisions
• Impulse
The photo shows a crash test. In a crash test, a vehicle collides with another object,
such as a wall, or another vehicle. Engineers use the concepts of momentum and
impulse to interpret the results of crash test experiments. This helps them to design
vehicles which will be safer in a car crash. Car crashes are only one form of collision
in everyday life. For example, collisions are common in sports, such as hitting and
catching a cricket ball. In this topic you learn about momentum and impulse. You
also learn to apply these concepts to understand collisions.
Topic 1: Momentum and impulse • 13

• A scalar is a physical quantity that has magnitude only. Examples include mass and energy.
• A vector is a physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction. Examples
include velocity, force and acceleration.
• The mass (m) of a body is the quantity of matter in that body. Mass is a scalar
quantity, measured in kilograms (kg).
• Δx . Velocity is a
Velocity (v) is the rate of change of displacement. In symbols: v =  ___
Δt
vector quantity, measured in meters per second (m.s–1).
vf− v i
Δv  =  _____
• Acceleration (a) is the rate of change of velocity. In symbols: a =  ___ .
Δt Δt
Acceleration is a vector quantity, measured in m.s . –2
• Newton’s second law: When a net force, Fnet, is applied to an object of mass, m, the
object accelerates in the direction of the net force. The object’s acceleration, a, is
directly proportional to the net force applied to the object and inversely proportional
to the object’s mass. In symbols: Fnet
= ma
• Newton’s third law: When object A exerts a force on object B; object B simultaneously
exerts an oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on object A.
• The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system
remains constant.
1. Identify the action-reaction pairs of forces present in each of the
k
Chec following situations:
lf
myse a) Swimming accross the pool
b) A book rests on the table.
c) A soccer player kicks a ball. Fig 1.1: A 45N force applied to a 5 kg block in contact
with a 10 kg block
d) A rocket accelerates through
space.
2. A 5 kg and a 10 kg box are in contact with each other on a frictionless horizontal
surface, as shown in Figure 1.1. A 45 N horizontal force is applied to the 5 kg box in
order to accelerate both boxes across the frictionless surface.
a) Calculate the acceleration of the entire 15 kg mass.
b) Use your answer to a) to calculate the net force acting on the 5 kg box.
c) Why is the net force acting on the 5 kg box less than 45 N?
d) Draw a labelled free body diagram for the 5 kg block showing only the
horizontal forces acting on it.
e) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force that the 5 kg box exerts on the
10 kg box.
14 • Topic 1: Momentum and impulse

Momentum
Defining and calculating momentum

All objects have mass. When an object is moving it has momentum. The momentum (p)
of an object is the product of the mass (m) and velocity (v) of the object:
In symbols: Where:
p = the object’s momentum, measured in kilograms metres per second (kg.m.s–1)
p = mv
m = the object’s mass, measured in kilograms (kg)
v = velocity of the object, measured in metres per second (m.s–1)
Momentum is a vector quantity with the same direction as the object’s velocity. The unit
for momentum is kg.m.s-1 since p = mv = kg × m.s–1

Consider a skateboarder and a bus moving down the road at the same velocity, as shown
in Figure 1.2. Which has the greater momentum? The bus has a much greater mass, so it
has much greater momentum. However, if the bus were at rest, its momentum would be
zero. Objects at rest have zero momentum because they have zero velocity.
Worked example:
Calculate the momentum of a 1 300 kg rhino
galloping east at 15 m.s–1 toward a poacher.
Solution:
Choice of direction: East is positive. The
direction of the momentum vector is the same
as the direction of the velocity vector.
m = 1 300 kg
v = +15 m.s–1 Fig 1.2: Skateboarder holding on to a
moving bus
p = mv
p = (1 300)(+15)
p = +19 500 = 19 500 kg.m.s–1 east
Checkpoint 1
Figure 1.3 shows some bumper cars. One of
the cars has a mass of 180 kg and is
carrying a 70 kg driver. It has a constant
velocity of 3 m.s–1 west.
a) Calculate the driver’s momentum.
b) Draw and label the driver’s velocity
and momentum vectors.
c) Calculate the momentum of the driver-
system – a Fig 1.3: Bumper cars
bumper-car system.
group of two or
more objects d) How would the momentum of the driver-car system change if its velocity remained
that interact
unchanged, but another person was also in the car? Explain your answer.

Collisions
A collision is an isolated event in which two or more moving bodies exert forces on each
other over a relatively short time. Collisions are a part of our everyday lives. Examples of
collisions include a passenger colliding with an air bag and a bat hitting a ball. An object’s
motion changes during a collision.
To understand the mechanics of a collision,
consider a golf club colliding with a golf
ball, as shown in Figure 1.4. The club exerts
a force on the golf ball. According to
Newton’s third law, the ball exerts a force
on the club. The force the ball exerts on the
club (F) is equal in magnitude, but opposite
in direction to the force the club exerts on
the ball (–F). These two equal and opposite Fig 1.4: The forces involved during the collision between club and ball
forces are exerted simultaneously. These
forces cannot cancel one another out, since they act on different objects.
The golf club will slow down during the collision and as a result, its momentum will
decrease. The club experiences a force (from the ball) in the opposite direction to its
motion causing it to decelerate.
The golf ball will leave the club travelling at high speed and as a result, its momentum
has increased during the collision. The ball experiences a forward force (from the club)
causing it to accelerate in the direction of this force. Both forces stop acting at the instant
that the club and ball are no longer in contact. The ball leaves the club travelling at its
maximum velocity.
Change in momentum
If the velocity of an object changes, then the momentum of
the object will also change. In Figure 1.5, the barrier exerts
a force on the car opposite to its direction of motion. This
results in a sudden change in the car’s velocity and
therefore also a change in the car’s momentum.
If pi is the initial momentum of the object immediately
before the collision, and pf is the final momentum
immediately after the collision, then the change in
momentum (Δp )of an object is found by subtracting its Fig 1.5: During a collision, the vehicle’s
initial momentum (pi  ) from its final momentum (pf  ): momentum changes.
In symbols: Where:
Δ p = pf− pi vi = object’s initial velocity, measured in metres per second (m.s–1)
Δ p = mvf− mvi vf = object’s final velocity, measured in metres per second (m.s–1)

Worked example:
In Figure 1.6, a tennis ball with a mass of 57 g is travelling horizontally at 20 m.s–1. The
ball is struck by a racquet and moves horizontally at 30 m.s–1 in the opposite direction.
a) Calculate the change in momentum of the tennis ball.
b) Draw a vector diagram to illustrate the relationship between
the initial momentum, the final momentum and the change
in momentum of the tennis ball.
Solution:
a) Since velocity and momentum are vectors, you need to make
a choice of direction. If we choose to the right to be the
positive direction, then:
Δ p = mvf− mvi
Fig 1.6: The initial and final velocties before
Δ p = (0,057)(− 30) − (0,057)(+ 20)
and after a collison with a racquet
Δ p = − 1,71 − 1,14 = − 2,85 = 2,85 kg.m.s–1to the left
Note the following:
The negative sign shows the direction of the ball’s momentum change. This is away from
the racquet (to the left).
b) The ball’s initial, final and change in momentum vectors
are shown in Figure 1.7. During the collision, the tennis
ball’s momentum decreases from 1,14 kg.m.s–1 to zero and
then increases from zero to 1,71 kg.m.s–1. This is a total
change of 2,85 kg.m.s–1 to the left.
Why does the ball’s momentum change? The racquet exerts a net
force, to the left, on the ball. This force changes the ball’s
momentum. The direction of the change in momentum of the
ball is the same as the direction of the net force acting on the ball.
Fig 1.7: The initial, final and change in

momentum vectors
Checkpoint 2
efer to Figure 1.8 on the next page. During a soccer training session, Mpho passes a
R
0,45 kg soccer ball along the ground to Tshepo. The ball rolls at 4 m.s–1 toward Tshepo
who immediately kicks it straight back to Mpho. The ball leaves Tshepo’s boot with a
speed of 6 m.s–1. Ignore friction.

a) Calculate the initial and final
momentum of the soccer ball.
b) Calculate the change in
momentum of the soccer ball.
c) Draw a labelled vector
diagram of the soccer ball’s
initial, final and change in
momentum vectors.
Fig 1.8: The velocity of the ball changes during a collision.
Exercise 1.1
1. a) Define momentum.
b) State the SI unit of momentum.
2. Explain, in your own words, the difference between momentum and inertia.
3. Provide three examples of situations in which:
a) velocity is the main factor determining an object’s momentum
b) mass is the main factor determining an object’s momentum.
4. What is the momentum of a 6 kg bowling ball travelling at 2,2 m.s–1 east?
5. The momentum of a 75 g bullet is 9 kg.m.s–1 toward a target. What is the bullet’s
velocity?
6. A 10 kg bicycle and a 54 kg rider both have a velocity of 4,2 m.s-1 east. Draw
momentum vectors for:
a) the bicycle
b) the rider
c) the bicycle-rider system.
7. At what velocity does a 0,046 kg golf ball leave the tee if the club has given the
ball a momentum of 3,45 kg.m.s–1 south?
8. The blue whale is the largest mammal on the Earth. A female blue whale swims
at a velocity of 57 km.h–1 west and has a momentum of 2,15 × 106 kg.m.s–1. What
is the whale’s mass?
9. A 38 000 kg loaded transport truck is travelling at 1,2 m.s–1 west. What does the
velocity of a 1 400 kg car need to be for the car to have the same momentum as
the truck?
10. Which of the following objects will experience the greater change in momentum:
a) a 14 000 kg bull-dozer decreases its speed by 1 m.s–1 or,
b) a 10 g rifle bullet, travelling at 1 500 m.s–1, becomes embedded in the truck
of a tree?

11. A 0,1 kg bouncy ball is dropped. It hits the ground at 8 m.s–1. The ball bounces
upward with a speed of 6 m.s–1.
a) Calculate the ball’s change in momentum.
b) Draw a labelled vector diagram to illustrate the initial, final and change in
momentum vectors.
12. An 8 g bullet is fired from a rifle. The bullet passes through a 10 cm plank. This
reduces the bullet’s velocity from 400 m.s–1 west to 300 m.s–1 west.
a) Calculate the bullet’s initial momentum.
b) Calculate the bullet’s final momentum.
c) Calculate the bullet’s change in momentum.
d) Draw a labelled vector diagram to illustrate the bullet’s initial, final and
change in momentum vectors.
13. Many modern rifles use bullets that have less mass and reach higher speeds than
bullets of older rifles. This makes the rifle more accurate over longer distances. The
momentum of an old bullet, fired from an old rifle, is 8,25 kg.m.s–1 north.
What is the momentum of a new bullet which has __  34 the mass of the old bullet
 32 of the speed of the old rifle?
and is fired at __
14. During one part of a model-rocket’s lift-off, its momentum increases by a factor
of 4 while its mass is halved. The rocket’s velocity is initially 8,5 m.s–1 upward.
What is the rocket’s final velocity?
15. In Figure 1.9 a 22 300 kg jet aircraft lands on the deck of an aircraft carrier
travelling at 252 km.h–1 (70 m.s–1) south. It catches one of the arresting cables
and is brought to rest over a distance of 100 m.
a) Give the direction of the net
force acting on the aircraft.
b) Calculate the aircraft’s
change in momentum.
The pilot of another aircraft, of the
same mass, tries to land with the
same initial velocity, but misses the
arresting cables. The pilot
immediately applies full thrust from
Fig 1.9: An arresting cable is used to catch a landing aircraft. the jet engine and takes off with a
speed of 350 km.h–1.
c) Give the direction of the net force acting on the aircraft.
d) Calculate the aircraft’s change in momentum.
16. During a crash test, car A, of mass m, travels at speed 2v, collides with a wall
and bounces off the wall at speed v. Car B, of mass 2m, travels at speed v,
collides with the wall and is brought to rest. Which car experiences the greater
change in momentum? Explain your answer.

Newton’s second law in terms
of momentum
Expressing Newton’s second law in terms
of momentum
In Grade 11 you learnt Newton’s second law:
When a net force,Fnet
, is applied to an object of mass, m, it accelerates in the direction of
the net force. The object’s acceleration, a , is directly proportional to the net force applied
to the object and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.
In symbols: Fnet = ma(1)
If a net force (Fnet
) acts on an object it will accelerate. This means its velocity will change
(increase, decrease or change direction).
The concept of momentum can be used to restate Newton’s second law:
The acceleration (a) of the object is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
v f− vi
For a constant acceleration: a =  ______   (2)
Δt
v – v
If we substitute equation (2) into equation (1) we get: Fnet [
= m _____ ]
  f   i
Δt
mv – mvi
Fnet = ________
  f  
Δt
But (mvf − mvi) represents the change in momentum (Δp) of the object.
Δp
Fnet = ___
Therefore:    
Δt
Written this way, Newton’s second law relates the net force acting on an object to its rate
of change of momentum. This result leads us to a statement of Newton’s second law
stated in terms of momentum.
Newton’s second law (stated in terms of momentum):

The net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum.
In symbols: Where:
= the net force acting on the object, measured in Newtons (N).
Fnet
Δp
Fnet = ___
    Δ p = the change in momentum of the object, measured
Δt
in kilograms metres per second (kg.m.s–1).
Δt = the time interval over which the momentum of an object is
changed, measured in seconds (s).
This form of Newton’s second law is a more general form of Newton’s second law. The
equation Fnet
= ma only applies to situations in which the mass of an object is constant.

However, by using the concept of momentum it is possible now to

apply Newton’s second law to situations where both the mass and
velocity of an object are changing.
For example, it can be applied to the accelerating rocket shown in
Figure 1.10. While the rocket engines are fired, the rocket fuel is being
burned and the gases are escaping in the opposite direction. The mass
of the rocket is therefore decreasing, which will decrease the weight
of the rocket.
If the weight of the rocket is decreasing, then the net upward force on
the rocket will increase. This will increase the acceleration of the
rocket. Since the net force acting on the rocket is increasing, the rate at
which its momentum changes will also increase.
Δp
Fnet=  ___ 
Δt
When the fuel of the first stage of a rocket is used up, the first stage
propulsion unit is jettisoned (released) from the main rocket, further
decreasing the mass of the rocket. The second stage rocket engines are
fired accelerating the rocket. In this way the rockets direction of travel
is changed. Whenever rocket engines are fired, the rocket exerts a
Fig 1.10: When expressed in terms backward force on the escaping gases. According to Newton’s third
of momentum, Newton’s second law law, the gases exert an equal forward force on the rocket propelling it
can be applied to object’s that forwards, as shown in Figure 1.11.
change mass during their motion.
Fig 1.11: The second stage rocket engine is fired after the first
stage has been jettisoned.

Applying Newton’s second law in terms
of momentum
The motion of an object will change only when a net force acts on it. In other words, the
momentum of an object will change over time only when a net force acts on that object.
For example, when a car is involved in a crash test, the net force of the wall on the car will
change the momentum of the car.
Worked examples:
1. Suppose two cars of equal mass (800 kg) are
involved in separate crash tests. One of the crash
tests is shown in Figure 1.12. Both cars have an
initial velocity of 20 m.s–1 before colliding with the
wall. Car A collides with the wall and comes to rest
during the collision, whereas car B collides with the
wall and rebounds with a velocity of 5 m.s–1 away
from the wall. Both collisions last for 0,2 s.
a) What exerts the force on each car?
b) How will the change in momentum of the two
cars compare?
Fig 1.12: A crash test
c) How will the net force acting on each
car compare?
d) Why would car manufacturers design cars that will be brought to rest rather than
rebound during a collision?
Solution:
a) The wall.
b) Let the direction toward the wall be positive.
Car A: Δ p = mvf – mvi
Δ p = (800)(0) − (800)(+ 20)
Δ p = − 16000 kg.m.s–1
= 16 000 kg.m.s–1away from the wall
Car B: Δ p = mvf – mvi
Δ p = (800)(− 5) − (800)(+ 20)
Δ p = − 4000 − 16000 = − 20 000 kg.m.s–1= 20 000 kgm.s–1away from the wall
Car B experiences the greater change in momentum.
Δp
= ___
c) Car A: Fnet    
Δt
Fnet =   − 16 000
________  
= − 80 000 N = 80 000 N away from the wall
0,2
Car B:   − 20 000
Fnet = ________   = − 100 000 N = 100 000 N away from the wall
0,2
Car B experiences the greater net force.
d) The net force experienced by the car is directly proportional to the change in
momentum of the car. Cars that rebound during a collision experience a greater

change in momentum and therefore experience a greater net force. This would
lead to more damage to the car and increase the chances of fatal injuries to the
passengers of the car.
2. In a strongman competition, a competitor pulls a 5 000 kg truck with an average net
horizontal force of 2 000 N. This increases the truck’s velocity from 1 m.s–1 to 3
m.s–1 down the road, as shown in Figure 1.13.
a) How long did it take the strongman to change the truck’s momentum?
b) Another competitor pulls the truck with a force of 3 200 N. This also
increases the truck’s velocity from 1 m.s–1 to 3 m.s–1 down the road. How
long does it take this competitor to change the truck’s momentum?
Solution:
a) Let the forward direction be positive.
The truck’s change in momentum is:
Fig 1.13: A strongman pulls
a truck. Δ p = mvf – mvi
Δ p = (5 000)(+ 3) − (5 000)(+ 1) = 15 000 − 5 000 = 10 000 kg.m.s–1forwards
The time taken to change the truck’s momentum:
Δ p ________ + 10 000 = 5 s
Δt = ____
    =  
Fnet
+ 2 000
The strongman takes 5 s to change the truck’s momentum.
b)
The time taken to change the truck’s momentum :
Δp + 10 000
Δt =  ____  =  ________
 = 3,1 s
Fnet
+ 3 200
This strongman only takes 3,1 s to produce the same change in the truck’s
momentum, since he applies a greater force than the first strongman applied.
3. In Figure 1.14, a 65 kg Olympic springboard diver jumps into the air at the end of a
diving board. The diver lands on the springboard, travelling downward at 8 m.s–1
and leaves the springboard moving upward at 12 m.s–1.
a) Draw a free-body diagram of the forces acting on
the diver while in contact with the springboard.
b) Calculate the diver’s change in momentum while
she is in contact with the springboard?
c) The diver’s feet are in contact with the springboard
for 0,8 s. Calculate the force that the springboard
exerts on her.
Solution:
a)
Fig 1.14: A diver collides with a springboard.

b) Let upwards be positive.
The diver is initially moving at 8 m.s–1 down, therefore vi = – 8 m.s–1
The diver leaves the springboard moving at 12 m.s–1 upwards. vf = +12 m.s–1
Δ p = mvf – mvi
Δ p = (65)(+ 12) − (65)(− 8) = + 780 + 520
Δ p = 1 300 kg.m.s–1 upwards
c) Calculate the diver’s weight:

F = mg
g

F = (65)(− 9,8) = − 637 N = 637 N down
g
Apply Newton’s second law:
Δp
=  ___ 
Fnet
Δt
Δp
F + Fg=  ___ 
Δt
+1300
F + (– 637) =  ______  
0,8
F– 637 = + 1625
F = +1625 + 637 = 2 262 N upwards
Science around us a)
Drag reduction system

Design engineers have introduced a drag
reduction system (or DRS) on the rear wing of all
formula one cars aimed at reducing aerodynamic b)
drag (air resistance). The rear wing of the car can
be opened as shown in Figure 1.15 at specified
parts of the race circuit. The open wing reduces
friction, and so increases the net forward force
acting on the car, increasing the car’s acceleration. Fig 1.15: The drag reduction
This will help a driver overtake another car. system on the rear wing is
a) open and b) closed.
Checkpoint 3
A golfer is playing golf. The club head of mass
0,2 kg is travelling north at 45 m.s–1 before
striking the golf ball. The club head is in
contact with the ball for 0,5 milliseconds
(0,0005 s) and the velocity of the club head
after the collision with the ball is 40 m.s–1 north
as shown in Figure 1.16.
Fig 1.16: The club head’s velocity before and after the collision.

a) Draw a fully labelled force diagram for the collision between the club and the ball.
Only consider horizontal forces. Ignore friction.
b) Calculate the average net force acting on the club head during its contact with the
golf ball.
c) The mass of the ball is 45 g. Calculate the ball’s horizontal velocity when it leaves the
club head.
d) How would using a softer ball affect the contact time between the club and the ball,
as well as the ball’s final velocity? Assume the golfer applies the same net force in
each case. Explain your answers.
Exercise 1.2
1. State Newton’s second law in terms of momentum.

2. Write the equation for Newton’s second law in terms of momentum. Give the
meaning of each symbol in the equation, state its SI units of measurement, and
whether it is a vector quantity?
3. a) State the mathematical relationship between the net force acting on an
object and the object’s change in momentum.
b) State the mathematical relationship between the net force acting on an
object and the time taken to change the object’s momentum.
4. Will the magnitude of an object’s momentum always increase if a net force acts
on it? Explain, using an example.
5. Explain, using Newton’s second law, why a hunter always presses the butt of a
rifle tightly against his shoulder before firing.
6. A learner throws a 56,7 g tennis ball toward a wall. It strikes the wall travelling
horizontally at 10 m.s–1 and it rebounds at 8 m.s–1. The learner then throws a ball
of sticky putty, having the same mass as the tennis ball, and it hits the wall with
the same velocity. The putty sticks to the wall. Both collisions last for the same
length of time.
a) Which ball experiences the greater change in momentum?
b) Which ball experiences the greater net force?
7. A net force is required to stop a 1 000 kg car, travelling at 30 m.s–1. By what
factor would the net force acting on the car change if:
a) the car was stopped in double the time
b) the car was stopped in 1 tenth of the time.
c) the car was travelling at double the velocity and is stopped in the same time?
8. Fighter pilots report that immediately after a burst of gunfire from their jet
fighter, the speed of their aircraft decreases from 265 to 250 km.h–1. Using
Newton’s second and third laws explain the reason for this change in motion.

9. At a buffalo jump, a 900 kg buffalo is running at 6 m.s–1 toward the drop-off
ahead when it senses danger. What horizontal force must the buffalo exert to
stop itself in 2 s?
10. Refer to Figure 1.17 John is watching a game of
pool. He observes a 0,17 kg pool ball travelling
toward him at 5 m.s–1. The pool ball bounces off
the side cushion and travels in the opposite
direction at 4,5 m.s–1.
a)
Calculate the pool ball’s change in momentum. Fig 1.17: A pool ball bounces off the side cushion.
b) Calculate the time that the pool ball was in contact with the cushion if the
cushion exerts an average net force of 80 N on the pool ball.
c) Suppose the pool ball was in contact with the side cushion for a shorter
period of time. How would this affect the ball’s change in momentum?
(Assume the ball experiences the same net force.) Explain your answer.
11. In Figure 1.18 an 80 kg bungee
jumper falls from a high bridge
with an elastic cord attached to his
ankles. The bungee jumper reaches
a speed of 30 m.s–1 before the cord
begins to stretch. The cord exerts an
average force of 2 300 N on the
jumper over a period of 2 s.
a) Draw a free-body diagram of
the forces acting on the bungee
Fig 1.18: An elastic cord is attached to a bungee jumper.
jumper while there is tension in
the cord.
b) Calculate the bungee jumper’s velocity after 2 s.
12. A 275 kg motor cycle and rider accelerate from rest and reach a velocity of 20 m.s–1
west. The motor cycle wheels exert an average force of 710 N east on the road.
a) Calculate the minimum time taken to reach a velocity of 20 m.s–1 west.
b) Explain how the force directed east causes the motorcycle to accelerate west.
c) Explain why it is necessary to specify a minimum time.
13. A Centaur rocket engine expels 520 kg of exhaust gas at 50 000 m.s–1 in 0,4 s.
What is the magnitude of the net force that will be generated on the rocket?
Ignore the gravitational force.
14. An elevator containing passengers has a total mass of 1 700 kg. The elevator
accelerates upward.
a) Draw a free-body diagram of the forces acting on the elevator.
b) What tension is needed in the cable to accelerate the elevator from rest to a
velocity of 4,5 m.s–1 upward in 8,8 s?

15. Refer to Figure 1.19. Zanele has a mass of 40

kg and is sitting inside a 20 kg cart. Zanele’s
friends pull the cart with a force of 500 N at an
angle of 20° to the horizontal, using a light
rope. The cart experiences a frictional force
of 300 N.
a) Calculate the net horizontal force acting
on the cart.
Fig 1.19: A force is applied at 20° to the horizontal b) Calculate the change in the cart’s
momentum if Zanele’s friends apply the
force for 10 s.
c) Calculate the net horizontal force acting on Zanele.
d) How would the cart’s final velocity be affected if the angle between the
500 N force and the horizontal is decreased? Explain your answer.
16. A 22 g bullet strikes a target travelling at 320 m.s–1 and exits the target
travelling at 220 m.s–1 in the same direction. The bullet takes 0,00015 s to pass
through the target.
a) Calculate the bullet’s change in momentum.
b) Calculate the net force the bullet experiences.
17. A 1,2 kg hammer is used to hit a nail horizontally into a block of wood. The
hammer is moving at 15 m.s–1 immediately before it collides with the nail and
rebounds at 60% of that speed. The nail’s resisting force is 9 000 N.
Calculate how long the hammer is in contact with the nail.

Conservation of momentum and elastic
and inelastic collisions
Conservation of momentum
A system
A system is a collection of two or more objects that interact with each other. A system is a
small part of the universe that we are considering when solving a particular problem.
Everything outside the system is called the environment.
Some examples of a system include:
• colliding balls on a pool table
• two cars travelling in opposite directions collide on a tar road
• a rocket fires its engines in deep space and a hunter firing a bullet from his rifle.
An isolated system is free from the influence of a net external force that alters the
momentum of the system. A net external force is a force that
originates from a source other than the objects within the
system and which is not balanced by other forces. Friction is an
example of a net external force.
A system in which the only forces that contribute to the
momentum change of an individual object are the forces
acting between the objects themselves can be considered an
isolated system.
Consider the collision of two balls on a billiard table. The
collision occurs in an isolated system as long as friction is small
enough that its influence upon the momentum of the billiard
balls can be neglected. If so, then the only unbalanced forces
Fig 1.20: This can be considered an isolated
acting upon the two balls are the contact forces that they apply
to one another. These two forces are considered internal forces system if the friction is small enough to be
since they result from a source within the system - that source ignored.
being the contact of the two balls. For such a collision, total
momentum of the system is conserved.
The law of conservation of momentum

The law of conservation of momentum:
The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant (is conserved).
In other words, if the external force of friction acting on a system is negligible, the
momentum of the system immediately before the collision is the same as the momentum
of the system immediately after the collision.

Figure 1.21 shows a collision between cars A and B:
A B The total momentum immediately before the

collision is the vector sum of A’s initial
momentum and B’s initial momentum:
pbefore
= p A+ pB= m
Av Ai
+ mBvBi

The total momentum immediately after the
Fig 1.21 A collision between two cars. collision is the vector sum of A’s final momentum
and B’s final momentum:
pafter= p A+ p B= m
Av Af
+ mBv Bf

In an isolated system, the total momentum is conserved (remains constant):
The total momentum before the collision = The total momentum after the collision.
v Ai+ m
mA Bv Bi
= mAv Af
+ m
Bv Bf

In real-life collisions, the external forces acting on colliding objects are usually not known.
However, they are often negligible, and so can be ignored. In other words, the colliding
objects are an isolated system. The law of conservation of momentum can therefore be
applied to the collision.
Applying the law of conservation of momentum

The following examples illustrate how the law of conservation of momentum can be
applied.
Worked examples:
1. Refer to Figure 1.22. An object with a mass of 1 kg is moving to the right with a
velocity of 2 m.s–1. It collides head-on with a second mass of 1,5 kg which is moving
with a velocity of 1,5 m.s–1 in the opposite
direction. The 1,5 kg mass bounces back
with a velocity of 1,2 m.s–1 to the right.
Calculate the velocity of the 1 kg mass after
the collision. Ignore the effects of friction.
Solution:
When dealing with momentum questions
you should choose positive and negative
directions for velocities. In this example,
we choose right as positive and therefore
left as negative.
Fig 1.22

Total momentum before the collison = Total momentum after the collision
v
1i = +2 m.s
–1 m1v1i + m2vi2 = m1v1f + m2v2f
v
2i = –1,5 m.s
–1 (1)(+2) + (1,5)(− 1,5) = (1)v1f
+ (1,5)(+1,2)

m1 = 1 kg 2 − 2,25 = v + 1,8
1f

m 2 = 1,5 kg v
= − 2,05
1f
v
1f = ? v = 2,05 m.s–1left
1f
v2f = +1,2 m.s–1

2. In Figure 1.23, a 20 g bullet fired from a rifle,
strikes a sand bag fastened to a trolley of
combined mass 4 kg travelling west at
2 m.s–1 on a frictionless surface. The bullet
becomes embedded in the sandbag. The
bullet’s velocity immediately before impact
is 250 m.s–1 east. Calculate the velocity of the
trolley immediately after the collision.
Fig 1.23: A bullet becomes embedded in a sandbag on a trolley
Solution:
Choose east as positive.

Mass of bullet: mB= 0,02 kg Mass of trolley: mT = 4 kg
Initial velocity of bullet: vBi
= + 250 m.s–1 Initial velocity of trolley: vTi= − 2 m.s–1
The bullet and trolley have a combined mass after the collision: m = (4 + 0,02) = 4,02 kg
total
Total momentum before the collision = Total momentum after the collision
mBvBi + mTvTi
=m
total. vf
(0,02)(+250) + (4)(–2) = (4,02)vf
+5 – 8 = (4,02)vf
–3 = (4,02)vf
vf = − 0,75 m.s-1
vf = 0,75 m.s-1 west
The trolley is travelling at 0,75 m.s–1 west after the collision.
3. Figure 1.24 shows an experiment to measure the recoil velocity of a fired rifle. A rifle
is mounted on a trolley, at rest on a frictionless surface. The combined mass of the
rifle and trolley is 4,2 kg. The rifle is loaded with a single
167 g bullet which it fires at 500 m.s-1 to the right.
a) Calculate the rifle’s recoil velocity.
b) Without any further calculations, state the total
momentum after the explosion. Explain your answer.
c) Why is the recoil velocity of the rifle so much less
than the velocity of the bullet? Fig 1.24: A rifle mounted on a trolley

Solution:
a) To the right is positive.
Mass of trolley: mT= 4,2 kg Mass of bullet: mB= 0,167 kg
Initial velocity of trolley: vTi= 0 Initial velocity of bullet: vBi= 0
Final velocity of trolley: unknown Final velocity of bullet: vBf= + 500 m.s–1
Total momentum before = Total momentum after
mT vTi
+ mB
v Bi = mT v Tf
+ mB
vBf
0 + 0 = (4,2)vTf
+ (0,167)(+500)
0 = (4,2)vTf
+ 83,5
–83,5 =
(4,2)vTf
vTf
= –19,88 m.s–1
vTf
= 19,88 m.s–1to the left
The rifle and trolley move to the left at 19,88 m.s–1 after the rifle is fired.
b) The total momentum after the collision is zero. Momentum is conserved during
the explosion. The total momentum before the collision is zero.
c) Both the bullet and the rifle experience the same change in momentum but in
opposite directions (momentum is conserved). However the rifle has a greater
mass and will therefore experience a smaller change in velocity in the opposite
direction.
Checkpoint 4
1. Refer to Figure 1.25. Cart B, of mass 350 g, moves on the frictionless linear air track at
2 m.s–1 to the left. Cart B strikes cart A, of mass 200 g, travelling in the opposite direction
at 1,2 m.s–1. After the collision, cart B continues in its original direction at 0,7 m.s–1.
a) Why is this considered an isolated system of colliding bodies?
b) Calculate the velocity of cart A after the collision.
c) How does the change in momentum of each cart compare? Check your answer
using calculations.
Fig 1.25: Two carts moving in opposite directions

on a linear air track

2. A wooden block attached to a glider has a combined
mass of 0,2 kg. Both the block and the glider are at rest
on a frictionless air track, as shown in Figure 1.26. A dart
gun shoots a 0,012 kg dart into the block. The velocity of
the dart-block system after the collision is 0,78 m.s–1
to the right. Calculate the velocity of the dart just before
Fig 1.26: A dart becomes embedded in a wooden block
it hits the block?
3. Refer to Figure 1.27. A compressed spring is loaded
between two trolleys (A and B) at rest on a
frictionless surface. The spring is released and the
two trolleys move off in opposite directions. After the
spring is released, trolley A’s velocity is 3 m.s–1 to the
left. Calculate trolley B’s velocity after the spring
is released.
Fig 1.27: A spring is released between two trollies.
Prescribed experiment for formal assessment
Aim: To verify the conservation of linear momentum

You will need:
Two spring-loaded trolleys; two stopwatches; metre-stick; mass scale; two barriers
(blocks of wood) and five 100 g mass pieces
Method:
1. Work in groups.
2. Copy the table below.
Trolley 1 Trolley 2
Momentum Momentum
Time Velocity m v Time Velocity m v
m1 (kg) m2 (kg)
Δt (s) v ( m.s–1) 1 1 Δt (s) v ( m.s–1) 2 2
1 (kg.m.s–1) 2 (kg.m.s–1)
3. You are supplied with two spring-loaded trolleys: 1 and 2. Use a scale to measure
the mass of each trolley (m1 and m2). Record these values in the table.
4. Each trolley is fitted with a spring-loaded
plunger, as shown in Figure 1.28. Push the
spring-loaded plunger in and use the lever on
the side of the trolley to hold the plunger in
position. When the lever on side of the trolley
is released, the spring-loaded plunger shoots
out at the front of the trolley. Fig 1.28: A trolley with a spring loaded plunger.

5. Place trolley 1 on a lab bench and reload the plunger. Position trolley 2 so that it
is in contact with trolley 1, as shown in Figure 1.29.
Fig 1.29: Trolley 2 is in contact with the spring loaded

plunger of trolley 1.
6. Release the lever on the side of the trolley. Observe how the trolleys are forced
apart and move in opposite directions. According to Newton’s third law, each
trolley experiences the same net force in opposite directions.
Fig 1.30: The trolleys are exploded apart.
7. Practice “exploding” the trolleys apart until both trolleys move in a straight line
in opposite directions after the plunger is released.
8. Refer to Figure 1.31. Reload the plunger of trolley 1 and position trolley 2 so that
is in contact with the plunger of trolley 1. Mark the position of the front of each
trolley on the lab bench. You do this so that you can repeat the experiment from
the same position.
Fig 1.31: Mark the position of the front of each trolley.
9. Use the metre-stick to measure 1 m along the lab bench from the back of each
trolley. Place a barrier at these points, as shown in Figure 1.32.
Fig 1.32: Measure a distance of 1m from the back of each trolley.

10. You are about to measure the time (Δt) it takes for each trolley to cover a distance
of 1 m after they are “exploded” apart. Two learners will use the stopwatches.
The third learner will release the lever to “explode” the trolleys apart.
11. Each learner holding a stopwatch should select a trolley (1 or 2). Each learner
should start the stopwatch as the plunger is released and stop the stopwatch as
the trolley collides with the barrier. Record these times. Repeat the experiment
three times to improve your accuracy. Be sure to reposition the barriers before
taking the next set of readings. Record the average time (Δt) in the table.
12. The precision of the stop-watch is one 100th of a second (0,01 s). Your precision
in pressing the stop-watch after your reaction-time, is about one 10th of a second
(0,1 s). Therefore, round off the time values to one decimal place.
13. Since you are working with vector quantities, choose which direction to take as
positive (e.g. let direction to the right be positive).
14. Calculate the average velocity (v and v ) of each trolley. Record these velocities
1 2
in the table. Be sure to include the correct sign (+ or –) and round the values off
to one decimal place.
15. Calculate the momentum of each trolley (m v and m v ) and record it in the
1 1 2 2
table. Be sure to include the correct sign (+ or –) and round the values off to one
decimal place.
16. Increase the mass of trolley 1 by sticking five 100 g mass pieces to the top of the
trolley. Repeat the experiment and record your data in a new table.
Questions:
Complete a full experimental write-up.
Include the following sub headings in the write-up:
• Aim • Hypothesis
• Apparatus • Method
• Results • Analysis of results
• Conclusion • Sources of error
Exercise 1.3
1. State the law of conservation of momentum.

2. a) In the context of momentum, what is an isolated system?
b) Why is it necessary to choose an isolated system when solving a
momentum problem?
3. How do internal forces affect the momentum of a system?
4. Give one example of a possible collision between two identical masses. Include
a sketch of the situation, showing the velocity of each object immediately before
and immediately after the collision.

5. A learner is standing on a stationary 2,3 kg skateboard. If the learner jumps at a

velocity of 0,37 m.s-1 forward, the skateboard’s velocity becomes 8,9 m.s-1
backward. Calculate the mass of the learner?
6. A 110 kg astronaut and a 4 000 kg spacecraft are attached by a tethering cable.
Both masses are motionless relative to an observer near the spacecraft. The
astronaut wants to return to the spacecraft, so he pulls on the cable until his
velocity is 0,8 m.s-1 toward the spacecraft.
a) Calculate the change in velocity of the spacecraft?
b) Explain how pulling on the tethering cable in one direction causes the
astronaut to move in the opposite direction.
7. A 75 kg hunter is in a 10 kg stationary canoe, on the water. He throws a 0,72 kg
spear at a velocity of 12 m.s-1 to the right.
a) Calculate the velocity of the canoe and hunter immediately after the spear
is released.
b) How would this calculated velocity be affected if a spear of greater mass
was thrown at the same velocity?
8. A student on a skateboard, with a combined mass of 78,2 kg, is moving east at
1,6 m.s–1. As he goes by, the learner skillfully scoops his 6,4 kg school bag from
the bench where he had left it.
a) Calculate the velocity of the learner immediately after the pickup.
b) How does the change in momentum of the learner (and skateboard)
compare with the change in momentum of the school bag? Explain
your answer.
9. A 1 050 kg car has a velocity of 2,65 m.s–1 north. The car hits the rear of a
stationary truck, and the bumpers lock together. The velocity of the car-truck
system immediately after the collision is 0,78 m.s–1 north. Calculate the mass of
the truck?
10. A 0,25 kg volleyball is thrown horizontally at 2 m.s–1 west. It strikes a
0,62 kg stationary basketball. The volleyball rebounds east at 0,79 m.s–1.
Calculate the velocity of the basketball immediately after the collision?
11. A glider of mass m and velocity v, moving to the right along an air track,
collides with a stationary cart of mass  __13 m. After the collision, the velocity of the
glider is  __12 v, in the same direction. What is the velocity of the cart (in terms of v)?
12. Two ice skaters, one of mass 50 kg and the other of mass 60 kg, push off against
one another, starting from a stationary position. The 50 kg skater acquires a
velocity of 0,55 m.s-1 to the right.
a) How does the momentum of each skater compare after they are pushed apart?
b) Which skater should have the greater velocity after they are pushed apart?
Explain your answer.
c) Calculate the 60 kg skater’s velocity after they are pushed apart.

13. A 0,6 kg glider, travelling to the right on a level air track, undergoes a head-on
collision with a 0,2 kg glider travelling toward it at 4 m.s–1. After the collision
the 0,6 kg glider is travelling at 3 m.s-1 to the right and the 0,2 kg glider is
travelling at 11 m.s–1 to the right. Calculate the velocity of the 0,6 kg glider
before the collision.
14. An 800 kg car is at rest at a traffic light. A 1200 kg car, travelling at 12 m.s–1,
collides with the car at rest. The two cars are locked together after the collision.
Calculate the magnitude of their velocity after the collision.
15. Judy has a mass of 45 kg and is wearing ice skates. She is standing on the ice
rink when her friend throws an 8 kg school bag horizontally toward her at
3 m.s–1. Judy catches the school bag.
a) Calculate the velocity of Judy and the school bag immediately after she
catches it.
b) How would the magnitude of Judy’s final velocity change if she caught the
same school bag but it was thrown with a greater velocity? Explain your
answer.
16. A 20 g bullet is travelling west at 500 m.s–1, toward a 30 kg wooded block at rest
on a frictionless horizontal surface. The bullet collides with the block,
embedding itself into the block. Calculate the magnitude of the velocity of the
block and bullet after the collision.
Inelastic and elastic collisions
Inelastic collisions
The collisions that we have considered so far have involved hard objects, such as a golf
club hitting the golf ball. Other collisions such as the dart and block, involved a dart that
became embedded in a softer material (a block of wood). In all these collisions it was
possible to choose an isolated system so that the total momentum of the system was
conserved.
When objects collide, they sometimes deform (change
shape), make a sound, give off light, or heat up a little
during the collision. Any of these observations indicate that
the kinetic energy of the system before the collision is not
the same as after the collision. These collisions are known
as inelastic collisions. During an inelastic collision, kinetic
energy is not conserved.
Each impact of a bouncing ball is inelastic. The energy is
dissipated to the surroundings during each bounce. Look at
the bouncing ball in Figure 1.33. Each bounce is lower than
the previous bounce, showing that kinetic energy is not Fig 1.33: Each bounce of the ball is an inelastic
conserved. Most real-life collisions are inelastic. collision.

Elastic collisions
An elastic collision is defined as one in which kinetic energy is conserved. In other
words, the kinetic energy of the system does not change during the collision. The sum of
the kinetic energies of the objects before the collision would be exactly equal to the sum of
the kinetic energies of the objects after the collision.
Most real world collisions involve some of the initial kinetic energy of
the system being converted into sound, light, deformation and heat (due
to friction). These factors make it difficult to achieve an elastic collision.
Even when two colliding objects are hard and do not appear to
deform, some kinetic energy is still converted to other forms of energy.
Usually the measured speed of an object after the collision is a little
less than the predicted speed, which indicates that the collision is
inelastic. Completely inelastic collisions occur when the colliding
objects stick together upon impact.
Fig 1.34: The collisions between Momentum is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions.
billiard balls are almost elastic.
Problems involving elastic and inelastic collisions

The following example demonstrates how to determine if the collision between two
objects is elastic.
Worked example:
Refer to Figure 1.35. A 0,16 kg ball A, travelling at 1,2 m.s–1 east, strikes a stationary
0,18 kg ball B, and rebounds at 0,075 m.s–1 west. B moves off at 1,0 m.s–1 east. Is the
collision elastic?
Solution:
Calculate the total kinetic energy of the system
before the collision:
Ball A: E =   1 mv2 = __
__   12 (0,16)(1,2)2 = 0,115 J
K 2
Ball B: E = 0
K
The total kinetic energy is the sum of the kinetic
energies of each ball:
Fig 1.35 Total kinetic energy before the collision:

EK = 0,115 + 0 = 0,115 J
Calculate the total kinetic energy after the collision.
1 (0,16)(0,075)2 = 0,0005 J
  1 mv2 =  __
Ball A: E = __
K 2 2
Ball B: E =  __12 (0,18)(1)2 = 0,09 J
K
Total kinetic energy after the collision: EK = 0,0005 + 0,09 = 0,0905 J
The total kinetic energy of the balls before the collision (0,115 J) is not equal to the total
kinetic energy of the balls after the collision (0,0905 J). Therefore the collision is inelastic.
Although the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved in this example, the momentum
of an isolated system is always conserved. You should check this with a calculation.

Check point 5
In Figure 1.36, a 45,9 g golf ball is stationary on the
green when a 185 g golf club face, travelling at
1,24 m.s–1 east, strikes it. After the impact the club
continues moving at 0,76 m.s–1 east while the golf ball
moves at 1,94 m.s–1 east. Assume that the club is
vertical at the moment of impact, so that the ball does
not spin. Determine if the collision is elastic.
Fig 1.36
Recommended demonstration for informal assessment
Aim: To observe collisions

You will need:
• A Newton cradle, as shown in Figure 1.37.
Method and questions:
Follow the instructions and answer the questions:
1. State the law of conservation of mechanical energy (you
learnt this in Grade 10).
2. Raise one ball of the Newton cradle and release it. At what
position does the ball have:
a) maximum gravitational potential energy
b) minimum gravitational potential energy
c) maximum kinetic energy
d) zero kinetic energy Fig 1.37: A Newton cradle
e) maximum momentum?
3. After releasing a ball, what happens to the other balls? Describe how many balls
move and how high they move compared to the original ball that was
released.
4. Explain your observations in terms of the law of conservation of energy.
5. What forces are acting on a ball when it:
a) swings down
b) collides with another ball?
6. Explain your observations in terms of the law of conservation of momentum.

7. Explain why the balls will eventually come to rest.

8. Are these collisions elastic? Explain your answer.
9. What do you observe when:
a) two balls are raised and released
b) three balls are raised and released.
Comment on the number of balls that move and the height they reach, in
each case.
10. Explain your observations in terms of the law of conservation of momentum.
11. If two balls are raised and released, is it possible for one ball to move off at
the other end of the cradle? Explain your answer.
Exercise 1.4
1. Explain the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions. Include an

example of each type of collision in your answer.
2. What evidence suggests that a collision is inelastic?
3. Which physical quantity is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions for
isolated systems?
4. During an inelastic collision, some kinetic energy is lost by the system of
colliding objects. List three ways in which kinetic energy can be converted to
other forms of energy.
5. A 6 g glass ball, A, moving east at 19 m.s–1, collides with another 9 g glass ball,
B, moving at 11 m.s–1 in the same direction. After the collision, ball A moves
west at 9,4 m.s–1 and ball B continues moving east at 17,4 m.s–1. Show that the
collision is elastic.
6. A 0,3 kg cart, moving to the right on a frictionless linear air track at 4 m.s–1 strikes
a second cart of mass 0,5 kg, travelling in the opposite direction at 3 m.s–1. The
collision between the two carts is elastic. After the collision, the first cart is
travelling in the opposite direction at 4,75 m.s–1. Find the second cart’s velocity
after the collision, using two different methods.
7. A 1 700 kg car moves at 25 m.s–1 west. It collides with a 3 400 kg truck travelling at
14 m.s–1 east. After the collision, the car travels at 10 m.s–1 east.
a) Calculate the truck’s velocity after the collision, using the law of
conservation of momentum.
b) Show that this collision is inelastic.
c) What percentage of the system’s kinetic energy is lost in the collision?
d) Account for the ‘missing’ kinetic energy.

8. A 70 kg girl is running at 3 m.s–1 east when she jumps onto a 2 kg stationary
skate board.
a) Calculate the velocity of the girl and the skateboard after she has landed on it.
b) Show that this collision is inelastic.
9. A wrestler stands at rest. Another wrestler, running at 5 m.s–1 to the right,
collides with the first wrestler, grabs him and holds onto him. The two move off
together at 2,7 m.s–1 in the direction the second wrestler had been running.
If the second wrestler’s mass is 100 kg, calculate the mass of the first wrestler.

Impulse
Impulse-momentum theorem
During the filming of a movie, when a stunt person jumps off a building,
the fall can be very dangerous. To minimize injury, stunt people avoid a
sudden stop when landing by using different techniques to slow down
more gradually out of sight of the cameras. These techniques involve
reducing the peak force required to change their momentum. Sometimes
stunt people jump and land on a net. Other times, they may roll when
they land. For extreme jumps, such as from a roof of a tall building, a
huge oversized, but slightly under-inflated, air mattress may be used, as
shown in Figure 1.38. Designers of safety equipment know that a
cushioned surface can reduce the severity of the impact.
Fig 1.38: The thick mattress on
To understand the factors that affect the net force acting on objects during
the ground provides a protective a collision requires looking at Newton’s second law written in terms of
cushion for the stunt person momentum.
when he lands. Δp
Fnet = ___
   
Δt
If we multiply both sides of this equation by Δt, we get: FnetΔ t = Δp
The above relationship is known as the impulse-momentum theorem.

netΔ
In this equation, the product of net force and the interaction time, F t, is called
impulse. Impulse is defined as the product of net force acting on an object and the time
for which it acts.
The above equation also tells us that impulse, FnetΔt, is equivalent to the change in
momentum, Δ p, that an object will experience during a collision. Fnet Δ t = Δp
If we substitute the equation for change in momentum, Δp = mvf− mvi, we get:

Δ
Fnet t = mvf− mvi
Δ
Fnet t = m(vf− vi)
But (vf− vi) represents the change in velocity Δv of an object during a collision.
Therefore:
FnetΔt = mΔv
The unit for impulse is the N.s. If we substitute the definition of a Newton into the unit
N.s, we get:
( kg.m
1 N.s = 1 _____ ) kg.m
  2    = 1 _____
s .s
  s  = 1 kg.m.s−1which is the unit for momentum.
So the units on both sides of the impulse-momentum theorem are equivalent

(N.s = kg.m.s–1).
Since force is a vector quantity, impulse (Fnet
Δ t), is also a vector quantity, and the
direction of impulse is in the same direction as the net force.
In real life situations, collisions such as the collision between the racquet and the ball,
shown in Figure 1.39 (on the next page) occur during a very short time interval. If you
tried to accurately measure the net force, you would find it is difficult, if not impossible.
During a collision the net force increases from zero to a very large value in a short time
interval as shown in Figure 1.40.

Fig 1.39: Some collisions occur during a very Fig 1.40: During a collision the net force
short time interval, such as the collision increases from zero to a maximum value in a
between a racquet and a tennis ball. short time interval.
From a practical point of view, it is much easier to measure the interaction time and the
overall change in momentum of an object rather than the net force.
Δt = Δ p
This is the advantage of using the impulse-momentum theorem: Fnet
Applying the impulse-momentum theorem

Worked examples:
1. A golf ball of mass 0,1 kg is driven from the tee. The average accelerating force
exerted by the golf club is 1 000 N, and the ball moves away from the club at 30 m.s–1.
For how long was the club in contact with the ball?
Solution:
m = 0,1 kg Δt = mΔv
Fnet

Fnet= 1 000 N FnetΔt = m(vf− v i)

vi= 0 m.s–1
(1 000)Δt = (0,1)(30) – (0,1)(0)

vf= 30 m.s–1
Δt = 0,003 s
2. A ball is travelling left and is struck by a bat. The bat exerts a force of 75 N on the ball
and is in contact with the ball for 0,08 s. The ball moves off the bat to the right.
Calculate the change in momentum of the ball.
Solution:
Take right as the positive direction. Δp = FnetΔt
= 75 N
Fnet Δp = (75)(0,08)
Δt = 0,08 s Δp = 6 kg.m.s–1to the right

3. To improve safety, a modern car’s front end crumples on

impact. A 1 200 kg car travels at a constant velocity of 8 m.s–1
toward an immovable wall as shown in Figure 1.41. It hits the
wall and comes to a stop in 0,25 s.
a) Calculate the impulse provided to the car.
b) What is the average net force exerted on the car?
c) For the same impulse, what average net force would
the wall exert on a car which stopped in 0,04 s due to
Fig 1.41: The front of the car crumples having a rigid bumper and frame which do not
upon impact. crumple on impact?
Solution:
a) Impulse provided to the car is equivalent to the change in the car’s momentum:
Let towards the wall be positive.
FnetΔ
t = Δp Δ
Fnet t = mΔv
m = 1200 kg Δ
Fnet t = m(vf – vi)
vi= +8 m.s–1
Δ
Fnet t = (1 200)[0 – (+8) ](the car’s final velocity is zero )
vf= 0 m.s–1
netΔ
F t = (1 200)(–8) = –9 600 = 9 600 N.s away from the wall
Δt = 0,25 s Impulse is a vector quantity. The direction of the impulse is the

same as the net force of the wall on the car – away from the wall.
b) FnetΔ
t = –9 600 N.s
Fnet − 9 600
=  _______   − 9 600
=  _______ = − 38 400 N = 38 400 N away from the wall
Δt 0,25
Notice that the impulse and the net force have the same direction.
c)   mΔv
Fnet = ____  
Δt
–9 600
Fnet=  ______  = − 240 000 N = 240 000 N away from the wall
0,04
The magnitude of the average net force with the rigid frame is more than 6 times greater
than when the car crumples.
Checkpoint 6
A soccer player heads the ball with an average force of 21 N, for 0,12 s as shown
in Figure 1.42.
a) Calculate the impulse provided to the soccer ball.
b) The impulse changes the ball’s velocity from 4 m.s–1
to 2 m.s–1 in the opposite direction. Calculate the
soccer mass of the soccer ball.
c) Sketch a graph of the net force on the ball as a
function of time.
Fig 1.42 A player heads the ball

Worked example:
A basketball player shoots a 0,65 kg basketball as shown in Figure 1.43. The
net force acting on the ball increases linearly from 0 N to 22 N during the first
0,15 s while it is in contact with his hand. During the next 0,25 s the net force
decreases linearly to 0 N.
a) Draw a graph of net force acting on the ball as a function of time.
b) Calculate the magnitude of the impulse provided to the basketball.
c) Calculate the speed of the basketball when it leaves the hand of the
shooter.
d) How would the ball’s speed be affected if the same impulse was
provided to a ball with less mass? Fig 1.43: A basketball player
Solution: takes a shot.
a)
Fig 1.44
b) The area under the graph is given by the area of a triangle:
Area =  __12 × base × ⊥ height
The quantity represented by the area under the graph has units of:
Area =  __12 × (s) × (N) = N.s
The area under the graph therefore represents the impulse exerted on the ball (FnetΔt):
1
t = Area under graph =  __(0,4)(22) = 4,4 N.s
FnetΔ
2
c) Using the impulse-momentum theorem: FnetΔt = Δp
FnetΔ
t = m(vf – vi)
4,4 = (0,65)(vf− 0) (The ball’s initial velocity is zero)

4,4 = (0,65)vf

vf= 6,77 m.s−1
The ball leaves the shooter’s hand at a speed of 6,77 m.s–1

Δ
d) If the same impulse, Fnet t, is provided to the ball, then according to the
impulse-momentum theorem, Fnet Δ
t = Δ p , the ball will experience the same change
in momentum, Δ p. However, the ball’s mass is less, so the ball’s change in velocity,
and therefore its final velocity, must be greater than for the more massive ball.
Checkpoint 7
Whiplash, shown in Figure 1.45, occurs when a car is hit from behind and the head of the
motorist is not properly protected by a head rest. The seat accelerates the upper part of the
body, but the head jerks backwards because it is not supported. This injures the joints and
soft tissue of the neck.
a) Use Newton’s first law to explain why
whiplash occurs.
b) Why are cars fitted with head rests?
c) What is the average net force on a
motorist’s neck if the torso is accelerated
from rest to 14 m.s–1 west in 0,135 s.
The mass of the motorist’s head is 5,4 kg.
Assume that the same magnitude force
Fig 1.45 Whiplash occurs when a car is rear-ended. acts on the neck as on the torso.
During a collision between two objects in an isolated system, both objects experience
equal and opposite forces, as shown in Figures 1.46 and 1.47.
According to Newton’s first
law, the action-reaction forces
are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction. Also the
time of interaction is the same
for each object. It follows then
Fig 1.46: During a collision both objects Fig 1.47: During a collision both objects that the impulse provided to
experience equal and opposite forces. experience equal and opposite impulses. object A is equal and opposite
to the impulse provided to
Im pulse on A = FB on AΔ
t A on BΔ
Im pulse on B = F t
object B (Fig 1.47).
Check point 8
In Figure 1.48, an 800 kg car travels at 20 m.s–1 east. It collides with a 3 000 kg truck
travelling at 12 m.s–1 west. The collision lasts 0,5 s. After the collision, the truck moves
at 4 m.s–1 west.
a) Calculate the impulse provided to the truck.
b) What is the impulse provided to the car?
c) State the change in momentum of the car.
d) Calculate the velocity of the car after
the collision.
e) Calculate the net force acting on each vehicle
during the collision.
Fig 1.48: A car and truck collide

Exercise 1.5
1. a) What quantities are used to calculate impulse?

b) State the units of impulse.
2. Explain the relationship between the units in which momentum and impulse
are measured.
3. How are impulse and momentum related?
4. What is the effect on impulse if:
a) the impact time interval is doubled
b)  13 of its original magnitude?
the net force is reduced to __
5. List two ways of increasing the impulse provided to a body.
6. A baseball player swings his bat and hits a baseball, exerting 12 000 N on the
ball for 0,007 s. Calculate the impulse provided to the ball.
7. Calculate the net force required to stop a 60 kg person travelling at 30 m.s–1
during a time of:
a) 5s
b) 0,5 s
c) 0,05 s.
8. How much does a shoulder-launched rocket’s momentum change if it
experiences a thrust of 2,67 kN for 0,204 s?
9. A 62 kg male ice skater is facing a 43 kg female ice skater. They are at rest on the
ice. They push off each other with a force of 200 N for 1,2 s and move in
opposite directions. The female skater moves to the left and the male skater
moves to the right.
a) Calculate the impulse provided to the female skater.
b) What is the impulse provided to the male skater?
c) How would the impulse provided to the female skater change if her mass
was doubled?
10. A pool ball collides with a side cushion and rebounds in the opposite direction.
The collision lasts 0,005 s. The impulse provided to the pool ball is 8 N.s away
from the cushion. Calculate the net force acting on the pool ball.
11. A loaded freight train (mass 10 000 kg) rolls to the right at 2 m.s–1 toward
another freight train (mass 8 000 kg) moving in the opposite direction at 3 m.s–1.
On collision, the two trains couple (lock together).
a) Calculate the velocity of the two trains after the collision.
b) Calculate the impulse provided to each train.

12. A 0,05 kg bullet is fired into a block of wood. The velocity of the bullet just
before impact is 350 m.s–1.
a) Calculate the change in momentum of the bullet.
b) What is the impulse provided to the bullet?
c) Calculate the time the bullet took to come to rest if it experienced a net force
of 2 000 N.
13. A 60 kg astronaut uses a jet of gas to provide a force of 10 N on himself. How
long must he do this to reach a speed of 1 m.s-1 from a stationary start?
14. A hunter claims to have shot a charging buffalo through the heart and “dropped
him in his tracks”.
a) How would the momentum of the bullet compare with the momentum of
the buffalo? Explain your answer.
Suppose the hunter was shooting one of the largest hunting rifles ever sold,
a 0,5 calibre Sharps rifle, which shoots a 22,7 g bullet at 376 m.s–1.
b) Evaluate the hunter’s claim by calculating the velocity of the 250 kg buffalo
after the impact if he was initially moving directly toward the hunter at a
slow 0,675 m.s–1 south.
c) Calculate the net force exerted on the buffalo if the collision lasted 0,01 s.
15. A 2,04 × 106 kg space shuttle is very far from the Earth. The rocket engines expel
3,7 × 103 kg of exhaust gas during the 1 second for which the rocket engines are
fired. This increases the shuttle’s velocity by 5,7 m.s–1 forward. At what velocity,
relative to the rocket, does the exhaust gas leave the rocket engines?
16. Some running shoe designs contain springs. Research these types of shoes and
the controversy surrounding them. How do momentum and impulse apply to
these shoes?
Impulse and safety
Seat belts and airbags

Vehicle safety devices are designed to increase collision times
and so reduce the net force acting on the motorist during a
collision. When the vehicle is involved in a collision, sensors in
the vehicle detect this and deploy an airbag from the steering
column. The airbag inflates in a very short time interval,
approximately 30 ms (0,03 s). The driver collides with the
airbag rather than the steering column, as shown in
Figure 1.49. Airbags are designed to leak after inflation so that
the fully inflated bag decreases in thickness from about 30 cm
to about 10 cm.
Fig 1.49: An airbag increases the time taken for
the driver to come to rest during a collision
Air bags have saved thousands of lives since their introduction in the early 1980s. In
summary, air bags (and seat belts) increase the time taken (Δt) for a passenger to come to
rest during an accident.
Δp
= ___
Fnet    
Δt
According to Newton’s second law, if the time taken to come to rest (Δt) is increased, then
the net force (Fnet) acting on the passenger will decrease. This will obviously reduce the
chances of fatal injury.
Science around us
More about how airbags are made
Statistics show that airbags reduce the risk of a fatal injury in a head-on collision
by about 30 percent. The function of an airbag is to slow the passenger’s forward
motion as evenly as possible in a fraction of a second.
There are three parts to an airbag, shown in Figure 1.50:
• The bag itself is made of nylon, which is
folded into the steering wheel, dashboard,
seat or door.
• The sensor is the device that tells the bag to
inflate. Inflation happens when there is a
collision force equal to running into a brick
wall at 16 to 24 km.h–1.
• The airbag's inflation system reacts sodium
azide (NaN3) with potassium nitrate
(KNO3) to produce nitrogen gas. A hot blast
of nitrogen inflates the airbag.
Fig 1.50: The internal structure
The airbag inflates at a speed of 322 km.h–1, of an airbag
faster than the blink of an eye! Almost just as
quickly, the gas quickly dissipates through tiny holes in the bag, thus deflating the
bag so you can move and are not suffocated by the bag.
1
Even though the whole process happens in only __  25 th of a second, the additional
time is enough to help prevent serious injury. The powdery substance released
from the airbag is regular cornstarch or talcum powder, which is used by the
airbag manufacturers to keep the bags pliable while they are not in use.
Check point 9
A 70 kg driver of a car is not wearing a seatbelt. He is travelling at 54 km.h–1 (15 m.s–1)
when he is involved in an accident which brings the car to rest suddenly. The driver
continues moving forward until he hits the steering wheel and is brought to rest in 0,02 s.
a) Calculate the net force acting on the driver.
b) Comment on the magnitude of this force in terms of safety.

Suppose, instead, that the driver collides with an airbag which brings him to rest in 0,1 s:
c) Calculate the net force the airbag exerts on the driver during the collision.
d) Compare your answers to questions a) and c) and comment on the usefulness of an
airbag.
Arrestor beds
The braking system of a large truck may overheat and fail. If this happens, the truck
driver may drive the truck into an arrestor bed, off the main road, to stop the truck. An
arrester bed is a sand or gravel pathway such as the one shown in Figure 1.51. An arrestor
bed decreases a truck’s momentum to zero over a fairly long time interval (Δt), and so the
force it exerts on the truck is small enough not to harm the truck or driver.
Fig 1.51: An arrestor bed
Exercise 1.6
1. Jennifer (mass 60 kg), travelling at 30 m.s-1 in her sports car, is involved in a

collision while trying to avoid a cow crossing the road. She strikes the air bag,
which brings her body to a stop in 0,15 s.
a) What average force does the air bag exert on her?
b) If Jennifer had not been wearing her seat belt and was not driving a car fitted
with an air bag, then the steering wheel would have stopped her body in
0,01 s. What average force would the steering wheel have exerted on her?
2. During a parachuting exercise, learners are told to bend their knees when landing.
a) Determine the force of impact on a 70 kg parachutist falling at 10 m.s–1 who
bends her knees when hitting the ground, bringing her body to rest in 0,8 s.
b) Suppose the parachutist did not bend her knees when hitting the ground,
and came to rest in 0,05 s. Calculate the force of impact in this case.
3. A car is involved in a collision and is brought to rest. How will the magnitude
of the net force acting on the car be affected in each of the following cases?
Explain each answer.
a) The car is brought to rest over a longer time interval.
b) The car is travelling at a greater speed before the collision and is brought to
rest in the same time interval.
c) The car rebounds after the collision in the same time interval.
4. Explain the concept of a follow-through in your favourite sport.

Extend yourself
1. Using the concept of impulse, explain how a karate expert can break a board.(4)
2. Why is it useful to express impulse in terms of momentum? (2)
3. A 0,25 kg arrow with a velocity of 12 m.s–1 west strikes and pierces the center of
a movable 6,8 kg target.
a) What is the final velocity of the combined mass? (4)
b) What is the decrease in the arrow’s kinetic energy during the collision? (3)
4. You are traveling in a bus when the momentum of an insect travelling in the
opposite direction is suddenly changed as it splatters onto the front window.
a) How does the force that the insect exerts on the bus compare to the force
exerted by the bus on the insect? (2)
b) How does the change in the momentum of the bus compare to the change
in the momentum of the insect? Explain your answer. (2)
c) Which of the bus or the insect experiences the greater acceleration?
Explain your answer. (2)
5. A 16 kg canoe moves to the left at 12 m.s–1. It is involved in an elastic head-on
collision with a 4 kg raft moving to the right at 6 m.s-1. After the collision, the
raft moves to the left at 22,8 m.s–1.
a) Find the velocity of the canoe after the collision, using the law of
conservation of momentum. (4)
b) Show that this collision is elastic. (3)
6. A loaded 10 000 kg train freight car (mass) rolls at 3 m.s-1 to the right toward a
2 000 kg freight train car travelling at 4 m.s–1 in the opposite direction. On
collision, the two cars couple (lock together).
a) What is the velocity of the two freight train cars after the collision? (4)
b) Calculate the impulse exerted on each freight train car. (4)
c) If the collision lasts 0,7 s, calculate the net force exerted on each freight
train car. (4)
d) Show that this is an inelastic collision. (3)
7. Identical twins Kate and Karen, each of mass 45 kg, are rowing their boat
when they decide to go for a swim. Kate jumps off the front of the boat at
a speed of 3 m.s–1. At the same time, Karen jumps off the back at a speed
of 4 m.s–1. If the 70 kg rowboat is moving at 1 m.s–1 east when the girls
jump off, what is the rowboat’s velocity after the girls jump off? (5)
8. A 5 000 kg truck enters an arrester bed travelling at 30 m.s–1 south. The speed of
the truck is decreased to 20 m.s–1 over 5 s. Calculate the net horizontal force
acting on the truck. (4)

9. A stationary 160 g hockey ball is hit by a hockey player at the goalie.

The ball is hit with a force of 200 N. The hockey stick is in contact with the ball
for 0,05 seconds.
a) What impulse is provided to the ball? (3)
b) What force must be applied to the ball to stop it in 0,06 seconds? (4)
10. Explain, using the impulse-momentum theorem, why the railings on the
stairway in a nursing home are padded. (3)
11. A dish falls and strikes the floor. Will the impulse provided to the dish be
greater on a wooden floor or on a carpet? Explain your answer. (3)
[63]
Definitions
change in momentum found by subtracting the initial momentum ( pi  ) of an object immediately
before the collision from its final momentum ( pf  ) immediately after the collision:
Δ p = p f – p i
elastic collision a collision in which kinetic energy is conserved
external force a force that does not originagte from an object within the system
inelastic collision a collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved
internal force a force which arises from objects within the system
impulse a change in momentum. The product of net force and the interaction time, F
netΔt
isolated system a system with a constant mass and no external force acting on it
momentum (p) is a vector quantity the product of the mass (m) and velocity (v) of the object:
p = mv.
Newton’s second law (stated in terms of momentum) The net force acting on an object is equal to
its rate of change of momentum:
Δp
= ___
Fnet    
Δt
Newton’s third law when object A exerts a force on object B, object B simultaneously exerts an
oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on object A
system a group of two or more objects that interact
the law of conservation of momentum the total momentum of an isolated system remains constant
(is conserved). Momentum is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions in an isolated
system

Summary

Topic
2 Vertical projectile motion in one
dimension (1D)
• Vertical projectile motion represented in words and equations

• Vertical projectile motion represented in graphs
The photograph shows a person throwing a ball straight upward into the air. While
this ball is in motion, the motion is described by quantities such as velocity,
acceleration, time and displacement. In Grade 10 you studied horizontal motion. In
this topic you will study the motion of objects moving vertically upward and
downward. You will calculate and graph some quantities of this kind of motion.
Topic 2: Vertical projectile motion in one dimension • 53

In Grade 10, in the topic ‘Instantaneous speed and velocity and the equations of motion’
you studied the following equations of motion. You then applied the equations to linear-
moving objects travelling with a uniform acceleration in a horizontal direction:
In symbols: Where:
vi = initial velocity (m.s–1)
vf = vi + a∆t vf = final velocity (m.s–1)
vf ² = vi² + 2a∆x
∆x = displacement (m)
∆x = vi∆t + __12 a∆t²
∆t = time (s)
( v +v
)
i f ∆t
∆x = ______
2 a = acceleration (m.s–2)
In this topic you will apply the same sets of equations to objects moving in a vertical
direction.
1. A car accelerates uniformly at 3 m.s–2 for 5 s, from moving at
k
Chec 4 m.s–1 East.
lf
myse a) What distance will the car travel in 5 s?
b) Calculate the velocity after 5 s.
2. An aircraft, flying at an unknown initial velocity in an easterly

direction, accelerates uniformly at 5 m.s–2. It reaches a velocity of
200 m.s–1 east after accelerating over a distance of 300 m.
Calculate the initial velocity of the aircraft.
54 • Topic 2: Vertical projectile motion in one dimension

Vertical projectile motion represented

in words and equations
Introduction to vertical projectile motion
Free fall
When an object is moving vertically, its motion can vary depending on whether it is
experiencing air friction or not. Free fall describes the motion of a body in which the only
force acting on it is gravity. Any object that is falling freely to the Earth’s surface in the
absence of friction is experiencing an acceleration of 9,8 m.s–2 downward. This is the
acceleration due to gravity on the Earth and is the same for all objects. Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642) climbed to the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy and dropped two
spheres of different masses from the top (Figure 2.1). Both masses reached the ground at
the same time, leading Galileo to conclude that they both had the same acceleration.
Since quantities such as velocity, displacement and acceleration are vector quantities,
their direction needs to be taken into consideration when doing calculations involving
these quantities. When doing a vertical motion calculation, we will choose the upward
direction to be negative and the downward direction to be positive. That means that all
Fig 2.1: Galileo vector quantities in the positive direction will be allocated positive values and the vector
dropping two objects quantities in the negative direction will be allocated negative values. You could just as
easily choose the upward direction to be positive and the downward direction to be
from the top of the
negative, as long as you are consistent with this throughout a problem. Acceleration due
Leaning Tower of Pisa
to gravity on the Earth is always 9,8 m.s–2 downward if air resistance is negligible,
regardless of whether the object is moving upward or downward.
Also, when an object is thrown vertically upward, its velocity at its highest point is zero,
as it comes to rest momentarily before changing direction and falling back down to
the Earth. The time taken to reach the object’s highest point is the same as the time that
it takes to fall from its highest point back down to where it started. This is known as time
symmetry.
What goes up must come down

When air resistance is negligible, an object that is thrown
or projected upward will rise to its maximum height in
the same time that it takes to fall from that height to its
initial level. In other words, the time up = the time down.
This is because the acceleration due to gravity is
consistent throughout the motion of the object: 9,8 m.s–2
downward. The speed at one point on the way up is the
same as the speed at that same point on the way down,
as shown in Figure 2.2. If the time taken for the object to
travel from A to B is 3,57 s, then the time taken to travel
from B to C will be 3,57 s.
Fig 2.2: The speed at one point on the way
up is the same as the speed at that same
point on the way down.

Air Resistance
In reality, free fall near the Earth’s surface only really occurs while the object moving
slowly. This is because of air resistance. Air resistance is proportional to the velocity of the
object. In other words, the faster an object is moving, the greater the air resistance it will
experience. Air resistance is also affected by the area of the object. A webbed suit
increases the surface area of a skydiver. This increases the air resistance on the skydiver,
decreasing his terminal velocity and so letting him spend more time in the air. Terminal
velocity is the constant velocity that a free falling object eventually reaches when the air
resistance prevents further acceleration. The net force acting on an object travelling at its
terminal velocity is zero.
Table 1A shows the motion of a skydiver from the moments she jumps out of the
helicopter until the moment that she opens her parachute.
Table 1A
Position of skydiver Explanation Free body diagram

When the skydiver initially
jumps out of the helicopter,
the only force acting on her is
the force of gravity. As a result,
she is experiencing free fall and
her acceleration is 9,8 m.s–2
downward.
As her velocity increases, so

does the force of air resistance.
However the force of gravity
downward is still greater
than the air resistance, so she
continues accelerating, but her
acceleration decreases.
Eventually a point is reached
where the air resistance equals
the force of gravity. At this point
the acceleration is zero and the
skydiver will fall at a maximum
constant velocity known as the
terminal velocity.
When she opens the parachute,

the air resistance increases
drastically. The air resistance
is now greater than the force
of gravity. She therefore
decelerates and the velocity
decreases.

Checkpoint 1
1. What is freefall?
2. Draw a free body diagram for an object in freefall.
3. What is the acceleration due to gravity on or near the Earth’s surface?
4. What is terminal velocity?
5. Draw a free body diagram for an object travelling at terminal velocity.
Science around us
Can you survive if you jump from an aeroplane and the
parachute fails to open?
The answer is yes. There are many people who have fallen from such heights and
lived to tell the tale. While most of it comes down to luck, there are things that you
can do to improve your chances:
• Maximize your surface area by
spreading yourself out (Figure 2.3).
• Find the best landing spot. The
best possible surfaces on which to
fall are snow, deep water
(preferably water that is fast
moving or frothy), soft ground,
and trees or thick vegetation
(although these present a high risk
of impalement). Search for steep
slopes that gradually grow
gentler, since you will not lose all
of your momentum at once when
Figure 2.3: Spread yourself out to improve
you hit the ground, greatly
your chances of surviving a parachute
reducing the impact on your body.
jump if your parachute fails to open.
• Bend your knees. Possibly nothing
is more important to surviving a fall (or simpler to do) than bending your
knees. Research has shown that having one’s knees bent at impact can reduce
the magnitude of impact forces 36-fold.
• Relax. Relaxing during a long fall – especially as you near the ground–is easier
said than done, but try anyway. If your muscles are tense, your body will
transfer force more directly to your vital organs.
• Land feet-first. No matter what height you fall from, you should always try to
land on your feet. While landing feet-first concentrates the impact force on a
small area, it also allows your feet and legs to absorb the worst of the impact.
• Land on the balls of your feet. Point your toes slightly downward before
impact so that you will land on the balls of your feet. This will allow your
lower body to more effectively absorb the impact.

• Try to roll. It’s in video games, and it works in real life, too. This can absorb
the impact greatly by moving your body’s force across the ground instead of
straight into it.
• Protect your head on the bounce. When you fall from a great height onto land,
you will usually bounce. Some people who survive the initial impact (often
with a feet-first landing) suffer a fatal injury on their second impact. Cover
your head with your arms.
Science around us
The Maasai high jumpers

The Maasai people of Kenya perform a
traditional dance called adumu. Young
warriors form a circle and then one or two
enter the circle and compete with one
another to jump as high as they can without
allowing their heels to touch the ground, as
Fig 2.4 Maasai people of Kenya
shown in Figure 2.4. performing the adumu dance
Using equations of motion to solve vertical

projectile motion questions
Use these equations to calculate unknown information about the motion of an object, if
acceleration is constant:
In symbols: Where:
vf = vi + a∆t vi = initial velocity (m.sˉ1)
vf² = vi² + 2a∆x vf = final velocity (m.s–1)
∆x = vi∆t + __  12 a∆t² ∆x = displacement (m)
(v +v
)
  i   f ∆t
∆x = ______
2
∆t = time (s)
a = acceleration (m.s–2)
Write a list of known values and then determine which equation needs to be used in
order to find out the unknown value.
In working with vertical projectile motion questions, you should be consistent about
which direction you take as positive. For example, you may choose to take the
downward direction as positive and the upward direction as negative. Therefore all negative
vector values, such as velocity and displacement in the downward direction will be
allocated a positive value and vector quantities in the upward direction will be allocated
a negative value. You should do this so that the vector nature of the velocities,
displacements and acceleration is taken into consideration. An object in freefall positive
accelerates at 9,8 m.s–2 downward both while it is moving upward and while it is
moving downward. Therefore, in freefall, acceleration will always have a value of
+9,8 m.s–2, whether the object is moving upward or downward, if the downward
Figure 2.5
direction is taken as positive.

Worked examples:
1. A ball is dropped from a building which is 50 m high as shown in Figure 2.6. Calculate
the ball’s velocity just before it hits the ground. Ignore the effects of air resistance.
Solution:
vf 2= v i2+ 2aΔx
v = 0 m.s–1 vf 2= (0)2+ (2)(9,8)(50)
i
a = + 9,8 m.s–2 vf 2= 980
Δx = 50 m vf= 31,30 m.s–1
downward
v = ?
f
Figure 2.6
2. A ball is projected vertically upward at 20 m.s–1 as shown in Figure 2.7. Calculate the
maximum height that the ball will reach. Ignore the effects of air resistance.
Solution:
At maximum height the ball will be at rest. Therefore vf= 0.
vi= − 20 m.s–1 vf 2= vi 2+ 2aΔx
vf= 0 m.s–1 (0)2 = (−20)2+ (2)(9,8)(Δx)
a = + 9,8 m.s-2 – 400 = 19,6Δx
Δx = ? Δx = –20,41 m
Δx = 20,41 m upward
Figure 2.7 ∴height = 20,41 m
3. A stone is dropped off a bridge and strikes the water below 5 s later as shown in
Figure 2.8. Ignore the effects of air resistance.
Calculate:
a) the vertical distance that the stone fell.
b) the velocity with which the stone hits the water.
Solution:
Figure 2.8 a) v i= 0 m.s–1

Δx = viΔ   12 aΔt2
t + __
a = + 9,8 m.s–2
Δt=5 s   12 (9,8)(5)2
Δx = (0)(5) + __
Δx = ? Δx = 122,5 m downward
∴vertical distance = 122,5 m
b) v i= 0 m.s–1 v f= vi+ aΔt

a = + 9,8 m.s–2 vf= (0) + (9,8)(5)
Δt=5 s vf = 47,5 m.s–1
downward
Δx = 122,5 m
vf= ?

Checkpoint 2
1. A stone is dropped from the top of a building and hits the ground travelling at
45 m.s–1. Ignore the effects of air resistance. Calculate the height of the building.
2. A ball is thrown upward at an unknown initial velocity. It takes 3,2 s to reach its highest
point. Ignore the effects of air resistance. Calculate the initial velocity of the ball.
Exercise 2.1
Ignore the effects of air resistance.

1. A bomb falls out of an aircraft. To break the sound barrier of
340 m.s–1:
a) how far does it need to fall?
b) how long will this take?
2. A stone is thrown vertically upward from ground level with a velocity of
25 m.s–1. Calculate:
a) the maximum height reached.
b) the time taken to reach its maximum height.
3. A stone is dropped from a bridge and is seen to splash into the water 3 s later.
Calculate:
a) the height of the bridge.
b) the velocity with which the stone strikes the water.
4. A brick falls off a scaffold at a height of 80 m above the ground. Calculate:
a) the magnitude of its velocity after falling for 2 s.
b) the magnitude of its velocity when it hits the ground.
c) the time taken to fall to the ground.
5. A stone, dropped from the top of a lighthouse, strikes the rocks below at a speed
of 50 m.s–1. Calculate the height of the lighthouse.
6. A stone is thrown vertically upward and reaches a height of 10 m.
a) What was the initial velocity of the stone as it left the thrower’s hand?
b) Calculate the time taken for the stone to reach its maximum height.
7. A ball is thrown vertically upward and returns to the thrower’s hand 4 s later.
Calculate:
a) the velocity with which the ball left the thrower’s hand.
b) the height reached by the ball.
c) the velocity with which the ball returned to the thrower’s hand.

More vertical projectile motion problems

In this lesson you learn to answer more difficult motion problems, such as problems in
which motion of an object changes direction.
Worked examples:
1. An object is projected vertically upward from ground level as shown in Figure 2.9.
An observer at a height of 135 m notes that exactly 3 s pass between the object
passing him on its way up and reaching its highest point. Ignore the effects of air
resistance. Calculate:
a) the velocity of the object at a height of 135 m.
b) the velocity at which the object was projected.
Solution:
In calculating the velocity at a height of 135 m, we need to either
work in segment A to B, in which case we would be looking for vf,
or we need to work in segment B to C, in which case we would be
calculating vi. We do not have enough known values to work in
segment A to B, so we will work in segment B to C.
a) Work from B to C:
v = 0 m.s–1 v = v + aΔt
f f i
a = +9,8 m.s–2 (0) = v + (9,8)(3)
i
Δt = 3 s v = − 29,4 m.s−1
i
v = ? v = 29,4 m.s−1 upward
i i
b) Work from A to B:

The final velocity from A to B is equal to the initial velocity from
B to C.
Figure 2.9
Hence, vi for segment B to C (–29,4 m.s–1) is equal to vf for segment A to B.

vf = – 29,4 m.s–1 vf2 = vi2+ 2aΔx
a = 9,8 m.s–2 (− 29,4)2 = vi2+ 2(9,8)( − 135)
Δx = –135 m v i2 = 3510,36
–1

vi = –59,25 m.s

vi = 59,25 ms–1 upward
2. A boy standing on a tower 60 m high, throws a stone

vertically downward as shown in Figure 2.10.
The stone leaves his hand at 5 m.s–1. Ignore the effects
of air resistance. Calculate how long it will take the
stone to reach the ground.
Figure 2.10

Solution:
When an object is thrown downward, its initial velocity is not 0. Its initial velocity will be
the initial velocity that it left the person’s hand with.
v = 5 m.s–1 vf 2= vi2+ 2aΔx v = v + aΔt
i f i
a = 9,8 m.s–2 vf 2= (5)2+ 2(9,8)(60) (34,66) = (5) + (9,8)Δt
Δx = 60 m vf 2= 1201 Δt = 3,03 s
Δt = ? v = 34,66 m.s– 1 downward
f
3. A boy fires a pellet gun upwards from the top of a cliff. The pellet leaves the
gun at 20 m.s–1 and strikes the ground at 30 m.s–1, as shown in Figure 2.11.
Ignore the effects of air resistance. Calculate:
a) the height ‘h’ that the pellet was shot from.
b) the time that it takes for the pellet to reach the ground.
Solution:
This object changes direction during the course of its motion. We need to take
this change in direction into account. Consistently use the upward direction as
negative and the downward direction as positive.
a) v = − 20 m.s–1 vf 2= v i2+ 2aΔx
i
v = 30 m.s-1 (30)2= (− 20)2+ 2(9,8)Δx
f
a = 9,8 m.s–2 Δx = 25,51 m downward
Δx = ? ∴height = 25,51 m Figure 2.11
b) v = − 20 m.s–1 v = v + aΔt
i f i
v = 30 m.s–1 (30) = ( − 20) + (9,8)Δt
f
a = 9,8 m.s–2 Δt = 5,10 s
Δx = 25,51 m
Δt = ?
4. A person throws a ball upward from the roof of a 15 m high building

as shown in Figure 2.12. The ball leaves the person’s hand at 12 m.s–1.
Ignore the effects of air resistance. Calculate:
a) the velocity with which the ball hits the ground.
b) the time it takes to reach the ground.
Figure 2.12
Solution:
a) v i= − 12 m.s–1
vf 2= v i2+ 2aΔx
a = 9,8 m.s–2
vf 2= (−12)2 + 2(9,8)(15)
Δx = 15 m
vf= 20,93 m.s–1 downward
vf= ?
b) v = − 12 m.s-1 vf = vi + aΔt
i
a = 9,8 m.s-2 (20,93) = (–12) + (9,8)Δt
Δx = 15 m Δt = 3,36 s
v = 20,93 m.s–1
f
Δt = ?
Checkpoint 3
1. A ball is thrown upward from the top of a 30 m high building. The ball takes 2,4 s
to reach its highest point. Ignore the effects of air resistance. Calculate:
a) the velocity with which the ball left the thrower’s hand.
b) the total time taken for the ball to reach the ground.
Exercise 2.2

1. A body is projected vertically upward from the roof of a building at 40 m.s–1.
It reaches the ground with a speed of 60 m.s-1. Calculate:
a) the height of the building.
b) the total time of flight.
2. A girl stands on a bridge 11,25 m above a boy on the ground. The boy throws an
orange vertically upward at 10 m.s–1 and at the same instant the girl drops an
apple. Calculate:
a) the maximum height obtained by the orange and state whether or not it
reaches the girl.
b) the vertical distance between the orange and the apple 1 s after they were in
motion.
3. A stone is dropped from the top of a mountain. Assuming no air resistance, how
far will it fall and for how long in order to reach a velocity of 250 m.s-1?
4. A ball is thrown upward at 20 m.s-1 off the top of a building that is 12 m high.
a) What is the height of the ball above the ground at its highest point?
b) How long does it take the ball to reach its highest point?
c) What is the total time taken for the ball to reach the ground after leaving the
person’s hand?

5. When a girl throws a ball straight upward, she finds it takes 3 s for the ball to
reach its highest point. Calculate:
a) the velocity with which the ball left her hand.
b) the height that the ball reached above her hand.
6. A stone is thrown downward at 15 m.s-1 off the top of a building. If the building
is 75 m high, calculate:
a) the velocity of the stone as it reaches the ground.
b) the time taken for the ball to reach the ground.
7. A stone is thrown vertically downward from a cliff. The stone moves through a
distance of 1 m while in the thrower’s hand and leaves the thrower’s hand at
8 m.s-1.
a) What is the acceleration of the stone while in the thrower’s hand?
b) What is the acceleration of the stone after it leaves the thrower’s hand?
c) After leaving his hand, how long will it take the stone to reach the ground
which is 48 m below where it left his hand?
8. A rocket is launched vertically upward from the ground. Its engine accelerates
the rocket for 10 s from launch until it reaches a velocity of 250 m.s-1. After 10 s it
turns its engine off.
a) What is the acceleration of the rocket during the first 10 s?
b) What is the acceleration after 10 s?
c) Calculate the maximum height reached by the rocket.
Hot air balloon problems

Hot air balloon problems are regarded as being more challenging
problems because the object inside the balloon is thrown upward or
downward from a hot air balloon that is already moving. As a result, the
initial velocity of the object will be the vector sum of the velocity of the
balloon and the velocity at which the object is released.
Worked examples:
1. A hot air balloon is moving upward with a velocity of 5 m.s–1 as
shown in Figure 2.13. A person inside the balloon then throws a ball
upward with a velocity of 7 m.s–1 relative to the balloon. Ignore the
effects of air resistance. If the ball was 70 m above the ground when
thrown upward, calculate:
a) the time taken for the ball to reach its highest point.
b) the height of the ball above the ground at this point. Figure 2.13

Solution:
vi= − 12m.s–1
a) vf= vi+ aΔt
–2
a = 9,8 m.s (0) = (− 12) + (9,8)Δt
vf= 0 m.s–1
Δt = 1,22 s
Δt = ?
b) v i= − 12 m.s–1 Δx = v iΔt +  __12 aΔt2

a = 9,8 m.s-2
Δx = (− 12)(1,22) +  __12 (9,8)(1,22)2
vf= 0 m.s–1
Δx = − 7,35 m
Δt = 1,22 s Δx = 7,35 m upward
Δx = ? ∴ height = 7,35 + 70 = 77,35 m
2. A hot air balloon is moving upward with a velocity of 7 m.s–1. Refer to Figure 2.14.
A person inside the balloon drops a ball. Ignore the effects of air resistance. If the ball
is 50 m above the ground when dropped, calculate:
a) the time taken for the ball to reach its highest point.
b) the height of the ball above the ground at this point.
Solution:
a) vi= − 7 m.s–1 vf= vi+ aΔt

a = 9,8 m.s–2 (0) = (− 7) + (9,8)Δt
–1
vf= 0 m.s
Δt = 0,71s
Δt = ?
b) vi= − 7 m.s–-1   12 aΔt2

Δx = v iΔt + __
a = 9,8 m.s–2 1 (9,8)(0,71)2
Δx = (− 7)(0,71) +  __
2
vf= 0 m.s–1
Δx = − 2,50 m
Figure 2.14
Δt = 0,71 s Δx = 2,50 m upward
Δx = ? ∴ height = 2,50 + 50 = 52,50 m

3. A hot air balloon is moving downward with a velocity of 2 m.s–1.
Refer to Figure 2.15. A girl inside the balloon throws a ball upward at
5 m.s–1 relative to the balloon. Ignore the effects of air resistance.
If the ball is 35 m above the ground when thrown upward, calculate
the time taken for the ball to reach the ground.
Solution:
–1
vi = − 3 m.s vf 2= vi2+ 2aΔx
–2
a = 9,8 m.s vf 2 = (− 3)2 + 2(9,8)(35)
–1
Δx = 35 m  vf= 26,36 m.s downward
Δt = ?
        v = v + aΔt
f i
(26,36) = (− 3) + (9,8)Δt
Figure 2.15
Δt = 3 s
Checkpoint 4
1. A hot air balloon is moving upward with a velocity of 3 m.s–1. A person inside the
balloon then throws a stone upward at 2 m.s–1. Ignore the effects of air resistance.
a) Calculate the time taken for the stone to reach its highest point.
b) If the stone hits the ground with a speed of 25 m.s–1, calculate how high the
balloon was above the ground when the stone was thrown.
Exercise 2.3

1. A projectile is fired vertically upward from a motionless balloon in the air. The
projectile leaves the balloon at a velocity of 200 m.s–1 and strikes the ground at
300 m.s–1. Calculate:
a) the height of the balloon above the ground.
b) the time it takes for the projectile to reach the ground.
2. A metal sphere is dropped from a balloon, which is rising at a constant velocity
of 5 m.s–1. The metal sphere strikes the ground after 5 seconds. Calculate:
a) the velocity with which the sphere strikes the ground.
b) how far above the ground the balloon was when the sphere was released.
3. A hot air balloon moves vertically upward at a constant velocity of 6 m.s–1.
When the balloon is 87 m above the ground, a bottle is thrown upward from
inside the balloon at 3 m.s–1.
a) What is the maximum height reached by the bottle?
b) Calculate the time taken for the bottle to reach the ground.

4. A hot air balloon is ascending with a constant velocity of 5 m.s–1 when

somebody in the balloon throws a bottle upward with a velocity of 2 m.s–1. If the
balloon is 55 m above the ground when this happens, calculate the time taken
for the bottle to reach the ground.
5. A hot air balloon is descending with a constant velocity of 3 m.s–1 when
somebody inside the balloon throws an apple downward with a velocity of
5 m.s–1. The apple strikes the ground after 2,5 s. Calculate:
a) the velocity with which the apple strikes the ground.
b) how far above the ground the balloon was when the apple was released.
6. A hot air balloon is descending with a constant velocity of 2 m.s–1 when a
passenger throws a ball upward with a velocity of 5 m.s–1. If the balloon is 70 m
above the ground when this happens, calculate:
a) the maximum height that the ball will reach above the ground.
b) the time taken for the ball to reach the ground.
7. While a hot air balloon is descending at a constant velocity of 7 m.s–1, somebody
drops a stone from the balloon. The stone strikes the ground after 4 s. Calculate:
a) the velocity with which the stone strikes the ground.
b) how far above the ground the balloon was when the stone was released.
Recommended experiment for informal assessment
Aim: To investigate the motion of a falling body

You will need:
• ticker timer • clamp
•  __12 kg mass piece • Prestik
• ticker tape
Method:
Before starting the experiment, determine the
frequency of the ticker timer. There should be
information on the ticker timer itself or on the
packaging that tells you this. This will help you to
determine what the period is by using the
equation:
  1 
T = __
f
period – the time Fig 2.16: Diagram of
interval between
consecutive dots. experimental setup

Once you have determined the period of the ticker timer, calculate the time between
5 consecutive dots.
1. Clamp the ticker timer in a vertical position as high as possible facing
downward, such as on top of a door.
2. Cut off a length of ticker tape slightly longer than the distance from timer to floor.
3. Thread the end of the ticker tape through the timer.
  12 kg mass piece to the lower end of the tape using Prestik.
4. Attach the __
5. To reduce friction between the tape and the ticker timer, a learner can stand on a
table and hold the tape up to allow it to run smoothly through the ticker timer.
Refer to Figure 2.16.
6. Switch on the timer then allow the weight to fall freely to the ground.
7. Switch off the ticker timer and remove the tape.
Results:
Once the ticker timer has been switched off, detach the ticker tape from the trolley
and ticker timer.
Ignore the first section of the ticker tape where all the dots are on top of one another,
as this is when the mass piece was stationary. Find a point on the ticker tape at
which to start measuring and draw a line through the dot, as shown in Figure 2.17a.
Then draw a line through every 5th dot thereafter, numbering the segments until you
have about 8-10 segments.
Fig 2.17a: Diagram showing how to make markings on ticker tape
Copy and complete the table below, for as many segments as you have.
Segment t (s) x (m) Δt (s) Δx(m) vavg (m.s–1)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Analysing and using the ticker tape:

1. Cut your ticker tape up through the line that you have
drawn at the end of each segment. Number the order
of your tape pieces from 1 upwards.
2. Draw a horizontal line on a sheet of paper. Make a ‘bar
chart’ by sticking the tapes vertically side by side, so
that their bottoms just touch the horizontal line, as
shown in Figure 2.17b. The first and shortest tape
should be at the left hand end of the line.
3. The horizontal line acts as a time axis, starting at zero
seconds. Each time interval on the x-axis will equal
whatever the period was that you calculated your
ticker timer to have.
4. Draw a vertical line through the zero mark on the
x-axis. The vertical axis is the velocity axis.
Fig 2.17b: Velocity-time graph using ticker tape
Questions:
1. Calculate the average velocity for each segment by measuring the displacement
 Δ x . Insert the velocity values on the
of each segment and using the equation v = ___
Δt
y-axis. Mark the values on the y-axis in cm.s–1.
2. Draw a smooth, best fit line through the top point on each segment. Describe in
words what the graph tells us about the motion of the mass piece.
3.
Calculate the gradient of the graph. What does the gradient of the graph represent?
4. Calculate your percentage error for your calculations in which you calculated
the acceleration due to gravity.
Give a conclusion based on the results.
Self-analysis:
Reflect on the practical procedure and suggest possible reasons for inaccuracy in
your results.

Vertical projectile motion represented
in graphs
Graphs of vertical projectile motion
The motion of an object can also be shown in a graph. In this unit you investigate graphs
of position versus (vs) time, velocity versus (vs) time and acceleration versus (vs) time for
one-dimensional projectile motion.
Notes for drawing graphs of motion:

• Determine what graph is required, such as ∆x vs t, v vs t, or a vs t.
• Determine whether the drawing of the graph needs to be divided into parts, such as
A-B going up and B to C going down. Approach each of these segments individually.
• Position time (t) on the x-axis and the other quantity being measured, such as
displacement (∆x), velocity (v) or acceleration (a) on the y-axis.
• If the graph is to be a graph drawn to scale, determine a suitable scale for each axis
from the information that you have been given. If the graph is to be a sketch graph,
the graph does not need to be drawn to scale and values do not need to be included
on the axes, unless you are told to do so.
• Using the data that you have been given, or that you have calculated, fill in the
necessary points on the graph and then join the dots, using a line of best fit, whether
it be a curve or a straight line. A sketch graph does not need points to be drawn and
joined. A sketch graph can be drawn freehand, but a ruler must be used for portions
of the graph that are a straight line.
Worked examples:
1. An object is thrown upward and then drops back down to the same position from
where it was thrown, as shown in Figure 2.18. Sketch the graphs of velocity vs time,
position vs time and acceleration vs time for the motion. Fig 2.18
If downward is taken as the positive If upward is taken as the positive direction

direction
velocity vs time
(v vs t)

position vs time
(x vs t)
acceleration vs time
(a vs t)
2. An object is dropped to the ground and then it bounces back up to the same height.
Sketch the graphs of velocity vs time, position vs time and acceleration vs time for the
motion.
If downward is taken as the positive If upward is taken as the positive direction

direction
velocity vs time
(v vs t)

position vs time
(x vs t)
acceleration vs
time
(a vs t)
Worked example:
An object is projected vertically upwards from ground level at A at 25 m.s–1, as
shown in Figure 2.19. The object travels upwards to its highest point C, passing B
on the way up at a height of 22 m. Plot the following graphs for the motion, giving
values on the x- and y-axes for points A, B and C:
• velocity vs time
• displacement vs time
• acceleration vs time
Note: Take upwards as the negative direction.
Solution:
Before the graphs can be drawn, there are values that we need to calculate, such as:
i) The velocity at point B.
ii) The time taken to travel from A to B.
Fig 2.19
iii) The height at point C.
iv) The total time of the motion from A to C.
i) To calculate the velocity at point B, let us work in the segment A to B:

vf² = vi² + 2aΔx

vf² = (− 25)2  + 2(9,8)(− 22)

vf ² = 193,8

vf = − 13,92 m.s–1
∴vf = 13,92m.s–1 upward

ii) To calculate the time taken to travel from A to B, let us work in the segment A to B:

vf = vi  + aΔt
(–13,92) = (–25) + (9,8)Δt
Δt = 1,13 s
iii) To calculate the height at point C, let us work in the segment B to C:
vf² = vi² + 2aΔx
(0)2  = (−13,92)2 + 2(9,8)Δx
vi for B-C is equal to vf for A to B,
Δx = −9,89 m which is –13,92 m.s–1.
Total Δx = (−9,89) + (−22) = − 31,89 m
iv) To calculate the total time of the motion, calculate the time from B to C and then add
that to the time from A to B:
vf = vi  + aΔt
(0) = (–13,92) + (9,8)Δt
Δt = 1,42 s
total time = 1,42 + 1,13 = 2,55 s
Using this information, the 3 graphs can now be plotted:
velocity vs time displacement vs time
acceleration vs time

Checkpoint 5
A ball is thrown from the top of a building and then it falls to the ground, as shown in
Figure 2.20. Sketch the following graphs for the motion of the ball from A to C. In each
case sketch the graph that would have been obtained firstly if upward was taken as the
positive direction and then secondly if downward had been taken as the positive
direction. Take the starting point as the zero position.
a) velocity vs time
b) displacement vs time
c) acceleration vs time
Fig 2.20
Calculations from graphs of motion
When doing calculations from a velocity vs time graph:
• Area under the graph = displacement or distance
• Gradient of the graph = acceleration
When doing calculations from a displacement vs time graph:
• Gradient of the graph = velocity
Worked examples:
1. A ball is thrown upward from the top of a building at 14,7 m.s–1 and eventually
falls down onto the ground below at 34,3 m.s–1. The path of the ball is shown in the
sketch in Figure 2.21a. The graph of velocity vs time for the motion of the ball is given
in Figure 2.21b.
Fig 2.21a Fig 2.21b: Velocity vs time graph

a) From the velocity vs time graph, calculate:

i) the distance from the thrower’s hand to the highest point.
ii) the height of the building.
iii) the acceleration of the ball.
b) Draw the corresponding displacement vs time graph that would have been
obtained from the above information. The graph must be to scale. Fill in
corresponding values on the x and y axes.
c) Calculate:
i) the velocity at 1,5 s.
ii) the velocity at 2 s.
Solution:
The graph shows that, upward is being taken as the positive direction.
a) i) A – B: ii) B − C: iii) A – C:
x = area x = area a = gradient
Δy
= __  12 bh =  __12 bh =  ___ 
Δx
=  __12 (1,5)(14,7) =  __12 (3,5)(34,3) (− 34,3 − 14,7)
=_____________
      
(5 − 0)
= 11,03 m = 60,03 m = − 9,8 m.s–2
∴ height = 60,03 – 11,03 = 9,8 m.s–2down
= 49 m
b) c) i) At 1,5 s, the ball is at its

highest point, therefore
its velocity is 0 m.s–1.
Δy
ii) v = gradient =  ___ 
Δx
(0 − 9,8)
= ________
   
(4 − 2)
–1
= − 4,9 m.s
–1
= 4,9 m.s down
Fig 2.22: Displacement vs time graph

Checkpoint 6
A skydiver jumps out of an aeroplane. The first 40 seconds of his motion is plotted on the
velocity vs time graph in Figure 2.23.
a) Describe the motion of the
skydiver from:
i) A to B
ii) B to C
iii) C to D
b) Calculate the skydiver’s
displacement from A to B.
c) Calculate the skydiver’s
acceleration from A to B.
d) Calculate the skydiver’s
displacement from C to D.
Fig 2.23: Velocity vs time graph
Exercise 2.4
1. A ball is dropped to the ground and when it bounces, it does not bounce all the
way to the point from which it was dropped. The path of the ball is shown in
the sketch in Figure 2.24a. The graph of velocity vs time for the motion of the ball
is given in Figure 2.24b.

a) Without the use of equations of motion, calculate:

i) the distance travelled from A to B.
ii) the distance travelled from B to C.
iii) the distance x on Figure 2.24a.
iv) the acceleration of the ball from A to B.
b) Sketch the graph of:
i) position vs time for the motion of the ball from A to C. Include values on the
x and y axis.
ii) acceleration vs time for the motion of the ball from A to C. Include values on
the x and y axis.
2. A ball is thrown upward from the top of a building. The path of the ball is
shown in the sketch in Figure 2.25a. The graph of velocity vs time for the motion
of the ball is given in Figure 2.25b.
a) Without the use of equations of motion, calculate

i) the distance travelled by the ball from A to B.
ii) the distance travelled by the ball from B to C.
iii) the height of the building.
iv) the acceleration of the ball from A to B.

b) What will the acceleration of the ball be from B to C?
c) Sketch the graph of:
i) position vs time for the motion of the ball from A to C. Include values on
the x and y axis.
ii) acceleration vs time for the motion of the ball from A to C. Include values
on the x and y axis.
3. A ball is thrown upward and eventually falls back down to the position from
which it was thrown. The path of the ball is shown in the sketch in Figure 2.26a.
The graph of velocity vs time for the motion of the ball is given in Figure 2.26b.
a) What will be the value of the acceleration of the ball from A to B?

b) Without the use of equations of motion, calculate the value of t1.
c) What is the value of t2?
d) What is the value of x1?

4. A ball is dropped from rest at point A and bounces twice at B and D, as shown
in Figure 2.27a. The graph of velocity vs time is shown in Figure 2.27b.
a) Without the use of equations of motion, calculate:

i) the distance from A to B.
ii) the acceleration from A to B.
iii) the distance from B to C.
iv) the distance from point A to point C.
v) the total distance travelled by the ball from A to E.
b) Draw the corresponding displacement vs time graph for the motion,
including values on the x and y axes.
5. The graph in Figure 2.28 shows the motion of a parachutist from the moment
she jumps out of the plane until she hits the ground.
Fig 2.28
a) Describe her motion from 0 – 30 seconds.

b) What happens at 30 seconds that changes the shape of the graph so
significantly?
c) From the graph, calculate:
i) the acceleration of the parachutist from 0 – 5 seconds.
ii) the distance that the parachutist falls from 0 – 5 seconds.
iii) the acceleration of the parachutist from 12 – 30 seconds.
iv) the distance that the parachutist falls from 12 – 30 seconds.
d) Why is the velocity of the parachutist so much slower from 50 – 180 s than
from 12 – 30 s? Explain.
6. A ball is thrown upward at 25 m.s–1 from the roof of a building (point A). It hits
the ground at point C, as shown in Figure 2.29a. The corresponding displacement
vs time graph for the motion is given in Figure 2.29b.
Fig 2.29a Fig 2.29b: Displacement vs time graph
a) Use equations of motion to find:

i) the distance from A to B (fill this value in on the graph)
ii) the velocity at C
b) What is the value of:
i) x1 on the graph?
ii) x2 on the graph?

c) Sketch the velocity vs time graph for the motion, including values on the
x and y axes.
d) Sketch the acceleration vs time graph for the motion, including values on the
x and y axes.
7. A ball is thrown upward from A to its highest point B. The path of the ball is
shown in the sketch in figure 2.30a. The graph of position vs time for the motion
of the ball is given in Figure 2.30b.
Fig 2.30a Fig 2.30b: Position vs time graph
Without the use of equations of motion, calculate the velocity of the ball at 0,8 s.
Extend yourself
1. A group of hikers come to a krans (a sheer cliff). The first hiker uses a chain
ladder to climb from the soft dry river bed below to the top of the 20 m krans.
The hikers below ask him to send some oranges down to them before they
climb the ladder. The oranges strike the soft river bed below. Assume that air
resistance is negligible.
• He drops the first orange (A) from a height of 20 m.
• He sends the second orange (B) down to them, throwing it with a
velocity of 10 m.s–1 downward.
• He throws a third orange (C) upward into the air with velocity of
10 m.s–1.
a) Calculate the time taken for orange A to reach the river bed below. (3)
Fig 2.31

b) Calculate the magnitude of the impact velocity of each of the oranges
when it reaches the river bed 20 m below him. Do this for:
i) Orange A (4)
ii) Orange B (3)
iii) Orange C (3)
c) Draw velocity vs time graphs (on the same set of axes) for the flight of
each of the three oranges. Label them graph A, B and C to correspond
with each of the oranges A, B and C. (12)
d) In which way are the flights of the three oranges similar? (1)
e) In which way do the flights of the three oranges differ? (1)
One of the hikers is curious about how the depth of the crater formed by a
falling orange varies with the impact velocity of the orange. She asks you to
design an experiment to answer his question.
f) Write a hypothesis for his question. (2)
g) Design an experiment to test your hypothesis. (5)
2. John designed and constructed a model
rocket. He placed it on top of a high
platform to allow his friends to get the
best possible view.
He recorded the launch on a video tape.
Using the video tape, John was able to
plot the velocity vs time graph of the
motion of the rocket. Refer to Figure 2.32.
a) For the first 3 seconds:
i) describe the motion of the
rocket.(4)
ii) draw and label a free-body
diagram of the forces acting Fig 2.32
on the rocket. (4)
b) After 3 seconds, all the rocket fuel is burnt up and the rocket is now in
free-fall.
i) What is the gradient of the graph between
t = 3 s and t = 7 s? (1)
ii) Determine the time at t.(6)
c) Sketch a displacement vs time graph for the motion of the rocket. (5)

3. Neil and Susan are interested in the bouncing vertical motion of a ball. They set
up an experiment to do this. A ball of mass 250 g is dropped from a fixed height
of 2 m. Neil times the time taken from the moment the ball leaves Susan’s hand
until it touches the floor. He uses a stopwatch. They record the height reached
after the bounce by taking photographs of the ball bouncing back to maximum
height in front of a 2 m ruler. They repeat these measurements three times and
record the following results. The times taken to reach the floor are 0,61 s, 0,65 s
and 0,64 s respectively. The corresponding maximum heights of the bounces are
1,54 m, 1,60 m and 1,58 m respectively.
a) Draw up a table of the results of
this experiment and calculate the average values of time
taken and maximum height reached. Include these average
values in the table. Make sure that your columns have
appropriate headings and SI units.
(4)
b) What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the ball
while it falls to the floor? Ignore the effects of air
resistance.(1)
c) Use the values from the table to calculate the magnitude
of the ball’s velocity when it reaches the floor. (3)
d) Use results from the table to calculate the magnitude
of the ball’s velocity when it leaves the floor. (3)
Fig 2.33 [54]
Definitions
free fall the motion of a body in which the only force acting on it is gravity
terminal velocity the constant speed a free falling object eventually reaches when the air resistance
prevents further acceleration

Summary
• An object is in freefall when the only force acting on it is the force of gravity.
• Air resistance causes the acceleration of an object falling vertically to decrease,
until eventually the acceleration is zero and the object has reached terminal
velocity. Terminal velocity is a constant velocity and acceleration is zero.
• These equations can be used to solve for unknown values regarding linear
motion with constant acceleration:
In symbols: Where:
vf = vi + a∆t vi = initial velocity (m.sˉ1)
vf ² = vi² + 2a∆x vf = final velocity (m.s–1)
∆x = vi∆t + __  12 a∆t² ∆x = distance/displacement (m)
(
v+ v
  i   f ∆t
∆x = ______
2 ) ∆t = time (s)
a = acceleration (m.s–2)
• When doing calculations from a velocity vs time graph:
- Area under the graph = displacement or distance
- Gradient of the graph = acceleration
• When doing calculations from a displacement vs time graph:
- Gradient of the graph = velocity

Topic
3 Organic chemistry
• Organic molecular structures

• Structure and physical property relationships
• Applications of organic chemistry
• Types of reactions of organic compounds
• Plastics and polymers
The photo shows an oil drill. Oil is a vital resource in the world today. From it we are
able to produce fuels such as petrol, as well as other products such as road tar and
plastics. The world simply cannot function without oil and its derivatives. However,
it is believed that there is only enough oil reserves left in the world for another 35 to
40 years, if we continue consuming it at the current rate that we are. That is why
there is so much interest in alternative energy resources. Oil is an example of an
organic compound. You will learn more about organic compounds in this topic.
Topic 3: Organic chemistry • 85

Organic molecular structures
In Grade 11, in the topic ‘Exploiting the lithosphere’, you learnt about the use of coal and
oil as fossil fuels. When these fossil fuels burn, a chemical reaction occurs that produces
greenhouse gases that result in pollution and global warming. The combustion of fuels is
just one type of reaction that we will investigate in this topic.
1. What gases are formed when coal and oil are burned?
k
Chec
lf
myse
2. Are coal and oil renewable or non-renewable resources? Explain.
Introduction to organic molecular structures

Organic chemistry can be considered to be the chemistry
of carbon compounds. Together with carbon, hydrogen is
present in most organic compounds – these substances
are called hydrocarbons. Organic compounds can also
contain other elements along with carbon, such as
oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine and bromine.
Carbon is the basic building block of organic compounds.
Carbon recycles through the Earth’s atmosphere, water,
soil and living organisms, including human beings
through the carbon cycle. Carbon is present in our bodies
in the form of proteins, carbohydrates and fatty acids,
whilst carbon is also present in other organic substances
such as petrol and plastic.
There are millions of different organic materials and Fig 3.1: Carbon is present in all these items.
substances on Earth. The reason for this is because of
carbon’s unique bonding capabilities. Carbon has the unique characteristic among all
elements to form long chains of its own atoms, a property called catenation. It is able to
form very long chains of carbon atoms, as well as branches and rings, as shown
in Figure 3.2:
a) A straight-chain hydrocarbon b) A branched-chain c) A hydrocarbon

hydrocarbon ring
Fig 3.2: Carboon atoms can form chains, branches and rings
86 • Topic 3: Organic chemistry

Carbon can also form double and triple bonds between carbon atoms, as shown in
Figure 3.3:
Some factors which make carbon – carbon bonds
unique include:
• The fact that the covalent bond between two
carbon atoms is quite strong.
a) A hydrocarbon b) A hydrocarbon
• Carbon compounds are not extremely reactive
compound compound under ordinary conditions.
containing a containing a triple
double bond bond • A wide variety of carbon compounds are possible
since carbon can form up to four single
Fig 3.3: Carbon atoms can form double and covalent bonds.
triple bonds.
• The ability of carbon to make bonds with itself – a
process known as catenation.
• The ability of carbon to make multiple bonds
with itself.
Organic compounds can be represented in different ways. You need to know the
following methods of representation:
• Molecular formula, e.g. C4H10
This is the simplest method of representing an organic substance. It only shows how
many atoms of each element there are within the molecule, but it gives us no
indication as to where the atoms are found in relation to one another.
• Structural formula, e.g.
This method shows us
exactly where each atom
within the molecule
is found.
• Condensed structural formula, e.g. CH3CH2CH2CH3
This method lists the carbon atoms in the molecule individually and shows how many
hydrogen atoms are connected to each carbon atom without showing the bonds.
Checkpoint 1
Write down whether the following examples are showing the molecular formula, the
condensed structural formula or the structural formula for the organic compound.
1. CH3CH2CH3
2. C3H8
3.

We will study organic compounds that are grouped together, as they have similar
characteristics and properties. It is necessary to classify the millions of organic
compounds that exist in some way. We do this by identifying the functional group and
homologous series of the compound.
The functional group of a compound is an atom or a group of atoms that form the centre
of chemical activity in the molecule.
A homologous series is a series of similar compounds which have the same functional
group and whose consecutive members differ by – CH2 in their molecular formula. All
compounds in the same homologous series obey the same general formula.
The functional group of a compound assists us in identifying to which homologous series
an organic molecule belongs.
Science around us
Rock paintings
Charcoal, which consists mostly of carbon,
was used by the San people to mix black
paints used in rock paintings, as shown
in Figure 3.4.
Fig 3.4: Rock paintings made using
charcoal.
–
Alkanes –C – C–
–
The alkanes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons where the molecules are
characterised by single bonds between their carbon atoms. Alkanes are said to be
saturated compounds. A saturated organic compound is one that only contains single
bonds attached to carbon atoms that make up the compound. The functional group of all
–
alkanes is – C – C – , as this indicates that all the carbon atoms within the molecule are
–
connected by single bonds.

Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n + 2. The general formula can be used to
determine how many hydrogen atoms an alkane molecule will contain, if the number of
carbon atoms within the molecule is known. For example, if the alkane contains 3 carbon
atoms, then n=3. If n = 3, then the number of hydrogen atoms within the molecule will be
2(3) + 2 = 8. Therefore the molecular formula of the compound will be C3H8.
The name of the alkane is determined by the number of carbon atoms it contains in
the molecule. The number of carbon atoms in the molecule determines the prefix of the
name. Alkane molecules’ names will always end with the suffix ‘-ane’, indicating that
they are alkanes.
Number of carbons in main carbon chain and prefix:

1- meth 5- pent
2- eth 6- hex
3- prop 7- hept
4- but 8- oct

Table 3A shows some alkanes.

Table 3A
Condensed Structural Molecular

Name Structural Formula
Formula Formula
methane CH4 CH4
ethane CH3CH3 C2H6
propane CH3CH2CH3 C3H8
The structural formula of alkanes do not necessarily

have to be drawn in a straight line. For example,
octane can also be drawn as shown in Figure 3.5.
However, it is easiest to draw the carbon atoms in a
straight line when drawing structural formulae.
Checkpoint 2
1. Draw the structural formula for:
a) butane Fig 3.5: Octane
b) hexane.
2. Use the general formula for alkanes to determine the molecular formula for:
a) pentane
b) octane.
Branched alkanes
We already know that organic molecules may have a branched-chain structure. We will
now study branched alkanes.
To name the branches, we will need to indicate in the name the number of carbon atoms
in each branch. Table 3B indicates the name of a branch, determined by how many carbon
atoms the branch contains. These are known as alkyl groups, hence the name of the
branch will always end in –yl.

Table 3B
Number of carbon atoms
Name of alkyl group
in the branch
1 methyl
2 ethyl
3 propyl
Basic rules for naming organic compounds

When naming organic compounds, follow these rules:
• Identify and name the longest carbon chain. This chain is called the parent chain.
• Identify and name groups that are branched off the parent chain. These are
called branches.
• Number the carbons in the parent chain from the end that gives the branches the
lowest numbers. If two or more branches are in equivalent positions, assign the
lowest number to the one which will come first in the name.
• If the same type of branch occurs more than once, the location of each point on which
the branch occurs is given. In addition, the number of times the substituent group
occurs is indicated by a prefix (di, tri, tetra, etc.).
• If there are two or more different branches, they are listed in alphabetical order using
the base name (ignore the prefixes such as di- and tri-).
• Assemble the name, listing branches and their positions in alphabetical order,
followed by the name of the parent chain.
Worked examples:
Name the following branched alkanes:
1.
Solution:
• The longest carbon chain contains 4 carbon
atoms, therefore main chain is butane.
• The branch is closest to the right hand side of
the molecule, so number the carbon atoms from
right to left.
• The branch contains 1 carbon atom, so is
therefore a methyl branch.
• The methyl branch is found on carbon atom 2, therefore the branch will be
called 2-methyl.
• The name of this compound is 2-methylbutane.

2.
Solution:
• The longest carbon chain
contains 7 carbon atoms,
therefore main chain is heptane.
• The branch is in the middle of
the molecule, so it does not
matter which side of the
molecule we number from, so
we will number from left to
right.
• The branch contains 2 carbon atoms, so is therefore an ethyl branch.
• The ethyl branch is found on carbon atom 4, therefore the branch will be called
4-ethyl.
• The name of this compound is 4-ethylheptane.
3.
Solution:
• The longest carbon chain contains 7 carbon atoms,
• The branches are found closest to the left hand side of
the molecule, so number the carbon atoms from left to
right.
• There are two branches:
If there is more than one type of branch in the same molecule,
such as a methyl and an ethyl group, then you must put them
in alphabetical order in the name i.e. ethyl before methyl.

- The branch on carbon atom 3 contains 2 carbon atoms, so is therefore an ethyl
branch. This branch will be called 3-ethyl.
- The branch on carbon atom 4 contains 1 carbon atom, so is therefore a methyl
branch. This branch will be called 4-methyl.
• The branches must be named alphabetically, so the ethyl branch will be placed before
the methyl branch in the name. The name of this compound is
3-ethyl-4-methylheptane.
4.
Solution:
• The longest carbon chain contains 6 carbon atoms, therefore main chain is hexane.
• The branches are in the middle of the molecule, so it does not matter which side of
the molecule we number from, so we will number from left to right.
• There are two branches containing 1 carbon atom, so these are therefore methyl
branches. If there are two branches of the same type, we use the prefix di-. The
methyl branches are found on carbon atoms 3 and 4, therefore they will be named
3,4-dimethyl.
• The name of this compound is 3,4-dimethylhexane.
5.

Solution:
• The longest carbon chain
contains 7 carbon atoms,
• The branches are found closest to
the right hand side of the
molecule, so number the carbon
atoms from right to left.
• There are two types of branches:
- The branches on carbon
atoms 2 and 3 contain
1 carbon atom, so are therefore methyl branches. These branches will be called
2,3-dimethyl.
- The branch on carbon atom 4 contains 2 carbon atoms, so is therefore an ethyl
branch. This branch will be called 4-ethyl.
• The branches must be named alphabetically, so the ethyl branch will be placed
before the methyl branch in the name. The name of this compound is
4-ethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane.
Checkpoint 3
Name the following branched alkanes:
1. 2. 3.

Exercise 3.1
1. Name the following organic compounds:

a) b)
c) d)
f)
e)
g)
2. Give the molecular formula for:

a) butane
b) hexane
c) octane.
3. Build molecular models of the compounds given in question 2 above using
molecular model kits.

Alkenes C=C
Alkenes are a homologous series that are characterised by having at least one double
bond between the carbon atoms in the chain. Double bonds are not as stable as single
bonds, therefore alkenes are more reactive than the respective alkanes. Since there are
double bonds present, there is the potential for these bonds to be broken to form single
bonds. For this reason, alkenes are called unsaturated hydrocarbons. Unsaturated
hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that have multiple bonds (double or triple covalent
bonds) between adjacent carbon atoms. The functional group of the alkenes is C = C , as
this indicates that there is a double bond between two of the carbon atoms within the
compound. Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n. Alkene molecules’ names will
always end with the suffix ‘-ene’, indicating that they are alkenes.
Worked example:
Name the organic compound shown in Figure 3.6.
Solution:
There is a double bond present, so this is pentene. But we
have to indicate after which carbon atom the double bond
is found. Number the carbon atoms from the side of the Fig 3.6
atom closest to the double bond.
In this case, the double bond is found after the second
carbon atom. The position of the double bond is
mentioned in the middle of the name. So the name of this
compound is pent-2-ene.
Table 3D shows some alkenes.
Table 3D
Condensed Structural Molecular

Name Structural Formula
Formula Formula
ethene CH2CH2 C2H4
pent-1-ene CH2CHCH2CH2CH3 C5H10
but-2-ene CH3CHCHCH3 C4H8
hex-3-ene CH3CH2CHCHCH2CH3 C6H12

Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n. The general formula can be used to determine
how many hydrogen atoms an alkene molecule will contain, if the number of carbon
atoms within the molecule is known. For example, if the alkene molecule contains 3
carbon atoms, then n=3. If n = 3, then the number of hydrogen atoms within the molecule
will be 2(3) = 6. Therefore the molecular formula of the compound will be C3H6.
When drawing the structural formula for alkenes, remember that each carbon atom can
only form four bonds. This is the reason for the reduced number of hydrogen atoms on
the carbon atoms on either side of the double bond, compared with the respective alkane.
Checkpoint 4
1. Give the structural formula for:
a) propene
b) pent-2-ene.
2. Use the general formula for alkenes to determine the molecular formula for:
a) propene
b) pentene.
Branched alkenes
When naming an alkene that contains a branch off the main chain, such
as that shown in Figure 3.7, number the carbon atoms from the side
closest to the double bond and not the side closest to the branch. So in
this case we would number from the left to the right.
The branch is off carbon atom 3, so the name of this compound
is 3-methylbut-1-ene.
It is important to note that the double bond is a functional group Fig 3.7
and therefore must be included in the longest continuous chain when
naming the compound.
Checkpoint 5
Name the following organic compounds.
1. 2.

Comparative reactivity of alkenes to alkanes

Alkenes are much more reactive than alkanes because alkenes are unsaturated (they have
a reactive double bond). The second covalent bond that forms between the carbon atoms
in an alkene is much weaker than the first covalent bond and because of this alkenes can
readily react with other compounds.
Science around us
Butter or margarine?
Butter is made up of mainly saturated fat molecules,
which have relatively high melting points because of the
single bonds found between the atoms in the molecule.
As a result, butter is solid at room temperature.
However, unsaturated fats are normally liquids at
room temperature, as they have relatively low melting Fig 3.8: Butter is made
points and occur naturally as oils. Unsaturated oils can up of mainly saturated
be transformed into a more solid consistency by a fat molecules
process called hydrogenation which is covered later in
this topic. This process reacts hydrogen with some of the double bonds in
the oil producing a saturated substance. This results in a mixture that is
semi-solid margarine.
Dienes
Dienes are alkenes with two or more double bonds in their structure. They do not follow
the same general formula as alkenes. Table 3E shows some examples of dienes. There is a
slight name change when dealing with dienes. For example, in Table 3E, instead of naming
the compound pent-1,3-diene, the name now becomes penta-1,3-diene, and so forth.
Table 3E
Name Structural formula Molecular formula
penta-1,3-diene C5H8
hexa-2,3-diene C6H10
buta-1,3-diene C4H6

Checkpoint 6
1. Name the hydrocarbon shown in Figure 3.9.
2. Draw the structural formula for hexa-1,4-diene.
Fig 3.9
Alkynes –C ≡ C–
Alkynes are a homologous series that are characterised by having at least one triple bond
between the carbon atoms in the chain or ring. Triple bonds are not as stable as single
bonds, therefore alkynes are more reactive than the respective alkanes. Since there are
triple bonds present, there is the potential for these bonds to be broken to form single
bonds. For this reason, alkynes are also called unsaturated hydrocarbons. The functional
group of the alkynes is –C≡C–, as this indicates that there is a triple bond between two of
the carbon atoms within the molecule. Alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2. Alkyne
molecules’ names will always end with the suffix ‘-yne’, indicating that they are alkynes.
Worked example:
Name the organic compound in Figure 3.10.
Solution:
There is a triple bond and 6 carbon atoms present in the
compound shown in Figure 3.10, so this is hexyne. But Fig 3.10
we have to indicate after which carbon atom the triple
bond is found. Number the carbon atoms from the side of the atom closest to the triple
bond. In this case, the triple bond is found after the third carbon atom. The position of
the triple bond is mentioned in the middle
of the name. So the name of this compound is hex-3-yne.
Table 3F shows some alkynes.
Table 3F
Condensed Molecular
Name Structural Formula Structural Formula
Formula
ethyne CHCH C2H2
pent-2-yne CH3CCCH2CH3 C5H8
Alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2. The general formula can be used to determine
how many hydrogen atoms an alkyne molecule will contain, if the number of carbon
atoms within the molecule is known. For example, if the alkyne contains 3 carbon atoms,
then n=3. If n = 3, then the number of hydrogen atoms within the molecule will be
2(3) – 2 = 4. Therefore the molecular formula of the compound will be C3H4.
When drawing the structural formula of alkynes, remember that each carbon atom can
only form four bonds. This is the reason for the reduced number of hydrogen atoms on
the carbon atoms on either side of the triple bond, compared with the respective alkane.

Checkpoint 7
a) but-2-yne
b) hept-3-yne.
2. Use the general formula for alkynes to determine the molecular formula for:
c) pentyne
d) octyne.
Observe simulations of reactions
Aim: To observe the reactions of saturated and unsaturated compounds with

bromine
Let’s use some simulations to observe the different ways in which saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons react. Whilst observing these simulations, it is advised
that learners also use stick-and-ball models to show the chemical reactions.
Step 1:
Open up the following web link:
http://www.chemical.sg/addition_reactions.html
Use the web link to react bromine (Br2) with ethene. Observe the reaction and
reconstruct the reaction using stick-and-ball models.
Step 2:
Use molecular model kits to form an ethane molecule.
Ethane does not react as easily with bromine as ethene. What is different about the
molecules of ethane and ethene that could cause them to react differently?
Step 3:
Investigate how ethyne reacts with bromine water. Does it react similarly to ethane
or to ethene? Explain.
You will do the actual experiment later in the topic. See page 136.

Exercise 3.2
1. Name the following hydrocarbons:

a) b)
c) d)

a) pent-2-ene
b) hex-2-ene
c) but-2-yne
d) 2-methylpent-2-ene
e) 2,5-dimethylhex-3-yne.
3. Build molecular models of the compounds given in question 2. Use atomic
model kits.
Alkyl halides, aldehydes and ketones
Alkyl halides
–
–C–X
–
Alkyl halides, also known as haloalkanes, are a homologous series that have one or more
halogen atoms, such as fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br) or iodine (I), attached to
one or more carbon atoms in the main chain as a halide substituent. The functional group
–
of the alkyl halides is represented as – C – X , where X indicates the halogen attached to

the carbon atom.
–
The naming of the halide substituent will depend on which halogen we are dealing with.
Table 3G lists how halide substituents are named.

Table 3G
Halide atom Prefix

indicating
substituent
F fluoro-
Cl chloro-
Br bromo-
I iodo-
Example:
Five carbon atoms singularly bonded in the
main chain means that the name of the main
chain is pentane. On carbon atom 2, there is a
chloro substituent. Therefore the name of this
compound is 2-chloropentane.
Checkpoint 8
Name the following organic compounds:
1. 2. 3.
Exercise 3.3
Name the following alkyl halides:
1. 2. 3.
Aldehydes and ketones

Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which contain a carbon-oxygen
–
double bond – C = O as the functional group in the molecule. This is known as a carbonyl
functional group.

O
=
–C
Aldehydes
H
In aldehydes, the carbonyl group is always placed at the end of the carbon chain. The
carbonyl group is thus written as: O
=
–C
H
The general formula for an aldehyde is RCHO where R represents the carbon chain
attached to the carbonyl group.
Fig 3.11: Examples of aldehydes
To name an aldehyde from a structural formula, follow these rules:

• Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms (including the carbon atom in
the carbonyl group). The carbon atom of the carbonyl group in the aldehyde is
always assigned the first position in the carbon chain, that is, it is always carbon 1.
• Write the name corresponding to the longest chain as if it were an alkane and then
replace the -e ending of the alkane name with the suffix ‘–al’, for example - propanal.
Some examples of aldehydes are shown in Figure 3.11.
When you are writing condensed formulae for aldehydes, the aldehyde functional group
(the carbonyl group) is always written as -CHO - never as COH. Methanal, for example,
is written as HCHO and ethanal as CH3CHO. The name counts the total number of
carbon atoms in the longest chain - including the one in the carbonyl group.
Science around us
Aldehydes
Cinnamaldehyde is the organic compound that gives cinnamon its flavor and
odour. Cinnamaldehyde occurs naturally in the bark of cinnamon trees.
Vanillin is an aldehyde that is found in the vanilla bean and is used as a
flavouring agent in foods and beverages. However, the vanilla extract that we
often purchase in the shops is synthetic and is not natural at all.
Formaldehyde or methanal, commonly known as formalin, has a pungent,
irritating odour. It is used primarily as a disinfectant and also to preserve
biological specimens, such as that shown in Figure 3.12. Fig 3.12: A horse
fetus preserved in
formaldehyde
Checkpoint 9
Draw the structural formula for:
1. butanal 2. hexanal.

=
Ketones R – C – R'
In ketone molecules, the carbonyl group is placed at a position within the carbon chain.
Some examples of ketones are shown in Figure 3.13. Notice that ketones never have a
hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl group.
Fig 3.13: Examples of ketones
The general formula for ketones is

R–CO–R’, where R and R' represent the carbon groups that are attached on either side of
the carbonyl group. The carbon of the carbonyl group is counted as part of the carbon
chain for naming purposes.
To name a ketone from a structural formula, follow these rules:
• Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms (including the carbon atom of
the carbonyl group).
• Write the name of the longest chain as if it were an alkane and then replace the -e
ending of the alkane name with the suffix “-one”, for example - propanone.
If the carbon chain is five carbon atoms or longer, indicate the position of the carbonyl
group by assigning it the lowest number possible, for example – pentan-2-one.
When writing condensed formulae for ketones, the carbonyl group (C=O) is written in
the position in which it is found in the molecule and the carbon groups are written on
either side of the carbonyl group. For example, the condensed formula for propanone is
CH3COCH3 and for butanone is CH3COCH2CH3.
An important ketone is fructose, or fruit sugar. Fructose is used as an alternative, non-
fattening, natural sweetener to sugar. Testosterone is a ketone found in male sex
hormones. Another commonly found ketone is acetone (propanone), which is present in
nail polish remover (Figure 3.14).
Fig 3.14: Acetone is a Checkpoint 10

ketone found in nail
Draw the structural formula for:
polish remover.
1. pentan-2-one
2. heptan-3-one.
Exercise 3.4
1. Name the following organic compounds:

a) b)

c) d)
2. Draw the structural formula of the following organic compounds:

a) pentanal b) octan-4-one
Alcohols
–
Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols –C–O–H
–
Alcohols are a homologous series of organic compounds identified by a hydroxyl – O – H
functional group on the longest carbon chain in its structure. The general formula for
alcohols is CnH2n+1OH. Some examples of alcohols are shown in Figure 3.15.
Fig 3.15: Examples of alcohols
To name an alcohol from a structural formula, follow these rules:

• Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms (including the carbon atom to
which the hydroxyl (-O-H) group is attached).
• Write the name of the longest chain as if it were an alkane and replace the -e ending
of the alkane name with the suffix “ –ol”, for example - ethanol
• If the carbon chain is three carbon atoms or longer, indicate the position of the
hydroxyl group by assigning it the lowest number possible.
Ethanol (C2H5OH) is the product of the fermentation process of fruits and other plant
material such as sugar cane. Beer and wine are made through this process.
Ethanol is very poisonous to the human body and excessive consumption of ethanol can
lead to liver and kidney failure. It can also be extremely addictive and lead to a disease
called alcoholism. Ethanol can also be used as a fuel. Cars have been designed that run off
ethanol rather than petrol. These cars are used in countries where sugar cane is often
grown in abundance, as sugar cane can be used to produce ethanol.
Fig 3.16: Methanol is
Methanol can cause blindness and death if ingested. It is used in methylated spirits which used in methylated
is used as a fuel in spirit stoves (Figure 3.16). spirits.

Science around us
Too much alcohol = bad news!
When alcohol is consumed, ethanol is absorbed
through the walls of the stomach and small intestine
into the bloodstream. Some of the ethanol is eliminated
unchanged from the body in the urine and in the
breath. That is why a urine test or a breathalyzer test
can give an indication of the amount of alcohol present
in the bloodstream. The rest of the alcohol is broken
down by the liver. A person can eliminate about 10 cm3
of alcohol per hour, which is approximately the
amount of alcohol in half a pint of beer. Simple Fig 3.17: Beer
mathematics can help work out how long it would take contains ethanol.
to eliminate the alcohol from a person’s system.
Compounds that consist of two hydroxyl (-O-H) groups are known as diols. An example
of a diol that we encounter in everyday life is ethan-1,2-diol, which is used in the
production of antifreeze for cars’ engines. The structural formula for ethan-1,2-diol is:
Notes to follow when naming diols:

• The prefix of the name is based on the longest chain containing both the
hydroxyl groups.
• The chain is numbered so as to give one of the alcohol groups the lowest
possible number.
• The ‘di’ is added before the suffix of the name.
Primary alcohols
In a primary alcohol molecule, the carbon atom which carries the -O-H group is on the
end of the longest carbon chain.
Some examples of primary alcohols are shown in Figure 3.18.
Fig 3.18: Examples of primary alcohols

Secondary alcohols
In a secondary alcohol molecule, the carbon atom with the -O-H group attached is part of
the carbon chain which is joined directly to two carbon groups, which may be the same or
of different lengths.
Some examples of secondary alcohols are shown in Figure 3.19.
Fig 3.19: Examples of secondary alcohols
Tertiary alcohols
In a tertiary alcohol molecule, the carbon atom holding the -O-H
group is part of the carbon chain which is attached directly to three
carbon groups, which may be any combination of the same or
different carbon groups.
Some examples of tertiary alcohols are shown in Figure 3.20.
Fig 3.20: Examples of tertiary alcohols

Checkpoint 11
1. Name the following diols:
a) b)
2. Name the following alcohols. Also state whether they are primary, secondary or
tertiary alcohols:
a) b) c)

Science around us
Percentage alcohol in drinks
The liquid formed by the fermentation of fruits has a
maximum ethanol concentration of 12 %, above which
the yeast begins to die and the fermentation process
stops. As a result, drinks such as wine, produced by
fermentation, do not have an alcohol concentration
above 12 %. In order to obtain beverages with a higher
alcohol concentration, the liquid needs to be distilled.
Distillation involves heating the liquid. The alcohol
boils at a lower temperature than water and is then
separated from the rest of the liquid by condensation. Fig 3.21: This alcohol
The bottle shown in Figure 3.21 contains 60 % ethanol drink contains 60% ABV.
ABV (alcohol by volume).
Research task
Research one of these topics. Write a report.

1. Find out about the principles and applications of the alcohol breathalyzer.
2. How is homemade alcohol such as sorghum beer or alcohol made from grapes,
malt or rice?
3. Why does a bottle of wine, if opened and then left uncorked for a few days,
eventually get a vinegary taste?
4. How is sour porridge made? What are the reactants and what are the products?
Exercise 3.5
Read the article. Answer the questions.

Ethanol fuel is ethanol, the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It can
be used as a fuel, mainly as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in
cars in Brazil. Since it is easy to manufacture and process and can be made from
very common crops such as sugar cane and corn, it is an increasingly
common alternative to gasoline in some parts of the world. This is a renewable
energy resource.
Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of the sugar from sugar cane or corn. For
the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, water must be removed. Most of the water is
removed by distillation.

Ethanol consumption in an engine is approximately 51% higher than
for gasoline. However, the higher compression ratios in an ethanol-only
engine allow for increased power output and better fuel economy than
could be obtained with lower compression ratios. In general, ethanol-
only engines are tuned to give a slightly better power output to
gasoline-powered engines.
The top five ethanol producers in 2006 were the United States with 4,855
billion gallons (bg), Brazil (4,49bg), China (1,02 bg), India (0,50 bg) and
France (0,25 bg). Incentives, coupled with other industry development
initiatives, are giving rise to growing ethanol industries in countries such
as Thailand, Colombia, and some Central American countries.
Nevertheless, ethanol has yet to make a dent in world oil consumption of
approximately 4000 million tonnes per year (84 million barrels/day).
There are claims that land for ethanol production is acquired through
deforestation, while others have observed that areas currently
supporting forests are usually not suitable for growing crops. In any
case, farming may involve a decline in soil fertility due to reduction of Fig 3.22: Sugar cane is used to
organic matter, a decrease in water availability and quality, an increase make ethanol which is used to
in the use of pesticides and fertilizers, and potential dislocation of local make biofuel.
communities.
There is a concern that as demand for ethanol fuel increases, food crops are
replaced by fuel crops, driving food supply down and food prices up. Growing
demand for ethanol in the United States has been discussed as a factor in the
increased corn prices in Mexico.
Ethanol is also used to fuel bio-ethanol fireplaces, such as the one shown in
Figure 3.23. As they do not require a chimney, bio-ethanol fires are extremely
useful for homes and apartments without a chimney. The downside to these
fireplaces, is that the heat output is slightly less than electric and gas fires.
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel
Questions:
1. If ethanol is made from sugar cane and corn, why is it regarded to be a
renewable energy resource?
2. What is a biofuel? Fig 3.23: Ethanol is used
as the fuel in bio-ethanol
3. For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, water must be removed by
fireplaces.
distillation. What is distillation?
4. Do ethanol engines give a higher or lower total power output compared to
petrol cars?
5. What does it mean to say ‘Brazil has the world’s first sustainable biofuels
economy’?
6. List as many pros and cons to using ethanol engines rather than petrol engines
in cars as you can think of.

7. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using ethanol as a source of fuel
in a household fireplace.
8. Build molecular models of the following alcohols using atomic model kits:
a) ethanol b) pentan-1-ol c) butan-2-ol
Carboxylic acids and esters

O
–
Carboxylic acids –C–C=
O–H
–
–
Carboxylic acids are compounds, the molecules of which
contain a –COOH group. This is known as the carboxyl
group. The general formula for carboxylic acids is
CnH2n+1COOH. Some examples of carboxylic acids are
shown in Figure 3.24.
To name a carboxylic acid from its structural formula
Fig 3.24: Examples of carboxylic acids
follow these rules:
• Identify the longest, continuous chain of carbon atoms that contains the carboxyl
group. The parent name for the compound comes from the alkane name for that
number of carbon atoms.
• Write the name of the longest chain as if it were an alkane and replace the -e ending
of the alkane name with the suffix “-oic” followed by the term ”acid.” Hence the
names ethanoic acid and propanoic acid as seen above.
Science around us
Everyday carboxylic acids
We encounter carboxylic acids on a daily basis.
Methanoic acid is found in the stings of bees and
ants. Ethanoic acid, sometime referred to as acetic
acid, is found in vinegar. Butanoic acid is found in
rancid butter and octanoic acid is found in
coconuts and breast milk.
Lactic acid is what gives sour milk its taste. Lactic Fig 3.25: Octanoic acid is
acid is also responsible for stiff, tired muscles.
found in coconuts.
Lactic acid promotes the formation of salts of uric
acid, which causes the painful condition known as gout.

O
=
–
Esters –C–O–C–
–
Esters are compounds derived from carboxylic acids and alcohols that have reacted
together. In an ester molecule, the hydrogen atom in the -COOH group from the acid is
replaced by the carbon group (alkyl group) from the alcohol. Esters are organic chemical
compounds whose molecular structure has the general form:
Some examples of esters are shown in Figure 3.26:

The naming of esters is quite complex and we will
learn how to name esters when we study ester
reactions later in this topic. Fig 3.26: Examples of esters.
Exercise 3.6
1. Name the following carboxylic acids:

a) C2H5COOH b)
2. Draw the structural formula for:

a) butanoic acid b) hexanoic acid.
3. Build molecular models of the compounds given in question 2 above using
atomic model kits.
Isomers
Isomers are defined as being two or more compounds with the same molecular formula
but different structural formulae. As a result of the two molecules having different
structural formulae, they will also have different names.
There are three types of structural isomerism:
• Chain isomerism
• Position isomerism
• Functional group isomerism.
Chain isomerism
In chain isomerism, isomers arise because of the possibility of branching in carbon chains.
For example, there are two isomers of butane, C4H10. In one of them, the carbon atoms lie
in a “straight chain” whereas in the other the chain is branched, as shown in Figure 3.27.

a) A straight chain b) A branched chain

Fig 3.27: Examples of chain isomerism
Chain isomerism also exists in alkenes and alkynes.
Worked example:
Draw the structural formula and give the names of three isomers of molecular
formula C4H8.
Solution:
Position isomerism
In position isomerism, the basic carbon
skeleton remains unchanged, but important
functional groups are moved around on
that skeleton. For example, there are two
structural isomers with the molecular
formula C3H7Br. In one of them the bromine Figure 3.28: Examples of position isomeres
atom is on the end of the chain, whereas in
the other it’s attached in the middle, as shown in Figure 3.28.
Functional group isomerism

In functional group isomerism, the
isomers contain different functional
groups – that is, they belong to different
homologous series. For example, a
molecular formula C3H6O could be either
propanal (an aldehyde) or propanone (a
ketone), as shown in Figure 3.29. Fig 3.29: Examples of functional group isomers
Another example of functional group isomerism is that carboxylic acids and esters can be
isomers of one another.

Checkpoint 12
1. Give the structural formula and name of 3 chain isomers of C6H14.
2. Give the structural formula and name of 2 position isomers of C4H9Cl.
3. Give the structural formula for 2 functional group isomers of C2H5COOH.
Exercise 3.7
1. Identify the pairs of isomers in the following examples:
A B C
D E F
G H
2. Give the name and structural formula of two isomers of C5H12.

3. Give the structural formula of two isomers of C3H7OOH.

Structure and physical property relationships
Explaining physical properties of organic compounds

The shape and structure of an organic molecule, as well as how many carbon atoms it has
are just some of the factors that affect its physical properties such as melting point,
boiling point and physical state. We will investigate how the structure of molecules
affects their physical properties.
Physical properties and intermolecular forces

The strength of the intermolecular forces between molecules affects many properties of a
molecule, such as melting and boiling points. Table 3H shows the types of intermolecular
forces that exist between different organic molecules as well as their relative strengths.
Table 3H
Van der Waals’ forces

Hydrogen Bonds
London Forces Dipole-dipole
Very weak. Slightly stronger than The strongest of intermolecular
Found between non-polar London forces. forces.
molecules. Found between slightly Found in strongly polar
polar molecules. molecules.
Examples
Alkanes Aldehydes Alcohols
Alkenes Ketones Carboxylic acid
Alkynes Esters
Alkyl halides
Intermolecular forces and the number and type of

functional groups
The physical properties of organic compounds such as melting point and boiling point
depend on the strength of the intermolecular forces between the molecules. In turn, the
strength of the intermolecular forces between molecules depends on the number and
type of functional groups that the molecules contain.
Let us consider ethane and chloroethane,
shown in Figure 3.30. Ethane is an alkane
and contains only non-polar C-C and C-H
bonds, as both C and H have similar
electronegativities. As a result of this, ethane
is a non-polar molecule. Ethane will contain
weak London forces between its molecules.
However, in the molecule of chloroethane, Fig 3.30: Ethane and chloroethane
which is an alkyl halide, a single polar bond
is formed between the carbon atom and the chlorine atom. As a result of this, the
chloroethane molecule is a polar molecule. Chloroethane will contain slightly stronger
dipole-dipole forces between its molecules.

With organic molecules that have more than one functional group
(polar bond), the shape of the molecule determines the overall polarity.
Consider the molecule 1,2-dichloroethane, shown in Figure 3.31.
This molecule contains two functional groups with two polar bonds
between the C and Cl atoms on each side of the molecule. However, the two
polar bonds cancel each other out, resulting in a non-polar molecule. In
comparison to chloroethane in Figure 3.30, which has one functional group
and has dipole-dipole forces between its molecules, 1,2-dichloroethane will Fig 3.31: 1,2-dichloroethane
contain weaker London forces between its molecules.
Other organic compounds have
dipole-dipole forces between
them because of the nature and
position of their functional
groups. Figure 3.32 shows
methanol (an alcohol), ethanal
(an aldehyde) and butan-2-one
(a ketone). The polarity is
indicated in each structural
formula and from this it can be
determined that each of these
molecules are polar and will
contain dipole-dipole forces Fig 3.32: Methanol, ethanol and butan-2-one
between the molecules.
Hydrogen bonding forces are stronger than van der Waals’ forces as they exist between
very strongly polar molecules, such as alcohols and carboxylic acids. These molecules are
very polar because of the –COOH at the end of the carboxylic acid molecule and the
–O–H at the end of the alcohol molecule. A strong dipole forms within the molecule
making the intermolecular forces strong. Carboxylic acids have stronger hydrogen
bonding forces than alcohols because it is possible for two hydrogen bonds to form
between adjacent carboxylic acid molecules, as shown in Figure 3.33. However, alcohols
are only able to form one hydrogen bond between adjacent alcohol molecules, as shown
in Figure 3.34, making the hydrogen bonding forces between alcohols weaker than those
between their corresponding carboxylic acids.
Fig 3.33: Hydrogen bonds between Fig 3.34: Hydrogen bonds between
adjacent carboxylic acid molecules adjacent alcohol molecules

Worked example:
Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing strength of intermolecular
forces. Explain your reasoning.
chloroethane; ethanol; ethane; ethanoic acid
Solution:
Ethane is an alkane, hence is non-polar and has weak Van der Waals’ forces (London
forces) between the molecules.
Chloroethane is an alkyl halide, hence is slightly polar and will have stronger Van der
Waals’ forces (dipole-dipole) between the molecules.
Ethanol and ethanoic acid both have much stronger hydrogen bonding forces between the
molecules. The intermolecular forces between ethanol molecules will be weaker than those
between ethanoic acid molecules, as only one hydrogen bond forms between the molecules
of ethanol, whilst two hydrogen bonds form between the molecules of ethanoic acid.
So the molecules listed in order of increasing strength of intermolecular forces are:
ethane; chloroethane; ethanol; ethanoic acid.
Checkpoint 13
Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing strength of intermolecular forces.
butanone; butanoic acid; butane
Intermolecular forces and vapour pressure

Vapour pressure is the pressure that an enclosed vapour exerts on the surface of a liquid.
a) b) Substances with weak intermolecular forces will vapourise easily and as a result will
have higher vapour pressure.
Figure 3.35 compares two bottles. Bottle 1 contains pentane, which has weak
intermolecular forces and evaporates easily at room temperature. It will have a relatively
high vapour pressure. In comparison, Bottle 2 contains pentanol, which has strong
hydrogen bonds between molecules and undergoes little evaporation at room
temperature. It will have a low vapour pressure.
Vapour pressure also depends on temperature, because increasing the temperature in
Bottle 2 will cause evaporation to increase and thus so will the vapour pressure increase.
Fig 3.35: a) Pentane
has a high vapour
Worked example:
pressure b) Pentanol Which of the following compounds has the higher vapour pressure when compared at
has a low vapour the same temperature – propene or propanone? Explain.
pressure.
Solution:
Propene will have the higher vapour pressure. Propene is an alkene. It has non-polar
molecules and thus will have weak van der Waals’ forces (London forces) between its
molecules. Propanone is a ketone and is slightly polar. Propanone will have slightly
stronger van der Waals’ forces (dipole-dipole) between its molecules. The molecules of
propene are easier to seperate than those of propanone as a result of its weaker

intermolecular forces, so the molecules of propene are more likely to change state from a
liquid to a gas. As a result, propene will have a higher vapour pressure than propanone.
Checkpoint 14
Which of the following compounds has the higher vapour pressure when compared at
the same temperature – butane or butanoic acid? Explain.
Intermolecular forces and odour

Intermolecular forces also affect whether the substance will have a strong odour or not.
Those molecules that are non-polar and have weak intermolecular forces are more likely
to evaporate into the gaseous phase at lower temperatures and are therefore more likely
to have an odour than those with stronger intermolecular forces between them.
Worked example:
In the old days, a substance known as diethyl ether, commonly known as ‘ether’, was
used as an anaesthetic for dental surgery, as shown in Figure 3.36. The structural formula
for ether is shown in Figure 3.37. Use your knowledge of intermolecular forces to explain
one reason why ether is so suitable for an anaesthetic.
Fig 3.37: The structural

formula for ether
Fig 3.36: Ether used to be used as an

anaesthetic in general surgery.
Solution:
Ether is a non-polar molecule, so will have weak Van der Waals’ forces (London forces)
between its molecules. The molecules will vapourise into the gaseous state very easily at
room temperature and will be easily breathed in by the patient.
Checkpoint 15
The structural formulae for tetrachloromethane
and methanoic acid are shown in Figure 3.38. If a
bottle of each of these substances are opened at the
back of the classroom, which one do you think will
be smelt first by learners at the front of the class?
Explain. Fig 3.38

Intermolecular forces and flammability

ost organic compounds are flammable and burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide
M
and water.
It is hydrocarbons such as octane and butane that are used primarily in fuels such as
petrol and gas stoves, with the shorter chained hydrocarbons being the most flammable
as they have the lowest molecular weight. Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and are
therefore highly flammable and burn readily in air.
Science around us
Aerosols
Aerosol cans use a liquified gas with
a high vapour pressure inside a can,
mixed with whatever product is
required, such as deodorant, shaving
cream or bug spray. The gas is called
a propellant, as it propels the product
out of the can. The propellant is
normally a gas at room temperature,
but is pressurized into the can and
becomes a liquid in the process and it
makes a liquid mixture with the
product. When the nozzle is pressed,
the pressure inside the can suddenly
decreases and some of the propellant
begins to boil, expanding as it does Fig 3.39: Aerosol cans use a liquified gas
so and in the process pushes some with a high vapour pressure.
propellant-product mixture up the
dip tube. As it travels up the dip tube, the propellant rapidly expands into a gas,
forming a fine spray with the product.
Checkpoint 16
In each pair of substances below, state which substance will be most flammable.
1. Octane (C8H18) or propane (C3H8).
2. Propene (C3H6) or propane (C3H8).
Physical properties and chain length

Molecules which strongly interact with each other through a variety of intermolecular forces
require more kinetic energy before the substance melts or boils. Therefore, substances in
which there are molecules with strong intermolecular forces will have higher melting and
boiling points. This is a consequence of the increased kinetic energy needed to break the
intermolecular forces so that individual molecules may escape the solid or liquid states.

It is found that as the chain length (numbers of carbons) of the
molecules increases, the melting and boiling points of the
alkanes gradually increase. Figure 3.40 shows the boiling point
of a number of straight-chained hydrocarbons. It is clearly
evident from this graph that as the number of carbon atoms in
the main chain of the molecules increases, the boiling point of
the alkane increases.
The reason that substances with longer chain molecules have
higher boiling points is that longer chain molecules become
wrapped around each other much like strands of spaghetti. This
increases the strength of the intermolecular forces between the
molecules. More energy is needed to separate them than short
chain molecules which have only weak forces of attraction for
each other.
Checkpoint 17 Fig 3.40: The boiling point of alkanes
1. Which of the following compounds will have the highest melting point – methane or
pentane? Explain.
2. Which substance is more likely to be a gas at room temperature – propane or hexane?
Explain.
Physical properties and branched chains

The more branched a hydrocarbon is, the lower its boiling point will be. As the molecules
become more branched, they become more compact with a smaller surface area. The van
der Waals’ forces decrease as there are less ‘contact points’ where they can be set up with
the smaller surface area and as a result the molecules are not drawn together as closely as
when the carbon atoms are arranged in a straight chain. As a result of this, the boiling
points decrease as the molecules become more and more branched.
Worked example:
Arrange the substances A, B and C in order of increasing boiling point.
A B C

Solution:
C, A, B
C is the most branched hydrocarbon here, so will have the smallest surface area and the
weakest van der Waals’ forces between the molecules as a result. It will therefore have the
lowest boiling point, then A, then B.
Checkpoint 18
Which of the two substances in Figure 3.41, both with the molecular formula C8H18, will
have the higher boiling point? Explain.
Fig 3.41 A B
Research task
You are required to research and compare the physical properties of:
• propane • butane
• pentane • ethanol
• propanol • butanol
Research the following physical properties of the above organic compounds:
• Melting point • Boiling point • Vapour pressure
First make stick-and-ball models of one molecule of each of these compounds and
then research the physical properties of these substances. Explain the physical
properties by refering to the intermolecular forces that exist between the molecules
of these compounds. Write a report.
Exercise 3.8
1. Which substance will have the higher melting point, ethanol or ethane? Explain.
2. Which substance will have the higher boiling point, propanone or propanoic
acid? Explain.
3. Which substance is more likely to dissolve in water, butane or butanol? Explain.

4. The boiling points of three organic compounds are given in the table below.
Substance Condensed structural formula Boiling point (˚C)

A CH3CH2CH2OH +97
B CH3CH2CH3 – 42
C CH 3 CH2CHO +48
a) To what homologous series do substances A, B and C belong?
b) Arrange the substances in order of increasing boiling point.
c) Explain why the boiling point of substance B is significantly lower than the
boiling points of substances A and C.
5. Which substance, if comparing two equal-sized bottles containing the same
volume of liquid, will exert a higher vapour pressure – butane or butanol? Explain.
6. Which substance is most likely to be used as a propellant in an aerosol can –
propane or propanol? Explain.
7. Information about several hydrocarbons is given in the table below.
Name Molecular Melting point Boiling point

formula (˚C) (˚C)
ethane C2H6 –183 –89
hexane C6H14 –95 69
ethene C2H4 –169 –104
2-methylpentane C6H14 –154 60
2,3-dimethylbutane C6H14 –129 58
a) What phase are the following substances in at room temperature:
i) ethane
ii) hexane.
b) Compare the boiling points of ethane and hexane. Explain the marked
difference in their boiling points.
c) There are three substances on the table whose molecular formula is C6H14,
yet their melting points differ quite substantially. Explain why their melting
points are so different.
d) Account for the difference in the melting points of ethane and ethene.
For enrichment
8. 1,4-dichlorobenzene, whose structural formula is
given in Figure 3.42, is the compound found in
mothballs that give them their characteristic strong
odour. Taking into consideration the shape of the
molecule, describe why mothballs have such a
strong smell.
Fig 3.42

Applications of organic chemistry
Combustion and esterification reactions

There are some very useful chemical reactions that occur with organic compounds that
we encounter every day. We will now study two of these reactions: Combustion and
esterification reactions.
Combustion reactions
Hydrocarbons are one of the Earth’s most important energy resources.
Hydrocarbons are currently the main source of the world’s electric energy and
heat sources, such as home heating, because of the energy produced when
burnt. Coal in power plants is burnt and the energy released is used to turn
water into steam, which is used to turn a turbine that generates electricity.
Combustion of short-chain hydrocarbon gases keep the air in hot air balloons
hot, such as that shown in Figure 3.43.
In an ideal reaction, the products of the combustion of coal and petrol would
be only water and carbon dioxide, but because the coal and petrol are not pure
or clean, there are often many toxic by-products such as mercury and arsenic,
as well as the combustion of sulphur found in these fuels which produces toxic
sulphur dioxide (SO2). Incomplete combustion also has a byproduct of carbon
in the form of soot, such as that shown in Figure 3.44.
Fig 3.43: Combustion of short-
chain hydrocarbon gases keep Short-chained alkanes have smaller molecules and are easier to burn and thus
the air in hot air balloons hot make the best fuels. The combustion of alkanes is highly exothermic and
carbon dioxide and water are produced. The general equation for the
combustion of alkanes is:
alkane + O2 → CO2 + H2O (ΔH<0)
Worked examples:
1. Methane is used cooking and heating. Methane can be found as a natural gas
in the earth’s crust, but is also formed by decomposing manure. There
are farms in the USA and Europe that produce methane gas from cow
manure. Write a balanced equation for the reaction when methane burns in
Fig 3.44: Incomplete combustion
excess oxygen.
also has a byproduct of carbon
in the form of soot Solution:
The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2. Methane contains one carbon
atom, therefore the molecular formula for methane is C1H2(1)+2 = CH4.
The equation for the reaction is:
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Follow these guidelines when balancing the combustion equation:
Step 1: Balance the carbon atoms.
Step 2: Balance the hydrogen atoms.
Fig 3.45: Cows are responsible Step 3: Balance the oxygen atoms.
for a lot of methane gas that is
produced
Step 1:
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
There is 1 carbon atom on each side, therefore carbon atoms are balanced.
Step 2:
There are 4 hydrogen atoms on left hand side and 2 hydrogen atoms on the right hand side.
Place a “2” in front of the H2O on the right hand side which will balance the hydrogen
atoms in the equation. Now there are 4 hydrogen atoms on each side of the equation.
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Step 3:
Now there are 2 oxygen atoms on the left hand side and 4 oxygen atoms on the right
hand side. Place a “2” front of the O2 on the left hand side which will balance the oxygen
atoms in the equation.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
There are 4 oxygen atoms on each side, therefore oxygen atoms are balanced.
Therefore the balanced equation for the combustion reaction is:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
2. A mixture of propane and butane gas are put under a very high pressure so that
they become a liquid. This is the liquid gas that is found in the cylinders of
laboratory gas as well as the bottled gas for camping stoves, such as the one
shown in Figure 3.46. Write a balanced equation for the reaction when butane
burns in excess oxygen.
Solution:
The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2. Butane molecules contain four carbon
atoms, therefore the formula for butane is C4H2(4)+2 = C4H10.
C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Balancing the combustion equation:
Step 1: Fig 3.46: Gas cylinders
C4H10 + O2 → 4CO2 + H2O contain a mixture of
propane and butane gas
Step 2:
C4H10 + O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O
Step 3:
C4H10 + 6 _12 O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O
However, to ensure that there are no fractions in the final balanced equation, we multiply
the integers in front of each formula by 2. Therefore the balanced equation for the
combustion reaction is:
2C4H10 + 13O2 → 8CO2 + 10H2O

Checkpoint 19
1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction when propane burns in excess oxygen.
2. Write a balanced equation for the reaction when ethane burns in excess oxygen.
Exercise 3.9
1. Octane is present in petrol. Write a balanced equation for the reaction when
octane burns in excess oxygen.
2. Ethyne is the gas used in blowtorches for welding pieces of metal together.
Ethyne’s common name is acetylene. Write a balanced equation for the reaction
when ethyne burns in excess oxygen.
3. Calculate the percentage of carbon present in ethane, ethene and ethyne and
then conclude which substance will burn with the cleanest flame.
Esterification reactions
Esters are organic compounds which form as a
result of a reaction between a carboxylic acid and
an alcohol. Sulphuric acid is added which acts as a
catalyst. Esters have a pleasant, characteristic smell
and occur freely in nature in fruits and flowers.
The general equation for esterification reactions is:
Fig 3.47: Natural esters occur in fruit.
A condensation
reaction is one in
which water or
other small
molecule is
eliminated.
Worked examples:
1. Using structural formulae, write a balanced equation for the esterification reaction
that occurs between methanol and ethanoic acid in the presence of sulphuric acid.
Solution:
Esters are named with the alcohol component of the name mentioned first, the
carboxylic acid component mentioned second.

CH3OH + CH3COOH → CH3COOCH3 + H2O
Methylethanoate can also be drawn starting with the alcohol structure and followed
by the caboxylic acid:
that occurs between propan-1-ol and ethanoic acid in the presence of sulphuric acid.
Solution:
C3H5OH + CH3COOH → CH3COOC3H7 + H2O
Propylethanoate can also be drawn as :
3. Using structural formulae, write a balanced equation for the production

of ethylmethanoate.
Solution:
It is first necessary to determine what reactants are required to produce ethylmethanoate. The
alcohol required will be ethanol and the carboxylic acid required will be methanoic acid.

Ethylmethanoate can also be drawn as:
4. Using structural formulae, write a balanced equation for the production of

methylpropanoate.
Solution:
It is first necessary to determine what reactants are required to produce
methylpropanoate. The alcohol required will be methanol and the carboxylic acid
required will be propanoic acid.
Methylpropanoate can also be drawn as:
Checkpoint 20
that occurs between ethanol and propanoic acid in the presence of sulphuric acid.
that occurs between butan-1-ol and ethanoic acid in the presence of sulphuric acid.
of propylmethanoate.
of ethylpentanoate.

Aim: To prepare different esters and identify the esters by smell

You will need:
• Test tubes • Medicine dropper • Ethanol

• Water bowl • Spatula • Pentan-1-ol
• 2 x 250 ml beakers • Stirring rod • Acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
• Hot water • 10 ml measuring • Salicylic acid (C7H6O3)
cylinder
• Cold water • Concentrated sulphuric
• Methanol acid
• Test tube holder
Safety first:
Chemical Hazard symbols Hazcard number
Methanol 45
Ethanol 34
Pentanol 46
Acetic acid (ethanoic acid) 5
Salicylic acid -
Concentrated sulphuric acid 4

Method:
1. Using the measuring cylinder, place approximately 2 ml of ethanol and 2 ml of
acetic acid (ethanoic acid) in a clean, dry test tube.
2. Stir the contents of the test tube continuously using the stirring rod and whilst
doing so, carefully add about 10 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid using the
medicine dropper.
3. Heat the test tube in a beaker of hot water for about 6 minutes. The water must
be at a temperature of approximately 75˚ C.
4. Hold the test tube with the test tube holder and cool the outside of the test tube
under running water for about 1 minute.
5. Pour the contents of the test tube into a beaker of cold water. Smell and identify
the ester that has been formed from the reactants used.
6. The experiment can be repeated using:
a) Pentan-1-ol and ethanoic acid
b) Methanol and salicylic acid
Results:
Record your results on a table with the following headings:
Alcohol Carboxylic acid Name of ester Flavour
Questions:
1. What is the purpose of adding concentrated sulphuric acid to the reaction
mixture?
2. Using structural formulae, write a balanced equation for the reaction between
the following and name the ester that is formed:
a) Ethanol and ethanoic acid
b) Pentan-1-ol and ethanoic acid.
3. Copy and complete the table below:
Alcohol Carboxylic acid Name of ester Smell

ethanol butanoic acid apricot
octan-1-ol octylethanoate orange
methanoic acid ethylmethanoate rum
butan-1-ol butanoic acid pineapple
4. Why is an esterification reaction sometimes referred to as a condensation reaction?
The flavours of esters are for enrichment only

and do not need to be learnt by heart.

Types of reactions of organic compounds
Substitution, addition and elimination reactions

Organic compounds undergo different reactions, depending on factors such as:
• Whether the compound is saturated or unsaturated
• What the compound is being reacted with
• The conditions under which the reaction is taking place such as whether a catalyst is
being used or that the reaction is taking place at high temperatures.
We will study the following different reaction types:
• Substitution reactions
• Addition reactions
• Elimination reactions.
Substitution reactions
A substitution reaction is a chemical reaction in which an atom or group of atoms
in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. Substitution
reactions occur in saturated compounds, such as alkanes, haloalkanes and
alcohols. We will study different types of substitution reactions that occur.
Before we investigate substitution reactions in more detail, let us have a look at
some terminology that we will be using:
A primary carbon is a carbon atom that is bonded to one other carbon atom.
A secondary carbon is a carbon atom bonded to two other carbon atoms.
A tertiary carbon is a carbon atom bonded to three other carbon atoms.
Figure 3.48 shows the difference in the position of a primary, secondary and Fig 3.48: Primary,
tertiary carbon atom within an alkane. secondary and tertiary
carbon atoms.
Alkyl Halides (haloalkanes) from alkanes

Alkanes react quite readily with free atoms such as F, Cl, Br and I and not with ions or
acids and bases. As a result, when alkanes react with halogens such as F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2,
the halogen molecules form radicals which then react with the alkane. A substitution
reaction occurs in which hydrogen atoms in the alkane are replaced one at a time by the
halogen atoms.
The reaction conditions for a reaction producing an alkyl halide (haloalkane) from an
radical –
alkane include: molecular
fragment
• The reaction needs to occur in the presence of heat or light. The heat or light causes containing an
the dissociation of the halogen molecule into radicals.
unpaired
electron.

Worked examples:
1. Write an equation for the reaction between methane and chlorine that occurs in the
presence of heat and light. Also show the reaction using structural formulae. Name
the reactants and products.
Solution:
CH4 + Δ
Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
→
Substitution reactions are difficult to stop and additional substitution reactions will occur,
substituting one atom at a time, until all of the hydrogen atoms have been substituted:
There would be a mixture of all of these products present at the end of the reaction.
2. Write an equation for the reaction between ethane and bromine that occurs in the
presence of heat and light. Also show the reaction using structural formulae. Name
the reactants and products.
Solution:
C2H6 + Δ
Br2 C2H5Br + HBr
→

If performing a substitution reaction in which the
alkanehas more than two carbons in its chain, the
halogen could substitute onto either of the
primary carbons or onto one of the secondary or
tertiary carbon atoms. This means that many
isomers are able to form. The products in the
container will be a mixture of all these isomers.
Figure 3.49 shows two possible isomers that could
form if a substitution reaction were to occur
between chlorine and propane, depending on
whether the chlorine substitutes with a hydrogen
atom on a primary or a secondary carbon atom.
Fig 3.49: Two isomers from the reaction of chlorine with propane
Checkpoint 21
Write an equation for the reaction between ethane and bromine that occurs in the
presence of heat and light. Also show the reaction using structural formulae. Name the
reactants and products.
Substitution between alcohols and haloalkanes

Since the hydroxyl group (-O-H) in the alcohol and the halogen in the haloalkane are able to
occupy similar positions in the molecule, it is possible for a substitution reaction to occur
between these two groups. This is known as an interconversion reaction where an alcohol
can be reacted to produce a haloalkane and visa versa. These reactions are illustrated below.
Reactions of HX (X=Cl, Br) with alcohols to produce

haloalkanes
The reaction conditions for reactions of HX (X=Cl, Br) with alcohols to produce
haloalkanes include:
• Tertiary alcohols are converted into haloalkanes using HBr or HCl at room
temperature. The reaction works best with tertiary alcohols.
• Primary and secondary alcohols react slowly and the reaction with primary and
secondary alcohols needs to take place at a high temperature. The reaction with
tertiary alcohols can take place at room temperature.
Worked examples:
1. Write an equation for the reaction between C(CH3)3OH and HBr at room
temperature. Also show the reaction using structural formulae.
Solution:
C(CH3)3OH + HBr → C(CH3)3Br + H2O

2. Write an equation for the reaction between butan-2-ol and HCl at high temperature.
Also show the reaction using structural formula and name all reactants and products.
Solution:
C4H9OH + Δ
HCl C4H9Cl + H2O
→
Checkpoint 22
Write an equation for the reaction between C2H5OH and HCl at room temperature. Also
show the reaction using structural formulae.
Reactions of bases with haloalkanes to produce alcohols

The reaction conditions for reactions of bases with haloalkanes to produce alcohols:
• A base, such as NaOH or KOH, is first dissolved in ethanol and then treated with a
haloalkane. The mixture is then warmed. A substitution reaction will occur between
the base and the haloalkane.
Worked examples:
1. Write an equation for the reaction between C(CH3)3Br and KOH. Also show the
reaction using structural formulae.
Solution:
  Δ
C(CH3)3Br + KOH
→ C(CH3)3OH + KBr
Ethanol
2. Write an equation to show the reaction between 2-chloropropane and NaOH. Also
show the reaction using structural formula and name all reactants and products.

Solution:
Δ
C3H7Cl + NaOH
→ C3H7OH + NaCl
Ethanol
Δ
→
Ethanol
Checkpoint 23
Write an equation for the reaction between C2H5I and NaOH at room temperature. Also
show the reaction using structural formulae.
Research task
Research some ways in which substitution reactions are used in industry. Find out
what products are formed and what are their uses. Write a report.
Exercise 3.10
Write an equation for the reaction between the following reactants. Also show the
1. CH4 + Br2 2. C(CH3)3OH + HCl 3. C(CH3)3Cl + NaOH
Addition reactions
An addition reaction is a reaction where atoms are added to a molecule by the breaking
of a double bond between the carbon atoms without the removal of any atoms from the
molecule. The new atoms are added to the two carbon atoms on either side of the double
bond. Unsaturated compounds such as alkenes undergo addition reactions to form
saturated compounds.
Unsaturated organic compounds undergo different addition reactions, depending on
what the compound is being reacted with. We will study the different types of addition
reactions that can occur.
Hydrogenation
In a hydrogenation reaction, hydrogen (H2) is added to an alkene.
The reaction conditions for a hydrogenation reaction:
• An alkene must be dissolved in a non-polar solvent with a catalyst such as
platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) or nickel (Ni).

Worked example:
Write an equation for the reaction between C2H4 and H2. Also show the reaction using
structural formulae.
Solution:
C2H4 + H2 Pt/Pd/Ni C2H6
Checkpoint 24
Write an equation for the reaction between but-2-ene and H2. Also show the reaction
using structural formulae. Name the product that forms.
Halogenation
In a halogenation reaction, a halogen molecule (Cl2, Br2) is added to an alkene molecule.
The reaction conditions for a halogenation reaction:
• The reaction proceeds easily at room temperature.
Worked examples:
1. Write an equation for the reaction between C2H4 and Cl2. Also show the reaction
using structural formulae.
Solution:
C2H4 + Cl2 → CH2ClCH2Cl
2. Write an equation for the reaction between C3H6 and Br2. Also show the reaction
Solution:
C3H6 + Br2 → CH2BrCHBrCH3

Checkpoint 25
Write an equation for the reaction between pent-2-ene and Cl2. Also show the reaction
Hydrohalogenation
In a hydrohalogenation reaction, HX (X = Cl, Br, I) is added to an alkene.
The reaction conditions for a hydrohalogenation reaction:
• No water must be present if this reaction is to take place.
Worked examples:
1. Write an equation for the reaction between C2H4 and HBr. Also show the reaction
Solution:
C2H4 + HBr → CH3CH2Br
2. Write an equation for the reaction between C3H6 and HCl. Also show the reaction
Solution:
C3H6 + HCl → CH3CHClCH3
In this example, because we are adding two different atoms (H and Cl) to propene, an
unsymmetrical alkene, we need to decide which carbon atom will receive the H atom and unsymmetrical
which carbon atom will receive the Cl atom. In order to do this, we use Markovnikov’s rule: alkene - an
alkene in which
Markovnikov’s rule the two carbons
of the double
Markovnikov’s rule states that when an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with a substance bond are not
HX, the hydrogen atom adds to the carbon atom that has the greater number of equivalently
hydrogen atoms, and X adds to the carbon atom having fewer hydrogen atoms. substituted.

Checkpoint 26
Write an equation for the reaction between but-1-ene and HBr. Also show the reaction
Hydration
In a hydration reaction, water is added to an alkene.
The reaction conditions for a hydration reaction:
• The reaction must take place in a dilute acid solution with the acid acting as a
catalyst. The acid used must be a strong acid, such as sulphuric acid (H2SO4) or
phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
Worked examples:
1. Write an equation for the reaction between ethene (C2H4) and water. Also show the
Solution:
C2H4 + H2O 50% H2SO4/H3PO4 CH3CH2OH
2. Write an equation for the reaction between C4H8 and H2O. Also show the reaction
Solution:
50% H2SO4/H3PO4
C4H8 + H2O CH3CHOHCH2CH3
Markovnikov’s rule is used to determine the final position of the H and OH in the
molecule. The first carbon atom has the greater number of hydrogen atoms, so the H adds
onto this carbon. The second carbon atom has only one hydrogen atom, so the OH adds
onto this carbon.
Checkpoint 27
Give an equation for the reaction between propene and H2O. Also show the reaction

Addition reactions in industry
Many useful substances are produced in industry with the aid of
addition reactions. In these industrial processes, addition reactions
occur between unsaturated compounds that produce products such as:
• Polyethylene, which is used to make plastic bottles, clingwrap and
cable covering (Figure 3.50).
• Polypropylene, which is used in packaging and labelling, textiles
such as ropes and carpets, stationery and plastic parts
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which is used in construction and
plastic piping.
We will investigate these special addition reactions later in this topic.
Fig 3.50: Polyethylene has many uses.
Research task
Research one of these topics. Write a report.

1. Research some ways in which addition reactions are used in industry. Find out
what products are formed and what are their uses.
2. Find out how ethanol is prepared from ethene in industry. Give a brief
description of the process and provide chemical reactions.
3. Research the hydrogenation of vegetable oil to form margarine. Describe how
this process occurs in industry and provide chemical reactions.
Indicating saturated and unsaturated molecules

Safety first:
Carbon tetrachloride 36
Bromine water solution 30
Cyclohexane; cyclohexene 37

Part 1:
Aim: To investigate the reactions of alkanes and alkenes with bromine water
You will need:
• 1 x 50 ml measuring cylinder • Cyclohexane
• 3 droppers • Cyclohexene
• 2 test tubes • Bromine water (see below for
• Test tube racks preparation)
Preparing the bromine water:

If you do not have access to bromine water solution, you can prepare a fresh solution
by adding equal volumes of potassium bromide (KBr) and dilute hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and shake the solution. Only about 2 ml of solution is required. Then add 2 ml
of chloroform, as the bromine that forms is more soluble in chloroform. Use the
bromine in chloroform as the ‘bromine water’ in the experiment.
Method:
1. Using clean droppers, place about 10 drops each of cyclohexane and
cyclohexene ito separate, dry test tubes.
2. Add about 20 drops of the bromine solution to each test tube.
3. Place a stopper onto each test tube and shake the contents.
4. Record your observations.
Questions:
1. Write down the structural formula of cyclohexane. Is the compound saturated
or unsaturated? Explain your answer.
2. Write down the structural formula of cyclohexene. Is the compound saturated
or unsaturated? Explain your answer.
3. In which test tube did a reaction occur? Explain.
4. Using structural formulae, show the equation for the reaction that did occur.
5. Use the equation to explain your observations.
6. Why did one substance react and the other did not?
Part 2:
Note:
Aim: To investigate the reactions of alkanes and alkenes with potassium
The structural permanganate
formulae for
cyclohexane and You will need:
cyclohexene are • 2 test tubes and stoppers • Potassium permanganate solution (0,5 %)
for enrichment
and will not be • Test tube rack • Cyclohexane
examined. • Propette • Cyclohexene

Method:
1. Place about 1 ml of cyclohexane into one test tube.
2. Place about 1 ml of cyclohexene into another test tube.
3. Add about 15 drops of potassium permanganate solution to each test tube, drop
by drop, stirring or shaking the test tube after each drop is added.
Questions:
1. In which test tube did a reaction occur? Explain.
2. Why did one substance react and the other did not?
Exercise 3.11
Write an equation for the reaction between the following substances. Also show the
1. C3H6 + H2 2. C3H6 + HBr 3. C2H4 + Br2
4. C3H6 + H2O 5. C3H6 + Cl2 6. C5H10 + HCl
Elimination reactions
An elimination reaction is a reaction where atoms or molecular fragments are removed
from adjacent atoms in a molecule leaving the molecule with a double bond in its
structure. An elimination reaction is exactly opposite to an addition reaction. Instead of
atoms being added across a double bond to form a saturated molecule, a saturated
molecule has atoms removed from it to form a double bond. In other words , saturated
organic compounds undergo elimination reactions to form unsaturated compounds. This
process is used during the cracking of petroleum, when large alkanes are broken into
smaller alkenes. We will study the different types of elimination reactions that can occur.
Dehydrohalogenation
A dehydrohalogenation reaction involves the elimination of HX (X = Cl, Br, I) from
a haloalkane.
The reaction conditions for a dehydrohalogenation reaction:
• Heating of the haloalkane with a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
or potassium hydroxide (KOH) in pure ethanol as the solvent.
• Heat under reflux – the vapours condense and return to the reaction vessel during
heating.

Worked examples:
1. Write an equation for the dehydrohalogenation of CH2ClCH2Cl. Also show the
Solution:
The reaction needs to show the loss of a H atom bonded to one carbon atom and a Cl
atom bonded to another carbon atom.
CH2ClCH2Cl → CHClCH2 + HCl
2. Write an equation for the reaction of the dehydrohalogenation of CH2BrCHBrCH3.

Also show the reaction using structural formulae.
Solution:
The reaction needs to show the loss of a H atom bonded to one carbon atom and a Br
atom bonded to the adjacent carbon atom. If more than one elimination product is
possible, as is the case here, the major product is the one where the H atom is lost from
the adjacent carbon atom bonded with the least number of H atoms. In this case, that is
the second carbon atom.
CH2BrCHBrCH3 → CH2CBrCH3 + HBr
Checkpoint 28
Write an equation for the dehydrohalogenation of 2-chloropropane. Also show the
reaction using structural formulae. Name the products that are formed.
Dehydration
A dehydration reaction involves the elimination of H2O from an alcohol.
The reaction conditions for a dehydration reaction:
• This is an acid catalysed dehydration reaction – it requires the heating of an alcohol
with an excess of concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4 )or phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
Worked examples:
1. Write an equation for the reaction of the dehydration of ethanol. Also show the

Solution:
The reaction needs to show the loss of a H atom bonded to one carbon atom and the loss
of OH bonded to the adjacent carbon atom.
C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O
2. Write an equation for the reaction of the dehydration of butan-2-ol. Also show the
Solution:
The reaction needs to show the loss of a H bonded to one carbon atom and the loss of OH
bonded to the adjacent carbon atom. If more than one elimination product is possible, as
is the case here, the major product is the one where the H atom is removed from the
adjacent carbon atom bonded with the least number of H atoms. In this case, that is the
second carbon atom from the right.
C4H9OH → C4H8 + H2O
Checkpoint 29
Write an equation for the dehydration of pentan-3-ol. Also show the reaction using
structural formulae. Name the products that are formed.
Cracking of crude oil

Crude oil contains many large hydrocarbon molecules made up of very long chains. It is
the shorter-chained hydrocarbons that are the best substances to use for fuels, as they
burn more readily than longer chained molecules. Cracking is the name given to the
breaking up of large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller and more useful molecules.
Crude oil can be cracked using two methods – thermal cracking and catalytic cracking.
Thermal cracking
Thermal cracking was used before the discovery and use of catalytic cracking. Thermal
cracking makes use of high pressures of up to 70 atmospheres and high temperatures of
450 °C to 750 °C, without the use of a catalyst, to crack the crude oil into smaller-chained
compounds. Many of the products of thermal cracking are alkenes, which are used in the
making of plastics.
Thermal cracking reactions often give rise to free radicals and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
A free radical is a molecular fragment with an unpaired electron. Below are the possible
reactions for the thermal cracking of C10H22. The reaction occurs in 3 steps:

Step 1:
The C10H22 molecule is broken up into two free radicals.
Step 2:
One of the free radicals from step 1 breaks up into a
smaller free radical and a saturated hydrocarbon.
Fig 3.51 A fractionating column

Step 3:
Two shorter free radicals from step 2 combine to form a saturated hydrocarbon.
Various hydrocarbons can be formed as a result of thermal cracking. Some will have short
chains and some will have long chains. Some will be saturated and others will be
unsaturated.
Catalytic cracking
The process of catalytic cracking produces petrol with a higher octane rating than thermal
cracking and is therefore the more favoured procedure of cracking nowadays. The raw
material used in catalytic cracking, shown in Figure 3.51, is usually the portion of crude
oil that has an initial boiling point of 340 °C or higher. The heated crude oil is passed into
a fractionating column and passed over a catalyst. The column is hot at the bottom and
cool at the top. Substances with longer chain molecules will have high boiling points and
condense at the bottom and substances with shorter chain molecules will have low
boiling points and condense at the top.
Catalytic cracking takes place at lower temperatures and pressures than thermal cracking
– around 450 °C and a pressure of 1 to 20 atmospheres. Modern cracking uses zeolites as
the catalyst. These are complex aluminosilicates, and are large lattices of aluminium,
silicon and oxygen atoms.
The heat and catalyst encourage the ‘cracking’ of the longer chained hydrocarbon
molecules into shorter-chained molecules, shown in Figure 3.52, resulting in more useful
products from crude oil, which is very useless on its own. The octane that is formed is
one of the substances found in petrol.
Fig 3.52: Cracking of a hydrocarbon molecule

It is important to note that there is not one single reaction for any particular cracking
reaction. Below are four possible reactions for the cracking of C12H26. You will notice a
difference in the products formed in each of the reactions. The first reaction gives
relatively large hydrocarbons whilst the last reaction produces only small hydrocarbons.
C12H26 → 2C5H10(pentene) + C2H6(ethane)
C12H26 → C2H4(ethene) + 2C3H6(propene) + C4H10(butane)
C12H26 → 3C2H4(ethene) + 2C3H6(propene) + H2(hydrogen)
C12H26 → 6C2H4(ethene) + H2(hydrogen)
Cracking can also produce branched-chain alkanes, which tend to burn more evenly in a
car engine than their straight-chain isomers.
Science around us
The octane number of petrol
The octane rating of petrol tells you about how much the fuel can be
compressed before it ignites. When petrol ignites due to compression rather
than because of the spark from the spark plug, it causes knocking in the
engine. Knocking can damage an engine. Lower-octane petrol (the one with
the lowest number) can handle the least amount of compression before
igniting. So one would expect a smoother drive and better performance
from 97 octane petrol compared to 93 octane petrol.
Racing cars, such as Formula One, use a much higher octane petrol than what
is available at petrol stations. They may use petrols with octane ratings of up Fig 3.53: A petrol pump shows
to 112. These petrols are far more expensive. the octane rating of the petrol.
Research task
Investigate some ways in which elimination reactions are used in industry. What
products are formed and what are their uses?
Exercise 3.12
Write an equation for the following reactions. Also show the reaction using
structural formulae.
1. The dehydrohalogenation of CH3CH2Br.
2. The dehydration of propanol.
3. The dehydrohalogenation of CH3CHClCH2CH3.
4. The dehydration of pentan-2-ol.

Plastics and polymers

The difference between plastics and polymers
Polymers are very large organic molecules that are made up of hundreds or
even thousands of atoms. Polymers occur in nature, such as the rubber found in
the rubber tree. Other examples of natural polymers include wool, silk and the
cellulose found in wood and paper. Synthetic polymers are man-made and are
often referred to as plastics. Plastics are used in so many things in everyday life,
such as plastic packets, gutters and the bullet-proof vest shown in Figure 3.54.
A macromolecule is a molecule containing a very large number of atoms.
Typically, macromolecules are made up of anything from 2 000 to 20 000 carbon
atoms in the parent chain. Another name for a macromolecule is a polymer
molecule. A polymer is made up of a number of monomers. A monomer
molecule is a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a
polymer molecule. Figure 3.55 shows the monomers that will combine to form a
Fig 3.54: Bullet-proof vests are polymer. A polymer is defined as a substance that has a molecular structure
made of a type of plastic. built up from a large number of similar units (monomers) bonded together.
Fig 3.55: The formation of a polymer from monomers.
Many plastics are recyclable. If they are, this will be represented by the symbol shown in
functional
Figure 3.56 somewhere on the product. It is our responsibility as users of these products
group an atom to ensure that they are recycled if we wish to reduce the load on landfill sites and to do
or a group of what is best for the environment.
atoms in a
molecule that The type of polymerisation that occurs depends on the functional group of the monomers
form the centre that are reacting.
of chemical
activity in the
molecule
parent chain the
longest
continuous chain
of connected
carbon atoms in
a hydrocarbon Fig 3.56: The
recycling symbol.

Addition polymerisation
An addition reaction is one in which two or more molecules join together to give a single
product molecule. In addition polymerisation, thousands of unsaturated molecules
join together to form a single product molecule. Addition polymerisation reactions involve
alkenes that under the right conditions, will combine to form a very long polymer molecule.
The formation of polyethene (polyethylene)

Polyethene, often referred to as polyethylene, is a cheap
but very useful plastic. It is used to make plastic bags, a)
squeeze bottles, clingwrap and bullet proof vests.
Polyethene is formed by the addition reaction of ethene
monomers to form the polymer polyethene. The word
‘polyethene’ literally means ‘many ethenes’. Polyethene
will form if ethene is subjected to high temperatures and
very high pressures. b)
Figure 3.57 shows the formation of polyethene.
Figure 3.57a) shows the monomers of ethene that will form
the polyethene. In Figure 3.57b), the double bonds of
ethene are broken, creating two free radicals. A free radical
is a molecular fragment having one or more unpaired
electrons. The free radicals are short-lived and quickly c)
bond to form polyethene in Figure 3.57c). Only two units of
the polymer are shown in this diagram, however this
reaction will occur thousands of times until the molecule
is very long.
Figure 3.58 shows how polyethene is correctly represented. Fig 3.57: The formation of polyethene
A single unit of the polymer is shown and the letter ‘n’
means that this unit is repeated many times.
Fig 3.58: Correct

representation of
polyethene
Polyethene is recognised by the recycling number 4, as shown in Figure 3.59.
Fig 3.59: The recycling

symbol for polyethene

Science around us
Everyday polymer
Polytetrafluoroethene’s structural formula is shown in Figure 3.60a and is a
polymer that is formed by addition polymerization. Polytetrafluoroethene is
commonly known as Teflon. Teflon has numerous uses including as a non-stick
coating for frying pans (Figure 3.60b), beakers, bottles, medical implants and low
friction components in machinery.
Fig 3.60a: The structural Fig 3.60b: Non-stick pans

formula for Teflon. are coated with Teflon.
Identification of monomers from a polymer

If you are given the structural formula for an addition polymer and are asked to identify
the monomer from which the polymer is derived, follow these steps:
Step 1: Find a repeating unit and put a bracket around it. Preferably choose a repeating
unit from the centre of the molecule, not at the end, as this makes it easier.
Step 2: Separate a repeating unit and then insert a double bond where it is necessary in
order to make the carbon atoms in the monomer have 4 bonds. The repeating unit must
include 2 carbon atoms. That will give you the monomer.
Step 3: Name the monomer.
Worked examples:
1. The structural formula for polyethene is
given in Figure 3.61. Identify the
monomer from which polyethene is
derived. Name the monomer. Fig 3.61
Solution:
Step 1: Find a repeating unit and put a bracket
around it.
Step 2: Separate the repeating unit and insert a
double bond in the position in which it will
ensure that the carbon atoms within the
monomer have 4 bonds.
Ethene.

2. The structural formula for polyvinylchloride
(PVC) is given in Figure 3.62. PVC is widely used for
plumbing pipes. Identify the monomer from which
polyvinylchloride is derived. Name the monomer.
Solution: Fig 3.62
Step 1: Find a repeating unit and put a bracket around it.
Step 2: Separate the repeating unit and insert a double bond in the position in
which it will ensure that the carbon atoms within the monomer have 4 bonds.
Chloroethene.
3. The structural formula for polystyrene is
given in Figure 3.63. Polystyrene is used for
disposable cups, CD and DVD cases and for
inside packaging boxes to protect televisions
and other appliances. Identify the monomer
from which polystyrene is derived.
Solution: Fig 3.63
Step 2: Separate the repeating unit and insert a double bond in the position in which it
will ensure that the carbon atoms within the monomer are bonded four times.
4. The structural formula for polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is

given in Figure 3.64. PVA is used to make wood glue
and white glue. Identify the monomer from which
polyvinyl acetate is derived.
Fig 3.64

Solution:
Step 2: Separate the repeating unit and insert a double bond in the position in
which it will ensure that the carbon atoms within the monomer have 4 bonds.
Checkpoint 30
1. Give definitions for the following terms:
a) Macromolecule
b) Monomer
c) Addition polymerisation
2. Give the structural formula for polyethene.
3. Give the structural formula for the monomer used to make polyethene.
Experiment
Aim: To prepare an addition polymer - polystyrene

Safety first:
Chemical Hazard symbols Hazcard

number
Carbon tetrachloride 36
Bromine solution 30
Cyclohexane; cyclohexene 37

You will need:
• Fume cupboard • 5 ml measuring cylinder

• Boiling tube, 150 x 25 mm • Scale
• One-hole stopper to fit boiling tube, • Filter paper
fitted with glass tube
• Electric hotplate (preferable to Bunsen
• 250 ml beaker burner for this experiment)
• 125 ml beaker • Phenylethene
• Glass stirring rod • Di(dodecanoyl)peroxide (lauroyl
peroxide)
• Retort stand and clamp
• Ethanol
Method:
1. Set up a water bath
in the fume
cupboard by boiling
200 ml of water in
the beaker, using the
hotplate.
2. Add 0,1 g of
di(dodecanoyl)
peroxide to 5 ml of
phenylethene in the
boiling tube.
3. Fit the one-hole Fig 3.65: Diagram of experimental setup
stopper into the top
of the boiling tube. Clamp the tube vertically in the water bath, as shown in
Figure 3.65.
4. Heat for 30 minutes, keeping the water simmering on the hotplate until the
liquid turns quite viscous.
5. Switch the hotplate off. Pour the contents of the boiling tube into 50 ml of
ethanol in a beaker.
6. Use the stirring rod to push the product into a lump and pour off the ethanol.
7. Dry the solid polymer on filter paper.
Questions:
1. What is polystyrene?
2. Using structural formulae, write the net reaction for the polymerization reaction.
3. What is polystyrene used for in restaurants, supermarkets, schools and health
care institutions? Discuss the environmental impact of these uses.
4. How do manufacturers and shippers use polystyrene?

Research task
Research one of the following topics. Write a report.

1. Research recycling numbers of different plastics. Find out what the different
recycling numbers mean and what plastics each number represents.
2. What are Kevlar and Mylar? What are they used for? Who discovered or
invented the materials?
3. What are car windscreens made of?
4. What are the brake pads of cars made of?
5. Discuss the different polymers that can be used instead of glass.
Condensation polymerisation
Condensation polymerisation occurs when two molecules react with the elimination of a
water molecule. The three main differences between addition polymerisation and
condensation polymerisation are:
• Condensation polymers form more slowly than addition polymers.
• Water is formed in condensation polymerisation and no by-products are formed in
addition polymerisation.
• The monomers of addition polymers contain carbon-carbon double bonds, whilst the
monomers of condensation polymers contain functional groups, such as alcohols and
carboxylic acids.
The formation of a polyester

The formation of a polyester follows the same procedure as the formation of a simple
ester, except that it involves a diol – an alcohol with two -O-H groups and a dicarboxylic
acid - an acid with two -COOH groups. A diol can be seen in Figure 3.66 and a
Fig 3.66: A diol dicarboxylic acid can be seen in Figure 3.67. Dicarboxylic acids are organic compounds
that are substituted with two carboxylic acid functional groups.
Now imagine lining the diol and the dicarboxylic acid up alternately as shown in
Figure 3.68 and making esters with each acid group and each alcohol group, losing a
Fig 3.67: A molecule of water every time an ester linkage is made. That would produce the polymer
shown as the product. This is a condensation polymerisation reaction, as water has been
dicarboxylic acid
removed in the process and a polymer has been formed.
Fig 3.68: The formation of a polyester.

The formation of polylactic acid (PLA)
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a polyester that is
produced from renewable resources such
as corn starch and sugar cane. The
monomer lactic acid, which is used to
make polylactic acid is produced by the
fermentation of these plant materials.
Fig 3.69: The Fig 3.70: The
Lactic acid also occurs naturally in our
recycling symbol for structural formula for
bodies. Because the resources used to
polylactic acid lactic acid
make it are renewable, rather than the
petroleum-based resources used to make so many other plastics, this makes the
production of polylactic acid much better for the environment. Polylactic acid is mostly
used for packaging materials and because it is biodegradable, it has the potential to
alleviate land-fill disposal problems. Polylactic acid has the recycling symbol number 7,
Lactic acid has the formula C3H6O3 and its structural formula is shown in Figure 3.70.
The chemical reaction to produce polylactic acid is shown in Figure 3.71. Many lactic acid
molecules will react together, elimination of water molecules will occur and polylactic
acid will be formed. This is a condensation polymerisation reaction, as water has been
removed in the process and a polymer has been formed.
Fig 3.71: The formation of polylactic acid
The molecular formula for polylactic acid is (C3H4O2)n and its

structural formula is shown in Figure 3.72.
Checkpoint 31
1. What is condensation polymerisation?
Fig 3.72: The
2. What is required in order to make a polyester?
structural formula for
3. From what raw materials is polylactic acid (PLA) produced? polylactic acid

4. Use structural formulae to show the steps involved in making:

a) A polyester
b) Polylactic acid (PLA).
Identifying the type of polymerisation

When you are given the structural formula for a polymer and are required to determine
the type of polymerisation that has occurred to produce that polymer, addition or
condensation polymerisation, follow these steps:
Step 2: Isolate the repeating unit.
Step 3: If there are no additional functional groups on the repeating unit, such as =O
or –O–H, then the reaction must have been an addition polymerisation reaction. Insert a
carbon-carbon double bond where necessary.
Step 4: If there are additional functional groups, such as =O or -O-, then the reaction
must have been a condensation polymerisation reaction. Insert an –H and an –O–H
where necessary to insert the H2O that was removed back into the molecule.
Worked examples:
Identify whether the following polymers are a result of addition or condensation
polymerisation.
1.
Solution:
Step 3: If there are no additional functional groups on the repeating unit,

such as = O or –O–H, then the reaction must have been an addition
polymerisation reaction. Insert a double bond where necessary.
Therefore the polymer given in the question is a product of addition
polymerisation.
2.

Solution:
Step 1: Find a repeating unit and put a
bracket around it.
Step 3: If there are additional functional groups, such as =O or -O-,

then the reaction must have been a condensation polymerisation
reaction. Insert an –H and an –OH where necessary to insert the
H2O that was removed back into the molecule.
Therefore the polymer given in the question is a product of
condensation polymerisation.
Research task
Research one or more of the following topics below. Write a report.

1. Find out about SASOL and what polymers it produces. What are the use of
these polymers?
2. Find out about the discovery of polyethene and the development of addition
polymers.
3. Build physical or computer models of addition polymers.
4. Find out about environmental issues related to the use of plastics.
5. Conduct a survey to investigate the quantities and types of solid waste
generated at home or school. Suggest ways to reduce this waste.
Science around us
Protective helmets
Lexan is a polymer that has an unusually high
impact strength. It is used in making safety
helmets for motor cycle riding (Figure 3.73)
bicycle riding, cricket and horse riding. It is
also very light, making it especially useful
Fig 3.73: Lexan is a strong
for sportsmen.
polymer used in making riding
helmets.

Experiment
Preparing polymers
Safety first:

number
Sodium silicate -
Ethanol 34
Sulphur Low hazard 42
Part 1:
Aim: To prepare silicone rubber by polymerization.
You will need:
• Stirring rod • Paper towels
• 100 ml measuring cylinder • 500 ml beaker
• 10 ml measuring cylinder • Latex gloves
• Food colouring • Sodium silicate solution (40%)
• Ethanol
Method:
1. Measure 20 ml of sodium silicate solution in the 100 ml measuring cylinder.
2. Pour the sodium silicate solution into the 500 ml beaker.
3. Add food coloring to the sodium silicate solution.
4. Measure 5 ml of ethanol in the 10 ml measuring cylinder.
5. Add the ethanol to the sodium silicate solution.
6. Stir the solutions quickly as the solid begins to form.
7. When mixture is solid, remove from beaker using latex gloves. If the mixture
still has not formed a solid, add 5 ml more of ethanol.
8. Start molding the mixture into a ball, using paper towels to dry it as you work.
Be careful not to mold it too hard as it will crumble.

Part 2:
Aim: To form polymeric sulphur.
You will need:
• Test tube and holder
• Beaker of cold water
• Bunsen burner
• Paper towel
• Sulphur
Method:
1. Fill the test tube about one third full with sulphur.
2. Holding the test tube with the test tube holder, heat
the test tube over the Bunsen burner until the
sulphur just begins to boil. The sulphur should be
dark red at the boiling point.
3. Rapidly pour the hot sulphur into the beaker of
cold water, as shown in Figure 3.74.
4. When the sulphur is cool, remove it from the water
and dry it on a paper towel.
Fig 3.74: Pouring hot
Questions:
sulphur into cold water
1. What similarities are there in the products of the
reactions in Part 1 and Part 2? Explain the similarities.
Science aropund us
Rubber – a natural polymer
Rubber is the only true hydrocarbon polymer found
in nature. Rubber is able to stretch to 10 times its
length and a major advantage about it is that, once
released, it returns back to its original length.
Rubber is made up of a huge tangle of polymer
chains which, when pulled, pull past one another,
enabling it to stretch.
Rubber is formed inside the bark of the rubber tree.
Grooves are cut into the bark of the tree and
collection buckets are placed below the grooves
(Figure 3.75). The sap that drips out of the grooves Fig 3.75: Rubber being
is collected in the buckets. tapped from a rubber tree

Exercise 3.13
1. hat type of polymersation reaction occurs in the formation of polyethene?

W
Explain.
2. List 3 uses of polyethene.
3. What does the symbol in Figure 3.76 mean about a
substance?
4. What type of polymerisation reaction occurs in the
formation of a polyester? Explain. Fig 3.76
5. List 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of the use of plastics.

6. A battery case must be hard and
resistant to corrosion by
sulphuric acid which is battery
acid. LDPE, HDPE,
polypropylene (PP) and
polyvinylchloride (PVC) are all
addition polymers that are
resistant to the sulphuric acid
used in lead acid batteries. The
apparatus shown in Figure 3.77
is used to compare the hardness
of samples of these different Fig 3.77: Apparatus for hardness test
polymers. The centre punch is
allowed to fall down the cardboard tube and make an indentation in the
polymer sample. The results of the investigation are recorded in the table.
Part 1 Part 2
Name of Polymer Depth of indentation Depth of indentation
(mm) at 20 °C (mm) at 40 °C
Low density polyethylene
4 7,1
(LDPE)
High density polyethylene
2,4 4,8
(HDPE)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 2,3 2,5
Polypropylene (PP) 1,9 2,1
a) State a suitable hypothesis for:

i) Part 1 of this experiment.
ii) Part 2 of this experiment
b) State, giving a reason for your answer, whether or not the results in the
table support your hypothesis to:
i) Part 1 of this experiment.
ii) Part 2 of this experiment

c) Identify two factors other than temperature that should be kept constant
throughout this investigation.
d) What can you deduce about the hardness of these addition polymers by
comparing the results to Part 1 and Part 2?
e) Why should the case of a car battery be tested at different temperatures?
7. The reaction shown in Figure 3.78
illustrates the overall reaction of the
monomer ethene to form the polymer,
polyethylene. This type of reaction is
known as addition polymerisation.
Fig 3.78
Define the terms monomer, polymer and
addition polymerisation as used above.
Extend yourself
1. Consider the organic compounds below, represented by their condensed/

molecular formulae:
a) Select one compound that contains a triple bond between two carbon
atoms. (1)
b) Select one compound that is an ester and draw its structural formula. (2)
c) Select an alkane with less than five carbon atoms in the molecules and write
down an equation for a substitution reaction of this alkane with HCl. (2)
2. Petrol with an octane rating of 98 is largely made up
of 2,2,4 – trimethylpentane. The structural formula of
2,2,4 – trimethylpentane is shown
in Figure 3.79.
a) Explain why 2,2,4 – trimethylpentane is called a
saturated hydrocarbon. (1)
b) It is given that 2,2,4 – trimethylpentane is an Fig 3.79
isomer of octane.
i) Explain what is meant by the term isomer. (1)
ii) Write down the condensed formula for another branched isomer of
octane and give its IUPAC name. (2)

The graph in Figure 3.80 relates the

boiling points of alkanes to the
number of carbon atoms in the
chain.
c) Referring to the graph,
describe the relationship
between the boiling point and
the number of carbon atoms in
molecules of the alkanes. (1)
d) Read off the approximate Fig 3.80
boiling point of petrol and use
the graph to estimate the value for the boiling point of diesel. (2)
e) Explain fully the above trend in terms of the relative strength of the
intermolecular forces between the molecules. (3)
3. Organic chemistry is the
study of carbon and the
chemistry of its associated
compounds. One of the
simplest ways of
representing this
chemistry is to draw
reaction pathways just
like the one that appears
below. Consider the
following sequence of
organic reactions and then
answer the questions that
follow. Reactions in
Figure 3.81 are labelled
from A to F while
molecules are labelled
from I to V.
a) What is meant by the
term ‘homologous series’?
(2)
Fig 3.81

b) Identify the homologous series to which the following molecules belong:
i) II
ii) III
iii) IV (3)
c) Name the types of reaction labelled A, C, D and E in the reaction sequence
provided.(4)
d) Consider reaction B. To form this molecule labelled IV, a reaction takes place
between molecule III and another molecule from a different homologous series.
i) Name the homologous series to which the other molecule belongs. (1)
To prepare molecule IV in the laboratory,
the two reactants are mixed together in a
test tube. A few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid are added and the test
tube is placed in a hot water bath and
then heated as shown in Figure 3.82.
ii) Why do you think the test tube must
be heated in a hot water bath and
not over an open Bunsen burner
flame? (2)
iii) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is often Fig 3.82
considered as a catalyst in this
reaction. Explain what is meant by the term catalyst. (2)
iv) Where, in everyday life, would molecules of this newly formed
substance most likely be found? (1)
e) There are TWO possible types of isomers of organic molecules that
have the molecular formula C4H8O2.
i) Explain what is meant by the term ‘isomer’. (1)
ii) Name the homologous series to which each of these isomers
belongs.(2)
iii) Each of these isomers has a distinctly different boiling point.
Explaining your answer fully, say which one would have the
higher boiling point. (3)
4. Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. The crude oil is separated into its
main fractions in a fractionating tower by a process called fractional distillation.
The fractions that are produced are illustrated in Figure 3.83:

Fig 3.83
A large proportion of the hydrocarbons in crude oil are alkanes. A number of

alkanes are given in the table below:
Alkane Boiling Point (°C)

Methane -164
Ethane -87
Propane -42
Butane 0
Pentane 36
Hexane 69
a) Is ethane a solid, liquid or gas at room temperature? (1)

b) Name the forces that exist between the hexane molecules at room
temperature.(2)
c) Describe the trend in boiling point that is evident from the data. (2)
d) Explain why this trend occurs with alkanes. (5)
Pentane is a compound that can be extracted from crude oil. It is used as a
raw material to make other chemicals. It can, for example, undergo a reaction
to form a halopentane which can be used in fire extinguishers. Pentane can react
with chlorine to form a mixture of trichloropentanes. A simple reaction might be:
C5H12 + Cl2 → C5H9Cl3 + HCl
e) Draw the structural formula for 1,2,2-trichloropentane. (3)

f) What type of reaction has taken place to form 1,2,2-trichloropentane?
g) Balance the equation. (4)
h) Is this reaction spontaneous? Explain. (2)
i) (i) When pentane undergoes combustion it reacts with oxygen to
form carbon dioxide and water. Can the combustion of pentane be
classified as a redox reaction? (1)
(ii) Explain the reasoning for your answer in (i). (2)
5. The petroleum industry takes a hydrocarbon mixture with long chain
molecules and subjects it to a
process called ‘cracking’. The
process breaks these longer chain
molecules into shorter chain
molecules. This process can be
demonstrated in the laboratory by
using the apparatus shown below.
Paraffin, which is the reactant, is a
mixture of alkanes. The apparatus
is used to ‘crack’ the alkanes in the
paraffin using aluminium oxide as
a catalyst, as shown in Figure 3.84. Fig 3.84
a) Is the gas produced soluble in water? Explain your answer. (2)
b) i) Can we use the term saturated when referring to an alkane? (1)
ii) Explain your answer to b)i). (2)
c) Are the forces between the molecules of the product likely to be weaker
or stronger than the forces between the molecules of the
reactant (paraffin)? Explain your answer. (3)
d) The gas produced is collected and a sample of the gas is bubbled
through a dilute solution of bromine.
i) Describe what you would observe when this occurs. (2)
ii) This test can be used to find out about the structure of a molecule.
What does it tell the chemist about the molecule’s structure? (2)
iii) Explain how the chemist is able to deduce this [5d)ii)] about the
structure.(4)
6. Large volumes of alcohol are produced annually worldwide. Some of this
production comes from fermentation processes and a portion of this alcohol
is used for alcoholic beverages. Most alcohol is produced from other sources
like natural gas and from petroleum. Ethanol production from this source is
not legally allowed to be sold for purposes of making alcoholic beverages.
a) State two possible reasons why industrial alcohol is mainly produced from
natural gas and petroleum. (2)

b) Is the ethanol produced by fermentation different from the ethanol

produced industrially? Explain your answer. (3)
Brazil is a model country for the production of alcohol from renewable
sugar cane. Most of the cars and trucks on the roads of Brazil run on
ethanol and not on petrol or diesel. People are divided as to whether the
ethanol from sugar cane is really a better option for the environment than
using petrol.
c) Argue, using scientific principles that ethanol from sugar cane is a better
fuel source than petrol for the environment. (4)
d) Ethanol can be used in a number of industries. One potential use of
ethanol is in the manufacture of fragrances by making esters.
During a science practical one of the tasks is the preparation of an ester.
You are expected to choose appropriate chemicals that may be used with
ethanol in a reaction to make the ester. The chemicals you may choose
from are: concentrated sulphuric acid, propanone, propanoic acid and
propanal. For the following question, write down the letter that
corresponds to the correct answer:
i) The function of the sulphuric acid in this reaction is to …
A oxidise the ethanol to form the free radical.
B reduce the ethanol to form the free radical.
C dehydrate the ethanol.
D catalyse the reaction. (2)
For the following question, write down the letter that corresponds to the
correct answer:
ii) The process involves …
A the ethanol losing –H and gaining propanone.
B the ethanol losing –H and gaining propanal.
C the formation of water.
D propanoic acid losing a CH3 fragment. (2)
iii) What would you observe at the end of this experiment? (2)
iv) Would you classify the ester as volatile at room temperature?
7. The extract below refers to ethanol as a fuel:
“Some claim that bio-ethanol is the magic bullet that will help slow and
possibly reverse global warming; the renewable energy source that allows us
all to carry on driving our cars while at the same time protecting the
environment.”
a) Explain why bio-ethanol is a renewable energy source. (1)

Read the following extract about the use of bio-ethanol. Answer the questions
that follow:
Brazil replaces petrol with ‘E85’

16 years ago Brazil was experiencing falling sugar cane prices, consequent
rising unemployment and rising oil prices. The country started manufacturing
ethanol from sugar cane and produced ‘E85’, a fuel mixture made up of 85%
ethanol and 15% petrol. They also manufactured the new ‘flexi-fuel’ cars that
can use ‘E85’ or petrol or a combination of both. ‘E85’ is cheaper than petrol.
While petrol cars can be converted to use ‘E85’ this is fairly expensive. One
consequence of ethanol’s great affinity for water was the need for petrol
stations and the infrastructure for the distribution of motor fuel to be
converted to handle ‘E85’. The increased production of sugar cane led to an
increased use of fertilizer, pesticides and water. Encouraged by the Brazil
experience, a US investigation estimated that if they produced ethanol from
corn they could produce about 10% of their motor fuel needs with only a
minimal impact on food production.
b) List positive and negative impacts of using petrol as a fuel. (5)

c) List positive and negative impacts of using bio-ethanol as a fuel. (5)
d) Which one would you recommend as a future energy source for
transport in South Africa? Substantiate your answer. (6)
[107]
Definitions
catenation the ability of an element to form long chains of its own atoms.
cracking the breaking up of large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller and more useful molecules
functional group an atom or a group of atoms that form the centre of chemical activity in the
molecule
homologous series a series of similar compounds which have the same functional group and
whose consecutive members differ by – CH2
hydrocarbon a compound made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms
isomers two or more compounds with the same molecular formula and different structural
formulae
macromolecule a molecule containing a very large number of atoms
monomer a substance with molecules that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a
polymer
polymer a substance that has a molecular structure built up from a large number of similar units
bonded together
saturated compound an organic compound is one in which all the carbon atoms are connected by
single bonds
unsaturated compound an organic compound that has double or triple covalent bonds between
adjacent carbon atoms

Summary
Homologous
Functional group General Formula Naming
Series
–
Alkanes –C – C– CnH2n+2 -ane
–
Alkenes C=C CnH2n -ene
Alkynes –C ≡ C– CnH2n–2 -yne
chloro-ane,
-
Haloalkanes -C-X (X=Cl, Br etc) CnH2n+1X
bromo-ane
-
–
Alcohols –C–O–H CnH2n+1OH -anol
–
O
–
Carboxylic Acids –C–C= CnH2n+1COOH -anoic acid

O–H
–
–
O
=
–
Esters RCOOR’ -yl -anoate

–C–O–C–
–
Aldehydes C=O RCHO -anal
O
=
Ketones RCOR’ -anone

R – C – R1
• The general equation for the combustion of alkanes is:

alkane + O2→ CO2 + H2O (ΔH<0)
• Esters are compounds which form as a result of a reaction between a carboxylic
acid and an alcohol. The general equation for esterification reactions is:
• A substitution reaction is a chemical reaction in which an atom, ion, or group of

atoms or ions in a molecule is replaced by another atom, ion, or group.
Substitution reactions occur in saturated hydrocarbons, such as alkanes,
haloalkanes and alcohols.
• An addition reaction is a reaction where atoms are added to a molecule by the
breaking of a double or triple bond between the carbon atoms without the
removal of any atoms from the molecule. The new atoms are added to the two
carbon atoms on either side of the double or triple bond. Unsaturated
compounds such as alkenes and cycloalkenes undergo addition reactions to
form saturated compounds.

• An elimination reaction is a reaction where atoms or molecular fragments are
removed from adjacent atoms in a molecule leaving a double bond with nothing
being added. Saturated compounds undergo elimination reactions to form
unsaturated compounds.
• In addition polymerisation, thousands of unsaturated molecules join together
to form a single product molecule. Addition polymerisation reactions involve
alkenes that, under the right conditions, will combine to form a very long
polymer molecule.
• Condensation polymerization occurs when many of the molecules of two
different monomers react with the elimination of water molecules.

Topic
4 Work, energy and power
• Work
• The work-energy theorem
• Conservation of energy
• Power
The photograph on this page shows a skier moving down a slope. Energy transfer
takes place as he moves down the slope. Energy is an important concept both in
physics and in everyday life. Energy takes various forms. A massive truck travelling
along the highway at high speed has a large amount of kinetic energy, a water
reservoir above a dam has a large amount of gravitational potential energy and a
tank of petrol contains a large amount of chemical energy. Energy can be transferred
from object to object within a system but it is never created or destroyed. The total
amount of energy in the Universe is always constant.
In grade 10 you learnt about the conservation of mechanical energy when dissipative
forces, such as friction, are absent. In this topic you will learn how mechanical
energy of a body changes when dissipative forces are present. In the picture, the
skier’s mechanical energy is decreased by dissipative forces, such as friction.
Topic 4: Work, energy and power • 165

• Gravitational potential energy

The gravitational potential energy (Ep) of an object is defined as the energy it has because
of its position in the gravitational field relative to some reference level (Figure 4.1).
The gravitational potential energy of an object is found using:

In symbols: Where:
m = mass of the object, measured in kilograms (kg)
E = mgh
p
g = acceleration due to gravity, measured in metres per
second (m.s–1). On Earth g = 9,8 m.s–2.
h = vertical height of the object above some reference point,
measured in metres (m) Fig 4.1: The box possesses
gravitational potential energy
• Kinetic energy
due to its vertical height
Kinetic energy (Ek) is defined as the energy an object possesses due to its motion above the ground level.
(Figure 4.2).
The kinetic energy of an object is found using:

In symbols: Where:
E =  __12 mv2 m = the mass of the object, measured in kilograms (kg)
k
v = the speed of the object, measured in metres per seconds (m.s–1).

• Mechanical energy
The mechanical energy (Em) of an object is defined as the sum of its gravitational
potential energy (Ep) and kinetic energy (Ek).
In symbols:
E =Ep + E
m k
Energy is a scalar quantity and is measured in joules (J). Fig 4.2: If an object is moving,
• Law of conservation of energy it possesses kinetic energy.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
It can only be transferred from one body to another.
In the absence of air resistance or friction,
the mechanical energy (Em) of an object moving
in the Earth’s gravitational field is
constant (conserved).
In symbols:
Eki
+ Epi
= Ekf
+ Epf
Refer to Figure 4.3. Eki represents the initial Fig 4.3: The mechanical energy of an object is conserved when
+ Epi
mechanical energy of the skier at one point in its no dissipative forces act on it.
motion down the slope, and
Ekf
+ Epf represents the final mechanical energy of the skier at another point in its motion
in the Earth’s gravitational field.
166 • Topic 4: Work, energy and power

A cyclist is free-wheeling down a frictionless inclined plane, as shown

k
Chec
in Figure 4.4.
lf
myse
Fig 4.4: A cyclist free-wheels down an inclined plane.
The speed of the cyclist is 10 m.s–1 as she passes point A, which is 3 m above ground level.
The total mass of the cyclist and her bicycle is 80 kg. Calculate:
a) the mechanical energy of the cyclist and her bicycle at point A
b) the speed of the cyclist at point B (the bottom of the slope).

Work
Defining work
The word ‘work’ is used to mean many things in everyday language, for example “I’m
going to work today”, “I’ve done some work in the garden” and “I’ve done my
homework. In physics, however, the word work has a definite meaning.
If a constant force F acts on a body while it undergoes a displacement Δx, then the work
done (W) by this force is defined as:
In symbols: Where:
W = FΔxcosθ F = the magnitude of the force acting on the object. Force is

measured in Newtons (N)
Δx = the magnitude of the displacement of the object, measured in
metres (m)
W = the work done by the force F on the
object, measured in joules (J). Work is a
scalar quantity and therefore has
magnitude, but no direction
θ = the angle between the force (F) and the
displacement of the object (Δx).
Refer to Figure 4.5. Fig 4.5
What is the significance of calculating the work done on an object by a force?
Whenever work is done on an object by a force, energy is transferred from one object to
another object. This is how energy transfers take place within a system. The amount of
work done by a force is equal the energy transfer taking place.
In other words, work done = energy transferred.
Worked example:
a) Calculate the work done by a 100 N force
which acts at 20° to the horizontal. The
force displaces the object 3 m along a
horizontal frictionless surface.
b) How much energy is transferred to the
object by the 100 N force?
Solution: Fig 4.6: A force is applied to an object at 20° to the horizontal
a) W = FΔxcosθ
= (100)(3)cos20°
= + 281,9 J
b) The work done by a force on an object is equal to the energy transferred to the object.
The object thus gains 281,9 J of energy.
What is the significance of the positive (+) sign? This will be explained next.

Positive, zero and negative work

Positive work
Whether energy is transferred to an object, or removed from an object, depends on the
angle θ between the force and the direction of the displacement of the object.
In Figure 4.7, a 100 N force acts in the same direction as the displacement Δx; then the
angle θ is zero ( θ = 0° ) and cos θ = cos 0° = + 1
A calculation of work done on this object by the 100 N force should

produce a positive answer:
W = FΔxcosθ = (100)(3)cos0° = + 300 J
Fig 4.7: A force is applied to an object in the
direction of the displacement. Positive work is done on this object by the 100 N force.
Whenever positive work is done on
an object by a force, energy is
transferred to that object.
Positive work is done on an object
by a force when the angle θ is less
than 90°. Figures 4.8 and 4.9 show
an applied force F doing positive
work on the block of ice as it is
displaced to the right. In each
Fig 4.8: The boy does positive work 4.9: The boy does positive work on figure, θ is less than 90°.
on the ice, transferring energy to it. the ice, transferring energy to it.
Checkpoint 1
Refer to Figures 4.8 and 4.9. Suppose the person applies a force of 200 N
in the directions shown.
a) Calculate the work done on the block of ice by the 200 N force, if
the block is displaced by 5 m to the right in each case.
b) How much energy is transferred to the block of ice in each case?
Worked example:
Suppose we increase the angle θ between the force and the
displacement to 90° as shown in Figure 4.10. Suppose a 100 N normal
force acts on the object, which is moving to the right. The 100 N
normal force (N) acts perpendicular to the direction of the
Fig 4.10: A normal force (N) acts at displacement.
90o to the motion of an object along How much work is done by the 100 N normal force on the object?
a horizontal surface.
Solution:
cosθ = cos90° = 0
W = FΔxcosθ = NΔxcosθ = (100)(3)cos90° = 0
Zero work
Zero work is done on an object by a force that acts at 90° to the direction of its displacement.

Checkpoint 2
Figure 4.11 shows a girl carrying a school case. The girl’s arm remains in the
vertical position while she walks at a constant velocity with the case. How
much work is done by the applied force on the briefcase as she walks
horizontally?
Negative work
Negative work is done by a force which acts against the motion of that object.
To be more specific, negative work is done by a force when the angle θ is greater Fig 4.11: How much work is
than 90°. Whenever negative work is done by a force on an object, energy is done by the applied force on the
removed from that object and transferred to other forms of energy. The case?
following Worked example shows negative work being done.
Worked example:
Consider the situation when the angle θ between the
force and the displacement is greater than 90°. Suppose
the object in Figure 4.12 is moving to the right. A force of
100 N is applied at 30° to the horizontal against the
motion of the object. The angle θ between the force and
the displacement is now 150°.
a) Calculate the work done on the object by the 100 N
force. Fig 4.12: The force acts on an object at an angle of
30° to the horizontal against the motion of the object.
b) What is the meaning of the negative answer in
question (a)?
Solution:
a) W = FΔxcosθ = (100)(3)cos150° = − 259,8 J
Negative work is done on the object by the
100 N force.
b) 259,8 J of energy is removed from the object as it
moves to the right. Whenever negative work is done Fig 4.13: A force is applied to an object in the opposite
on an object, energy is removed from the object. direction to its displacement.
If the 100 N force acts in the opposite direction to the displacement as shown in Figure
4.13, then θ = 180°
and cos180°= − 1
W = FΔxcosθ = (100)(3)cos180° = − 300 J
Checkpoint 3
In Figure 4.14, an athlete attaches a small parachute to
increase the force of air resistance acting on her during
training. The athlete experiences an air resistance force of
80 N while she runs a distance of 30 m.
a) What is the angle θ between the force of air resistance
and the direction of the displacement of the athlete?
Fig 4.14: An athlete uses a parachute to increase
the air resistance force acting on her.
b) Calculate the work done on the athlete by the 80 N force.

c) Describe the energy transfers that are taking place during the athlete’s run.
Checkpoint 4
A 100 g apple is thrown vertically upwards and reaches a
height of 4 m, as shown in Figure 4.15.
a) Calculate the work done by the gravitational force
on the apple.
b) Describe the energy conversion taking place.
Fig 4.15: An apple in free fall

Exercise 4.1 after being thrown upward.
1. Decide whether or not work is done in each of the following examples:

a) A teacher applies a force to a wall (which does not move) and becomes
exhausted.
b) A book is bumped off a table and falls to the ground.
c) A waiter carries a full tray across a room. He holds the tray straight above
his head and moves at a constant speed.
d) A rocket accelerates through space.
2. a) A weight-lifter lifts a barbell through a vertical height of 2,5 m by applying
an upward force of 1 000 N. Calculate the work done by the 1 000 N force
on the barbell.
b) A soccer ball of mass 0,43 kg is dropped from a classroom window which is
10 m above the ground. Calculate the work done by the gravitational force
on the soccer ball as it falls to the ground.
c) An electric motor is used to lift a load of bricks through a vertical height of
20 m. The tension in the cable attached to the electric motor is 2000 N.
Calculate the work done by the electric motor on the bricks.
d) A learner pushes his bike with an average horizontal force of 20 N along a
straight 1 km road. Calculate the work done by the applied force on the bike.
3. Jake attempts to push his science teacher’s car
in order to start it, as shown in Figure 4.16.
Jake applies a horizontal force of 300 N on the
car, but the car doesn’t move.
a) How much work is done by Jake on the car?
Fig 4.16

b) Jake and his friend Siphiso now both push their teacher’s car.
i) Each learner exerts a horizontal force of 300 N on the car and the car
moves 5 m. Calculate the work done by the learners on the car.
ii) Describe the energy transfers taking place.
4. Draw a free-body diagram for each question below. Decide which force(s) are
doing work on the object and calculate the work done by these forces.
a) A 2 kg block is slides 5 m to the right at constant speed across a frictionless
surface.
b) A horizontal 30 N force is applied to a 2 kg block. The block is displaced
4 m to the right across a rough surface at constant speed.
5. A woman pulls a 200 kg roller across a cricket pitch with a force of 500 N at an
angle of 25° to the horizontal as shown in Figure 4.17. The roller experiences a
frictional force of 380 N as it is moved 20 m along the pitch.
a) Calculate the work done by the applied force on the
roller.
b) Calculate the work done by the woman against friction?
c) How much work is done by the gravitational force on
the roller? Explain your answer.
Fig 4.17: A woman pulls a roller across a

cricket pitch.
Net work done (Wnet)
Determining the net work done

Consider a car accelerating from rest to the left between two traffic lights which are 50 m
apart. Let’s suppose the car engine exerts an average forward force of 2 000 N and the car
experiences a frictional force of 800 N as shown in Figure 4.18.
Fig 4.18: A car accelerating to the left from rest.
Calculate the work done by each force using: W = FΔxcosθ

Work done on car by 2 000 N force (Figure 4.19):
W = FΔxcosθ = (2 000)(50)cos0° = + 100 000 J Fig 4.19: The force of the engine acts
Positive work is done on the car by the force of the engine. in the same direction as the car’s
displacement.

Work done on the car by the 800 N frictional force (Figure 4.20):
W = fΔxcosθ = (800)(50)cos180° = − 40 000 J
Negative work is done on the car by the frictional force.
To calculate the net work done (Wnet) on the car, we add the work done
by each force algebraically, since work is a scalar quantity.
Fig 4.20: Friction force acts in the
opposite direction to the car’s Wnet= ( + 100 000 J) + ( − 40 000 J) =  + 60 000 J
displacement.
The net work done on the car is positive.
Whenever positive net work is done on an object, the energy of the object will increase.
In this example, the kinetic energy of the car has increased by 60 000 J. Energy has been
transferred to the car from the engine.
Worked example:
Suppose the driver of the car applies the brakes over a distance of 20 m as he approaches
a red traffic light. The brakes exert a force (fB) of 2 200 N on the car as shown in
Figure 4.21.
Fig 4.21: The car brakes as it moves to the left.
a) Calculate the net work done on the car by these forces.

b) Describe the energy changes that are taking place.
c) We know that energy cannot be destroyed. What has happened to the kinetic energy
of the car?
Solution:
a) Work done on car by 800 N frictional force:
W = fΔxcosθ = (800)(20)cos180°= − 16 000 J
Work done on the car by the 2 200 N braking force:
W = fBxcosθ = (2 200)(20)cos180° = − 44 000 J
The net work done (W ) on the car by these forces:
net

W = ( − 16 000 J) + (− 44 000 J) = − 60 000 J
net
The net work done on the car is negative.
b) Whenever negative net work is done on an object, the energy of that object will
decrease. In this example, the kinetic energy of the car has decreased by 60 000 J.

c) The kinetic energy of the car has been dissipated to the surroundings
as other forms of energy such as heat, light and sound energy within the
braking system of the car. The work done by the resistive forces is equal to
the energy transferred to the surroundings. Figure 4.22 shows the brake
discs of a race car becoming red hot as the car brakes to slow down.
Worked example:
Refer to Figure 4.23. A boy drives his 3 kg remote-controlled car up a
4 m long plane which is inclined at 25° to the horizontal. The car’s motor
exerts an average forward force of 40 N. The car experiences a frictional Fig 4.22: Transfer of kinetic energy
force of 15 N as it moves up the inclined plane. Calculate the net work into heat energy during braking
done on the car.
Solution:
Firstly you need to identify all the forces acting on the car as
shown in Figure 4.24. You must also identify the angle
between each force and the direction of the displacement of
the car.
Calculate the work done on the car by each force:
Work done by the force of the motor (F) on the car:
W = FΔxcosθ = (40)(4)cos0° = + 160 J Fig 4.23: A remote-controlled car drives up an
inclined plane
Work done by the normal force (N) on the car:
W = NΔxcos90° = 0 J
Work done by the gravitational force (Fg) on the car:
W = FgΔx cos θ = mgΔxcosθ = (3 × 9,8)(4)cos115° = − 49,7 J
Work done by the frictional force (f) on the car:
W = fΔxcosθ = (15)(4)cos180˚ = − 60 J
To calculate the net work done (W ) on the car, add the work
net
done by each force:
Wnet= (+ 160 J) + (0) + (− 49,7 J) + (− 60)
= + 50,3 J
Wnet
Positive net work is done on the car. Fig 4.24: Forces acting on the car as it moves
up the inclined plane
Remember, whenever positive net work is done on an object,
the energy of the object will increase. The kinetic energy of the car
has increased by 50,3 J.
Checkpoint 5
In Figure 4.25, a truck of mass 2 000 kg free wheels down a 30 m
long inclined plane. The plane is inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
The truck experiences a constant frictional force of 5 500 N as it free
wheels down the inclined plane.
a) Draw a labelled free-body diagram of the forces acting on the
truck. Label any relevant angles.
Fig 4.25: A truck free-wheels down
b) Calculate the net work done on the truck. an inclined plane

Alternative method of determining net work done

Let’s reconsider the question in Checkpoint 5 and use an
alternative method to calculate the net work done on the truck.
Step 1:
Draw a force diagram showing only the forces that act along the
plane (Figure 4.26).
Ignore forces that act perpendicular to the plane because they do
zero work on the truck.
Step 2:
Fig 4.26: Only the forces acting on the truck
along the plane are considered. Calculate the net force acting on the truck parallel to the plane
(Figure 4.27).
Firstly we need to find the horizontal component (Fx) of the
weight (Fg):
The weight of the truck is: Fg = mg = (2 000)(9,8) = 19 600 N
Fx= Fgsinθ = (19 600)sin30°= 9 800 N
We are now in a position to calculate the net force (Fnet) acting on
the truck parallel to the plane. The net force is the vector sum of
the individual forces acting parallel to the plane:
Fnet = Fx + f
Make a choice of direction: Down the slope is chosen as the
positive direction.
Fnet = Fx + f
Fnet= (+ 9 800) + (− 5 500) = 4 300 N down the slope
Step 3:
Fig 4.27: A force diagram used to calculate
the component of the object’s weight (Fx) Calculate the work done on the truck by the net force (Fnet). This
parallel to the inclined plane. would be the net work done on the truck.
Δx = 30 m
W = FnetΔ
xcosθ = (4 300)(30)cos0° = + 129 000 J
Positive net work is done on the truck; therefore its kinetic energy will increase by 129 000 J.
Compare this answer to the answer you obtained in Checkpoint 5.

Summary of the two methods of determining the net work done (Wnet)
Method 1: Calculating the work done by each force
Step 1: Draw a force diagram of all the forces acting on the object.
Step 2: Determine the angle θ between each force and the direction of the displacement.
Step 3: Use W = FΔxcosθ to find the work done by each force.
Step 4: Add the work done by each force algebraically to determine the net work done.
Method 2: Calculating the net force acting on the object
Step 1: Draw a force diagram showing only the forces that act along the plane of motion.
Ignore forces that act perpendicular to the plane because they do zero work on the
Step 2:
object.
Step 3: Calculate the net force (Fnet) acting on the object parallel to the plane.
Step 4: Calculate the work done on the object using the net force (Fnet): Wnet
= F
netΔ
xcosθ
Exercise 4.2
1. a) Write down the equation for the work done on an object by a force.
b) Give the meaning of each symbol in the
equation.
2. Explain the difference between positive and
negative work.
3. A horizontal force of 60 N is applied to a 5 kg Fig 4.28: The 60 N force acts on a block in the
wooden block which moves 2,5 m along a direction of its displacement.
frictionless horizontal surface, as shown in
Figure 4.28.
a) Which two other forces act on the wooden
block?
b) How much work is done by each of these
forces mentioned in (a)? Explain your
answer.
Fig 4.29: The 60 N force acts at 30° to the horizontal.
c) Calculate the work done by the 60 N force.
d) State the net work done on the wooden
block.
The 60 N force is now applied at an angle of 30° to
the horizontal and the wooden block is again moved
through 2,5 m, as shown in Figure 4.29.
e) Calculate the work done by the applied
force. Fig 4.30: The block experiences a frictional force as it is
moved over a rough surface.
The 60 N force is now applied at an angle of 30° to the
horizontal along a rough surface and the wooden block is again moved through 2,5 m.
The block experiences a frictional force of 15 N,

f) Calculate the work done by the frictional force.

g) Calculate the net work done on the wooden block.
h) What is the net work done on the block if the block was moved at constant
velocity? Explain your answer.
4. In Figure 4.31, an electric motor is used to raise a crate of mass 36 kg through a
vertical height of 8 m. The tension in the cable is 400 N.
a) Calculate the work done by the cable.
b) Calculate the work done by the gravitational force.
Fig 4.31: An electric motor c) Calculate the net work done on the crate.
is used to raise a crate.
5. A skier of mass 65 kg skis down a ski slope inclined at 30° to the horizontal, of
length 100 m, as shown in Figure 4.32. The force of friction between the skis and
the slope is 120 N.
a) Draw a free-body diagram of the forces acting on the
skier. Label any relevant angles.
b) Calculate the net work done on the skier.
c) The angle of the slope is now decreased to 20° (the
length of the slope is still 100 m). How will the
following quantities change? Explain your answer.
i) The work done on the skier by the friction force.
Fig 4.32: A skier skis down a slope inclined
ii) The work done on the skier by the gravitational force.
at 30° to the horizontal.
6. A car of mass 900 kg is driven up an inclined plane at constant velocity, as
a) Name the three forces that act on the car parallel to the
inclined plane.
b) What is the relationship between these three forces?
c) Which of the forces will do positive work?
Fig 4.33: A car is driven up a plane d) Which of the forces will do negative work?
inclined at 20° to the horizontal. e) What is the net work done on the car? Explain your answer.
Suppose the car now accelerates 80 m up the inclined plane. The car engine exerts a
forward force of 7 000 N and the car experiences a frictional force of 2 500 N.
f) Draw a free-body diagram of the forces acting on the car. Label any relevant
angles.
g) Calculate the net work done on the car.

The work-energy theorem
Deriving the work-energy theorem

Suppose a car of mass m is accelerating along a horizontal surface as shown in
Figure 4.34. The velocity of the car changes from an initial velocity (vi) to some final
velocity (vf). The displacement of the car is Δ x.
Fig 4.34: A car accelerates along a horizontal surface.
Follow the steps set out below which are used to derive the work-energy theorem:
Consider the following equation of motion: v  f  2= v  i  2+ 2aΔx
Rearrange:
v  f  2– v  i  2= 2aΔx (1)
Multiply equation (1) by  __12 m:  __12 mv  f  2 – __
  12 mv  i  2 = maΔx (2)
The left hand side of equation (2) represents the change in the kinetic energy of the car
(ΔEk)
Equation (2) becomes: ΔEk = maΔx (3)
According to Newton's second law: Fnet = ma
Equation (3) becomes: Ek= Fnet.Δx (4)
The right hand side of equation (4) represents the net work done (Wnet) on the car
ΔEk = Wnet
The work-energy theorem:

The net work done on an object is equal to the change in the object’s kinetic energy.
In symbols: Where:
Wnet = the net work done on the object, measured in joules (J).
Wnet
= ΔEk ΔEk = the change in kinetic energy of the object, ΔEk = Ekf
– Eki
,
measured in joules (J)

From the work-energy theorem:

• The net positive work done on an object will be equal to the increase in the kinetic
energy of the object.
• The net negative work done on an object will be equal to the decrease in kinetic
energy of the object.
Worked example:
A Formula 1 racing car of mass 640 kg is travelling at 30 m.s–1. It then accelerates in a
straight line down the main straight, as shown in Figure 4.35. The engine exerts an
average forward force of 12 000 N and the racing car experiences an average frictional
force of 3 000 N. Using the work-energy theorem, calculate the speed of the racing car
after it has travelled 30 m.
Fig 4.35: A Formula 1 racing car accelerates to the right.
Solution:
First calculate the net work done on the car (Wnet):
Work done by 12 000 N force: W = FΔxcosθ = (12 000)(30)cos0° = + 360 000 J
Work done by 3 000 N friction force: W = FΔxcosθ = (3 000)(30)cos180° = − 90 000 J
Find the net work done on the car by adding the work done by each force:
Wnet = ( + 360 000) + ( − 90 000) = + 270 000 J
The initial kinetic energy of car is: Eki=  __12 mv  2i  =  __12 (640)(30)2 = 288 000 J
Use the work-energy theorem to find the final kinetic energy of the racing car:
Wnet = ΔEk = Ekf – Eki

= Ekf
Wnet – Eki

270 000 = Ekf− 288 000

Ekf= 270 000 + 288 000
= 558 000 J
Ekf
  12 mv  f  2
Now calculate the final speed of the car: Ekf = __
1 (640)v    2
558 000 =  __
2 f
___________
f
 
(2)(558 000)
v= ___________

640
   = 41,76 m.s–1 √
Checkpoint 6
The same Formula 1 racing car travelling at 55 m.s–1 brakes before a corner and reduces
its speed to 20 m.s–1 over a distance of 60 m. Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the
net retarding force (friction and braking force) acting on the car.

Worked example:
A dynamics trolley of mass 2 kg is held at the top of
plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal, as shown in
Figure 4.36. The trolley is released and rolls down the
inclined plane while experiencing a constant
frictional force of 6 N. Use the work-energy theorem
to calculate the speed of the trolley after it has rolled
1,5 m down the inclined plane.
Solution:
Draw a force diagram to identify the forces doing
work on the trolley (Figure 4.37). The direction of the
displacement (Δx) is parallel to and down the plane. Fig 4.36: A trolley rolls from rest down an inclined plane
Calculate the work done by each of the forces acting on the trolley:
Work done by Fg on the trolley:
W=F
gΔxcosθ = mgΔxcosθ = (2 × 9,8)(1,5)cos6° = + 14,7 J
Work done by N on the trolley: W = NΔxcos90° = 0
Work done by f on the trolley:
W = fΔxcosθ = (6)(1,5)cos180°= − 9 J
Calculate the net work done on the trolley:
W = (+ 14,7) + (0) + (− 9) = + 5,7 J
net
Apply the work-energy theorem to find the answer:
= ΔEk= Ekf− Eki
Wnet
5,7 = E
kf− 0 (Trolley is released from rest; therefore its initial
kinetic energy is zero)
Ekf= 5,7 J Fig 4.37: The forces acting on the trolley
1 mv    2 as it rolls down the inclined plane
Ekf=  __
2 f
5,7 =  _12 (2)v  f  2
____
    vf= √5,7 
    vf= 2,39 m.s–1
Checkpoint 7
A 3 kg remote-controlled car is driven up a plane inclined at
25° to the horizontal, as shown in Figure 4.38. The car motor
exerts an average forward force of 60 N. The car experiences a
frictional force of 15 N as it moves up the inclined plane. The
speed of the car at the bottom of the inclined plane is 5 m.s–1.
Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the speed of the car
after it has travelled 4 m up the inclined plane.
Fig 4.38: A remote-controlled car is driven

up an inclined plane

Exercise 4.3
1. State the work-energy theorem in words and in the form of an equation.

2. A
fairground ride ends with the car moving up a ramp inclined at 30°
to the horizontal as shown in Figure 4.39. The car and its passengers
have a total mass of 720 kg and the frictional force acting on the car is
600 N.
a) Draw a labelled free-body diagram showing all the forces acting
on the car while the car moves up the ramp.
b) Show that the component of the weight acting parallel to the
slope is 3 528 N.
c) The car enters at the bottom of the ramp moving at 18 m s–1. Use
Fig 4.39: A fairground car the work-energy theorem to calculate the minimum length of the
moving up a ramp inclined at ramp needed for the car to stop before it reaches the end. The
length of the car should be neglected.
30° to the horizontal
3. In Figure 4.40, a person skis down a 20 m long snow

slope which makes an angle of 25° with the horizontal.
The total mass of the skier and skis is 50 kg. A constant
frictional force of 60 N opposes the skier’s motion. The
speed of the skier descending from the top of the slope
is 2,5 m.s–1.
a) Calculate the magnitude of the net force parallel
to the slope experienced by the skier.
Fig 4.40: A person skis down a slope inclined at b) Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the
25° to the horizontal. maximum speed of the skier at the bottom of the
20 m long slope.
4. A gymnast jumps vertically upward from a trampoline,

as shown in Figure 4.41. The gymnast leaves the
trampoline at a height of 1,3 m and reaches a
maximum height of 5 m. Ignore the effects air
resistance.
a) Write down the work-energy theorem.
b) Calculate the initial speed with which the
gymnast leaves the trampoline.
Fig 4.41: A gymnast jumps on a trampoline

5. In Figure 4.42, a 75 kg skateboarder skates down
a slope while experiencing a frictional force of
60 N. The slope forms an angle of 25° with the
horizontal. The skateboarder covers a distance of
36 m before reaching the end of the slope.
a) Draw a labelled free-body diagram of all the
forces acting on the skateboarder, at the top
of the slope.
b) Calculate the net force that acts on the
skateboarder as he moves down the slope
c) Calculate the work done by the net force, as Fig 4.42: A skateboarder skates down a slope inclined
the skateboarder moves 36 m down the slope. at 25° to the horizontal.
d) Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the initial velocity of the

skateboarder near the top of the slope.
6. In Figure 4.43, a 3 kg block
slides at a constant velocity
of 7 m.s–1 along a horizontal
surface. It then strikes a
rough surface, causing it to
experience a constant
frictional force of 30 N. The
block slides 2 m under the
influence of this frictional
force before it moves up a Fig 4.43: A block moves horizontally and then up a slope.
frictionless ramp inclined at
an angle of 20° to the horizontal, as shown.
a) Use the work-energy theorem to show by calculation that the speed of the
block at the bottom of the ramp is 3 m.s–1.
b) Draw a free-body diagram to show the forces acting on the block while the
block is sliding up the ramp. Label any relevant angles.
c) Calculate the distance (d) that the block slides up the ramp before coming
to rest.
7. A crate of mass 70 kg slides down a rough incline that makes
an angle of 20° with the horizontal, as shown in Figure 4.44.
The crate experiences a constant frictional force of
magnitude 190 N during its motion down the incline. The
forces acting on the crate are represented by R, S and T.
a) Give a reason why force R does zero work on the crate.
b) The crate passes point A at a speed of 2 m.s-1 and moves a
distance of 12 m before reaching point B lower down on
the incline.
Fig 4.44: A crate slides down a plane
i) Calculate the net work done on the crate during its inclined at 20° to the horizontal.
motion from point A to point B.
ii) Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the speed of the crate at point B.

Conservation of energy
Conservation of energy when non-conservative

forces are present
Conservative forces
The following discussion is used to help you
understand what is meant by a conservative force.
Consider a ball of mass 1 kg, thrown vertically
upwards. The ball reaches its maximum height of 2 m
and falls back down to the point from which it was
released as shown in Figure 4.45.
If we ignore the effect of air resistance, then the only
force acting on the ball during its path is the
gravitational force (Fg).
The ball moves through a closed path, beginning and
ending at the throwers hand. Once the ball has left the
thrower’s hand, work is done on the ball by the
gravitational force during the entire path of the ball.
The work done during the upward part of the motion of
the ball is given by:
W = FgΔx cos θ = mgΔxcosθ = (1)(9,8)(2)cos180° = − 19,6 J
Negative work is done on the ball by the gravitational
force (– 19,6 J). All of the kinetic energy of the ball at its
point of release is transferred into gravitational
Fig 4.45: A ball is thrown upwards, reaching it potential energy, when the ball reaches its maximum
maximum height (h) and returns to the point of height.
release. The gravitational force acts on the ball
throughout its motion. The work done during the downward part of the
motion of the ball is given by:
W = Fg Δxcosθ = mgΔxcosθ = (1)(9,8)(2)cos0° = + 19,6 J
Positive work is done on the ball by the gravitational force (+19,6 J). All of the
gravitational potential energy of the ball at it maximum height, is transferred into kinetic
energy, when the ball returns to its point of release.
The net work (Wnet) done by the gravitational force on the ball during its closed path is
zero: Wnet
= − 19,6 + 19,6 = 0
A force is a conservative force if the net work done by the force is zero, while moving an
object around a closed path, starting and ending at the same point.
The gravitational force is common example of a conservative force. Whenever work is
done by the gravitational force, one form of mechanical energy (e.g. Ek) is transferred into
another form of mechanical energy (e.g. Ep). In other words, the total mechanical energy
of the ball is conserved. This means that the ball neither gains nor loses mechanical
energy during its motion.

The total mechanical energy of an object is conserved, only when conservative forces are
present. The total mechanical energy of the ball is therefore the same (is conserved) at all
points during its path. If points 1 and 2 represent any two points in the path of the ball,
then the mechanical energy at point 1 is equal to the mechanical energy at point 2:
Ek + Ep = Ek + Ep
1 1 2 2
Would the net work done by the gravitational force still be zero if the ball was thrown
higher? Yes! Can you see why?
We say that the net work done by a conservative force does not depend on the path over
which the force acts. In other words, the net work done by a conservative force is
independent of the path taken.
Non-conservative forces
Friction is the most common non-conservative force. The following discussion is used to
help you understand what is meant by a non-conservative force.
Consider a ball which is rolled up a rough inclined plane as shown in Figure 4.46. The
ball rolls from point A up the slope, reaching point B and then rolls back down to point A.
The ball completes a closed path, beginning and ending at point A. A frictional force (f)
acts on the ball throughout its closed path.
Suppose that ball experiences a frictional force of 30 N and the ball moves 5 m along the
inclined plane.
What is the net work done on the ball by friction as the ball moves through a closed path
starting and ending at point A?
At all times friction opposes the
motion of the ball (opposite to the
direction of the displacement).
Consider Figure 4.46.
The work done by friction as the ball
moves from A to B is:
W = fΔxcosθ = (30)(5)cos180°= − 150 J
The ball now rolls down the slope as Fig 4.46:The ball is rolled up the inclined plane.
shown in Figure 4.47. Friction now
acts up the slope, opposite to the
direction of the displacement of
the ball.
Fig 4.47: The ball is rolling down the inclined plane.

The work done by friction as the ball moves from B back to point A is:
W = fΔxcosθ = (30)(5)cos180° = − 150 N
The net work done by friction is then: Wnet
= (− 150) + (− 150) = − 300 J
Clearly, the net work done by friction is not zero as the ball moves through a closed path.
Friction is therefore a non-conservative force.
300 J of negative work is done by the frictional force as the ball moves through a closed
path. What does this mean?
The work done by the non-conservative force (friction) will transfer 300 J of the balls
mechanical energy to the surroundings.
The total energy of the system is still conserved. However, the mechanical energy of the
ball is not conserved. Friction is known as a dissipative force. Dissipative forces convert
mechanical energy into heat and other forms of energy.
The net work done by friction depends on the path taken by the ball. If the ball was made
to move further along the inclined plane before it returned to point A, the net negative
work done by friction would increase because the frictional force would act over a longer
distance. We say that the net work done by a non-conservative force is dependent on the
path over which the force acts.
Applied forces are also non-conservative. If an applied force acts in the direction of a
body’s motion, then it does positive work on the body, increasing its mechanical energy.
If an applied force acts in the direction opposite to a body’s motion, then it does negative
work on the body, decreasing its mechanical energy. In both these cases, the body’s
mechanical energy is not conserved, showing that an applied force is non-conservative.
For the same reasons, the tension in a rope or cable is also a non-conservative force.
Summary so far:
1. If a conservative force is the only force acting on an object during its motion, then the
mechanical energy of the object is conserved (remains constant).
2. The gravitational force is a conservative force.
3. If non-conservative forces act on an object, then the mechanical energy of that
object will not be conserved.
4. Friction will transfer some of the mechanical energy of the object into heat
(thermal) energy.

Work done by non-conservative forces
The work done by a non-conservative force is represented as Wnc.
Suppose a trolley rolls down a slope from point A to point B as shown in Figure 4.48.
If friction acts on the trolley, then negative work done is done by the non-conservative
force (Wnc) and some of the mechanical energy of the trolley is
dissipated to the surroundings.
This means that the initial mechanical energy of the trolley at
A is greater than the final mechanical energy of the trolley at B:
Eki + Epi > Ekf + Epf
To obey the law of conservation of energy, we need to
include the work done by the non-conservative force Wnc
(friction):
Eki +Epi = Ekf
+ Epf
– Wnc
(1)
Equation (1) represents the conservation of the total energy
within this system.
If we solve for Wnc we get: Fig 4.48: A trolley rolls down a slope.
Wnc
= Ekf
– Eki
+ Epf
– Epi
(2)
But Ekf
− E
ki represents the change in the kinetic energy of the trolley (ΔEk), and
Epf – Epi
represents the change in the gravitational potential energy of the trolley (ΔEp).
So equation (2) becomes: Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp
This is another form of the work-energy theorem. We can state this equation in words as:
The work done by all non-conservative forces equals the change in the total mechanical
energy of the system.
If there no non-conservative forces present, then Wnc = 0 and equation (1) becomes:
+ Epi
Eki = Ekf + Epf

This means that mechanical energy is conserved when non-conservative forces are
not present.
Worked example:
Figure 4.49 shows a 70 kg skateboarder who
skates down a slope while experiencing a
frictional force of 190 N. The slope forms an angle
of 30° with the horizontal. The skateboarder
covers a distance of 10 m between points A and B.
The speed of the skateboarder at point A is 6 m.s–1
a) Calculate the gravitational potential energy
of the skateboarder at point A.
b) Calculate the speed of the skateboarder at
point B, the bottom of the slope.
Fig 4.49: A skateboarder skates down an inclined plane.

Solution:
a) We need to use a trigonometric function to calculate the vertical height h of A above B:
opposite h  
sin30° = __________
    =  ___
hypotenuse 10
h = 10 sin30° = 5 m

EpA= mgh = (75)(9,8)(5) = 3430 J
b) The mechanical energy of the skateboarder will not be conserved! This is because
friction is a non-conservative force. The work done by the non-conservative force
(Wnc) will be equal to the change in the mechanical energy of the skateboarder.
Wnc
= ΔEk + ΔEp
From point A to point B, work is done by the frictional force:
= FΔxcosθ = (190)(10)cos180°= − 1900 J
Wnc
Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy (ΔEp):
At point A: EpA= 3 430 J
At point B: EpB= 0
ΔEp = Epf− Epi= 0 − 3 430 = − 3 430 J
Calculate the change in kinetic energy (ΔEk):
  12 mv  A2 =  __12 (70)(6)2 = 1260 J
At point A: EkA = __
1 (70)v    2= 35v    2
  12 mv    2=  __
At point B: EkB = __
B 2 B B
ΔEk = Ekf – Eki = 35v  2   − 1 260
B
The work done by the non-conservative force (Wnc) will be equal to the change in the
mechanical energy of the skateboarder.

Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp
− 1900 = (35v     2  − 1260 )+ (− 3430 )
B
− 1900 = 35v     2  − 1260 − 3430
B
2790 = 35v     2 
B
______

vB   2790
= _____    √
35
= 8,93 m.s–1
vB
Checkpoint 8
Nthabiseng, a cyclist, is free-
wheeling (moving without
peddling) along a horizontal
surface at a constant speed of
10 m.s–1. She reaches the bottom
of a ramp (position A) that has a
Fig 4.50: A cyclist free-wheels up an inclined plane. height of 1,2 m and a length of
8 m, as shown in Figure 4.50.

While free-wheeling up the ramp, she experiences a frictional force of 18 N. The total
mass of the cyclist and bicycle is 55 kg.
a) Explain whether Nthabiseng’s mechanical energy is conserved or not as she moves
from position A to position B.
b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the cyclist at position A.
c) Calculate the kinetic energy of the cyclist at the top of the ramp (position B).
d) Calculate the speed of the cyclist at B.
In summary:
• The mechanical energy of an object is conserved when only conservative forces are
present in the system (e.g. the gravitational force): Ek i + Ep i = Ek f + Ep f
• The mechanical energy of a object is not conserved when non-conservative forces are
present in the system (e.g. friction, air resistance, applied forces and tension). The
work done by these non-conservative forces (Wnc) is equal to the change in the total
mechanical energy of the system: Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp
Science around us
The bow and arrow
Early hunter gatherers used a bow and arrow to kill animals
for food. The bow stores elastic potential energy when the
arrow is pulled backwards. Work is done by the bow when
released. The positive work done by the bow is transferred
into kinetic energy of the arrow. Energy would be dissipated
to the surroundings when negative work is done by friction as
the arrow slides past the bow and while it moves through the Fig 4.51: Using a bow and arrow
air. The arrows surface had to be as smooth as possible to for hunting
minimise this frictional force.
Exercise 4.4
1. State the law of conservation of energy.

2. Define a conservative force and give an example of such a force.
3. a) Give three examples of non-conservative forces.
b) Explain why these forces are known as non-conservative forces.
4. A child of mass 38 kg slides from rest down a slide at the playground. The
height of the slide is 2 m. The speed of the child at the bottom of the slide
is 3 m.s–1.
a) Is the mechanical energy of the child conserved? Explain your answer.
b) Calculate the potential energy of the child at the top of the slide.
c) Calculate the work done by the frictional force.

5. Two 5 kg masses are lifted through a vertical height of 2 m by forces of

49 N and 70 N, as shown in Figure 4.52.
a) Calculate the work done by the applied force in each case.
b) Is the mechanical energy of each mass conserved? Explain your
answers.
c) Calculate the net work done on the mass in each case.
d) Calculate the speed of the 5 kg mass in case (ii) after it has been lifted
2 m from rest.
Fig 4.52
6. In Figure 4.53, a 10 000 kg truck travels up a straight inclined road of length
50 m at a constant speed of 20 km.h–1. The total work done
by the engine of the truck to get there is 1,52 × 106 J. The
work done to overcome friction is 1,85 × 105 J.
a) Calculate the height, h, reached by the truck at the
top of the road.
b) Calculate the frictional force acting on the truck.
Fig 4.53 c) Calculate the forward force of the engine.
7. A rock of mass 5 kg is pushed over the edge of a cliff which is 200 m high.
a) Ignore air resistance and calculate the speed of the rock at the bottom of the cliff.
In reality, air resistance cannot be ignored. The rock eventually reaches terminal
velocity of 30 m.s–1.
b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the rock at the bottom of the cliff.
c) Calculate the work done by air resistance.
d) Calculate the average force exerted by the air on the rock.
8. In Figure 4.54, a skier of mass 80 kg starts from rest at A. The down-slope is
curved but the up-slope is an inclined plane. The
curved down-slope is frictionless, but the inclined
plane is rough.
a) Describe the energy changes that take
place as the skier moves from A to C.
b) Calculate the potential energy of the
skier at B.
c) Calculate the speed of the skier at C.
d) The skier experiences a frictional force of
Fig 4.54 100 N as he moves up the inclined plane.
What is the greatest horizontal distance,
d, from C, that the skier reaches?

9. John applies a force, F, to help his friend in a wheelchair to
move up a ramp of length 10 m and a vertical height of 1,5 m, as
shown in Figure 4.55. The combined mass of his friend and the
wheelchair is 120 kg. The frictional force between the wheels of
the wheelchair and the surface of the ramp is 50 N. The
rotational effects of the wheelchair may be ignored. The
wheelchair moves up the ramp at constant velocity.
a) What is the magnitude of the net force acting on the
wheelchair as it moves up the ramp? Give a reason for
your answer. Fig 4.55
b) What is the net work done on the wheelchair on reaching the top of the ramp?
c) Calculate the magnitude of force F.
d) Calculate the work done on the wheelchair by force F.
10. In Figure 4.56, a dynamics trolley
of mass 1 kg moving at 3,5 m.s–1,
rolls from point X to Y along a
frictionless runway. The length of
the runway is 1,5 m. The vertical
height between points X and Y
is 0,5 m.
a) Is the mechanical energy of
the trolley conserved as it Fig 4.56
moves from X to Y?
b) Calculate the speed of the trolley at point Y.
c) Now suppose the surface XY is rough and the trolley experiences a constant
frictional force of 5 N as it moves from X to Y. Will the trolley reach point Y?
Justify your answer by means of a calculation.
11. A small brick of mass 700 g is projected vertically downwards at a velocity
of 1,25 m.s–1 from the top of a building of height 25 m. Ignore the effects of air
resistance.
a) Calculate the magnitude of the velocity at which the brick hits the ground.
b) On reaching the ground, the brick penetrates 10 cm into the ground before
it comes to rest. Calculate the:
i) net work done on the brick whilst penetrating the ground.
ii) magnitude of the frictional force exerted by the ground on the brick.

12. In Figure 4.57, a 10 kg

crate is pushed up an
inclined ramp with a
force of 150 N being
applied parallel to the
ramp. The ramp is
inclined at 35° to the
horizontal. The crate
experiences a constant
frictional force of 80 N.
Use energy principles
to find the speed of the
crate after it has moved
5,6 m along the ramp. Fig 4.57
13. In Figure 4.58, a 75 kg learner

jumps off a bridge 60 m above
the ground. She has a bungee
cord (a stretchable cord) tied
to her ankles. She falls 25 m
before the bungee cord
begins to stretch, slowing
down her fall. The cord
stretches for 20 m before
the jumper comes to rest.
Ignore air friction.
a) Using energy principles
only, calculate the kinetic
energy of the jumper
when she has fallen 25 m.
b) Calculate the work done
by the cord to bring her
to rest.
c) How much energy is
transferred from the
bungee jumper to
the cord?
d) Name the law or principle
used in (c).
e) Calculate the average
force exerted by the cord
on the jumper if the cord
stretches for 20 m before
she comes to rest.
Fig 4.58

Power
Define and calculate power

Besides knowing how much work is done, it is also valuable to know the rate at which
this work is done. Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. Power is a scalar
quantity and is measured in watts (W).
In symbols: Where:
P = power, measured in watts (W)
  W 
P = ___ W = the work done, measured in joules (J)
t
t = the time taken to do the work, measured in seconds (s)
1J
1 watt is 1 joule per second. 1 W = ___
    = 1 J.s–1
1s
1 kW = 1 000 W.
The following worked examples are used to introduce the concept of power:
Worked example:
Nanto and Simphiwe investigate the amount of work done in
running from rest up a 3 m high flight of stairs as shown in
Figure 4.59.
Nanto has a mass of 60 kg. She takes 10 seconds to reach the
top of the stairs. Her speed at the top of stairs is 3 m.s–1.
a) Calculate the work done by Nanto in climbing the stairs.
Solution:
The work done by Nanto will be equal to her change in
mechanical energy:
Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp
Nanto’s change in kinetic energy is calculated using:
ΔEk = Ekf – Eki
1 (60)(3)2 = 270 J Fig 4.59: Anita runs from rest up a 3m high
ΔEk = __  12 mv  f  2− 0 =  __ flight of stairs
2
Nanto’s change in gravitational potential energy is calculated using: ΔEp = Epf
– Epi

ΔEp = mgh − 0 = (60)(9,8)(3) = 1 764 J
The work done by Nanto in climbing the stairs is: Wnc
= ΔEk + ΔEp = 270 + 1 764 = 2 154 J
b) Nanto climbs the stairs in 10 s. Calculate her power output (the rate at which work is
done).
Solution:
2 154 J
Nonto does 2 154 J of work in 10 s:   W
P = __ ______
t =   10 s = 215,4 W
c) Simphiwe has a mass of 80 kg. He takes 15 seconds to reach the top of the stairs. His
speed when reaching the top of the stairs is 2 m.s-1.
Calculate Simphiwe’s power output.

Solution:
Simphiwe’s change in kinetic energy: ΔEk = _  12 mv  f  2− 0 =  _12 (80)(2)2 = 160 J
Simphiwe’s change in gravitational potential energy: ΔEp = mgh − 0 = (80)(9,8)(3) = 2 352 J
The work done by Simphiwe in climbing the stairs: Wnc
= ΔEk + ΔEp = 160 + 2 352 = 2 512 J
2 512 J
  W
Simphiwe does 2 512 J of work in 15 s: P = __ ______
t =   15 s = 167,5 W
Nanto does 215,4 J of work per second (215,4 W).
Simphiwe only does 167,5 J of work per second (167,5 W).
Nanto has the greater power output of the two leaners. In other words, she has the ability
to convert stored energy within the body into mechanical energy at a greater rate than
Simphiwe.
Worked example:
An Olympic sprinter of mass 75 kg is capable of reaching a speed of 10 m.s–1 from
rest in 3,5 s.
a) Calculate the gain in kinetic energy of the sprinter.
Solution:
The change in kinetic energy of the sprinter is found using: ΔEk = Ekf – Eki

ΔE =  _1 (75)(10)2 − 0 = 3 750 J
k 2
b) Calculate the average power output of the sprinter’s leg muscles.

Solution:
According to the work-energy theorem, the net work done by the sprinter is equal to
the change in their kinetic energy: Wnet
= ΔEk = 3 750 J
Fig 4.60: An 3 750 J
W =  ______
The power output of the sprinter: P =  __
t  = 1 071,4 W
Olympic sprinter 3,5 s
c) How would the power output of the sprinter change if he was to reach a speed of
10 m.s–1 in a shorter time interval? Explain your answer.
Solution:
The sprinter would do the same amount of work, but in less time. Power
output would increase if the time taken to do this work decreased. Power
is inversely proportional to time.
Checkpoint 9
In Figure 4.61, the engine of a 300 kg dragster exerts an average forward
force of 53 000 N over the first 20 m of its race. The dragster takes 0,8 s to
cover the first 20 m.
a) Calculate the work done by the engine.
Fig 4.61: A dragster has a
b) Calculate the power developed by the engine.
massive power output

Checkpoint 10
In Figure 4.62, a power lifter is able to lift a large weight through a vertical height of 1,5 m
in 3 s. The weight lifter applies an average upward force of
2 700 N. Calculate the power output of the weightlifter.
Science around us
Wind power
A wind turbine such as the one shown in
Figure 4.63 converts kinetic energy from the
wind into electrical and thermal energy with Fig 4.62: A power lifter
very little harm to the environment. The Sere lifts a weight
Wind Farm is under construction in the Western
Cape province of South Africa. When completed
it will consist of 50 wind turbines which will
generate 100 MW of electrical power, which
will be one of the largest wind-farms in
Southern Africa.
KERS
The acronym KERS stands for Kinetic Energy
Recovery System. It is a device installed in
Formula 1 racing cars which recovers the kinetic Fig 4.63: Wind turbines
energy that is present in the waste heat created generate electrical power.
by the car’s braking system. It stores that energy
and converts it into power that can be called upon later to boost acceleration. The
mechanical systems capture the braking energy and use it to spin a small flywheel
which can spin at up to 80 000 revolutions per minute. When extra power is
required, the flywheel is connected to the rear wheels. The mechanical energy does
not change form and therefore
the system is very efficient.
Supersonic car
The Thrust supersonic car
shown in Figure 4.64 became
the first car to officially break
the sound barrier when it
achieved a speed of
1 228 km.h–1. Its twin engines
developed a net thrust of
223 kN and a power output of
82 MW.
Fig 4.64: One of the most powerful cars ever built.

Exercise 4.5
1. Define power.
2. Define the watt.
3. When an athlete is performing press-ups, the average force applied by each arm
is 200 N.
a) Calculate the work done by his arms during one press-up, which raises his
shoulders 0,50 m above the ground.
b) If the athlete can do 16 press-ups per minute, calculate the total power
output of his arms.
4. A builder of mass 75 kg is carrying bricks up a flight of stairs. There are
40 steps, each 25 cm high and he takes 10 s to climb the stairs, carrying 15 kg of
bricks at a time. Calculate the total power output of the builder during his
climb at constant speed.
5. A small tractor is rated at 9 kW. The tractor pulls a log across the ground at
constant speed with a horizontal force of 300 N.
a) How long will it take the tractor to tow the log a distance of 850 m?
b) How would the time calculated in (a) change if a tractor with a greater
power output was used? Explain your answer.
6. The first practical car to use a gasoline engine was built in London in 1826. The
power generated by the engine was just 2 984 W. How much work can be done
by this engine in 20 s?
7. A 60 kg sprinter can accelerate from a standing start to a speed of 10 m.s–1 in 3 s.
What average power is generated by the athlete?
8. A girl pushes a 30 kg box with a horizontal force of 120 N along a horizontal
floor a distance of 3 m in 5 s. The force of friction between the box and the floor
is 20 N.
a) Calculate the power of the girl.
b) Calculate the rate at which energy is dissipated as heat.
9. A ride at Disneyworld moves from rest and reaches a speed of 27 m.s–1 in 2,8 s.
The mass of the ride and the riders is 5 000 kg. Calculate the average power
required to achieve this.
10. A 1 500 W winch is used to raise a load of bricks up through a vertical height of
30 m. If the bricks need to reach this height in 2 minutes, what is the maximum
allowable mass of a load of bricks?

Science around us
The Rickshaw
A rickshaw is a two wheeled cart that is driven by human
power (Figure 4.65). Positive work is done by the driver and
energy is transferred from stored chemical potential energy in
the body into mechanical energy of the entire system. Only
having two thin wheels would reduce friction and therefore
reduce the energy dissipated to the surroundings. Fig 4.65: A rickshaw
Recommended practical investigation for informal assessment
Aim: To determine the work done and power of a learner

You will need:
• Flight of stairs
• Stopwatch
• Meter stick or a 5 m tape measure
• Bathroom scale
Method: Fig 4.66: A flight of stairs of height h and length Δx
1. Work in pairs.
2. Use the metre stick to measure the vertical height of one step in the staircase.
Record this height.
3. Count the number of steps in the staircase and calculate the total vertical height
of the staircase (h). Record the total vertical height in m.
4. Measure and record the approximate length of the staircase (Δx) in m as shown
in Figure 4.66.
5. Using the bathroom scale, measure the mass of each volunteering learner in the
group. Record these masses.
6. Using the stopwatch, measure the time it takes for each volunteering learner in
the group to walk up to the top of the staircase from rest. Record these times.
7. Now measure the time it takes for each student to run up to the top of the
staircase from rest. Record these times.
Questions:
1. State the energy conversions that took place during your movement up the
stairs.(3)
2. Is the mechanical energy of each learner conserved during their movement
up the stairs? Justify your answer. (2)

3. Write down the height (h) of the staircase in m. (1)

4. Write down the approximate length of the staircase (Δx) in m. (1)
5. Copy and complete the following table: (10)
Average Change in
Change in
speed
Time taken kinetic energy gravitational Work
Name Mass (kg) walking potential done (J)
to walk (s) (J)
(m.s–1) energy (J) W = ΔEk + ΔEp
1 mv  2
ΔE =  __
 Δ x 
v = ___ k 2 av Δ
E
p = mgh
av Δt
Learner A
Learner B
6. Calculate the power of each learner when walking. (4)

7. Redraw and complete the following table: (10)
Average Change in Change in

speed kinetic kinetic Work
Time taken running energy (J) energy (J)
Name Mass (kg) done (J)
to run (s) (m.s–1) 1 m 1 m
ΔE =  __ ΔE =  __ W = ΔEk + ΔEp
k2 2 2
 Δ x 
k
v = ___ v  av v  av2
av Δt
Learner A
Learner B
8. Calculate the power of each learner when running. (4)

9. When did you do the most work? (Walking or running) (1)
10. When did you develop the greatest power? (Walking or running) (1)
11. Calculate the percentage of the work done that is converted into kinetic
energy when:
a) walking
b) running. (4)
12. Is all of the energy supplied by your body converted into mechanical
energy? If not, account for the missing energy. (3)
[44]

Average power
Suppose a car is moving at constant speed along a straight road. The car’s engine exerts a
forward force (F) on the car. The car also experiences a frictional force (f) in the opposite
direction. This is shown in Figure 4.67. In order for the car to be driven at constant speed,
the magnitude of the forward force (F) must equal the magnitude of the frictional force (f).
Fig 4.67: The force of the engine (F) is required to keep the car moving at constant
speed. The force of the engine is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
frictional force (f).
The average power required by the car’s engine to keep the car moving at constant speed
is given by:
In symbols: Where:
W = the work done by the forward force (F) of the car’s engine,
  W 
Pav = ___ measured in Joules (J).
t
t = the time for which the car maintains a constant speed,
measured in seconds (s).
(1)
The work done by the forward force (F) of the car’s engine is given by:
W = FΔxcosθ = FΔx (2)
Substituting equation (2) into equation (1), we get:
Pav = ____  FΔx
t (3)
But ___ Δx 
  Δx  represents the average speed (vav) of the car: vav=  ___
t t
Therefore, equation (3) becomes: Pav= Fvav
This means that the average power required to keep an object moving at constant speed is
found by multiplying the applied force (F) by the average speed (vav) of the object.
Worked example:
The motor cyclist in Figure 4.68 is travelling at a constant speed of
80 m.s–1 on a super bike. The engine produces a forward force of
1 800 N. Calculate the average power produced by the engine.
Solution:
The average power required to maintain a constant speed is given by:
Pav= Fvav
Pav= (1 800)(80) = 144 000 W Fig 4.68: A powerful super bike.

Worked example:
A locomotive engine of mass 20 000 kg, which has an output power of 175 kW, pulls
carriages of total mass 40 000 kg at a maximum speed of 55 m.s–1 along a straight level track.
a) Calculate the magnitude of the forward force of the train’s engine.
Solution:
The train is travelling at constant speed. The average power required by the engine to
maintain this constant speed is:

Pav = Fvav

175 000 W = F(55)
175 000
F =  _______
  = 3 181,8 N
55
b) Calculate the total resistive force opposing the motion.
Solution:
Since the train is moving at constant speed, the magnitude of the forward force of the
engine is equal to the magnitude of the frictional force experienced by the train. Therefore
the total resistive force is 3 181,8 N
c) The engine is switched off and the brakes are now applied. Calculate the power of
the braking system if the train is brought to rest in 36,4 s over a distance of 1 000 m.
Solution:
The only horizontal force acting on the train is the braking force (F), which acts in the
opposite direction to the displacement of the train. Calculate the work done by this
braking force, using the work-energy theorem:

Wnet = ΔEk

Wnet   12 mv  i 2= −  __12 (60 000)(55)2 = − 90 750 000 J
= Ekf− Eki= 0 − __
Negative work is done by the frictional force.
The power of the braking system is then found using:
P = __  W
t 
90 750 000 J
P =  ___________  
= 2 493 131 W = 2,5 MW
36,4 s
Checkpoint 11
On a straight, level road a cyclist with a power output of 95 W can cycle at a maximum
constant speed of 5 m.s–1. Calculate the total resistive force exerted on the cyclist.
So far we have considered the average power required to maintain a constant speed along
a rough horizontal surface. We will now consider objects moving at constant speed along
a rough inclined plane.

Worked example:
A cyclist rides up a rough inclined plane at a constant speed of
3 m.s–1, as shown in Figure 4.69. The combined mass of the cyclist
and bicycle is 90 kg. The cycle experiences a frictional force of 250 N.
Solution:
There are two forces acting down the slope (and parallel to the
slope):
The force of friction f = 250 N; and the horizontal component of the
weight, Fx
Fx= F
gcos20° = (90 × 9,8)sin20° = 301,7 N
The combined force down the slope is: F = 250 + 301,7 = 551,7 N
In order for the cyclist to maintain a constant speed up the slope, he Fig 4.69: A cyclist rides up a rough inclined
must exert an equal forward force of 551, 7 N up the slope. plane at constant speed
The average power of the cyclist is found using:
Pav = Fvav

= (551,7)(3) = 1 655,1 W
Pav
Checkpoint 12
A vehicle of mass 2 000 kg travels up a plane inclined at 25° to the horizontal, at a
constant speed of 8 m.s–1. The vehicle experiences a frictional force of 1 500 N.
a) Draw a fully labelled force diagram showing only the horizontal forces acting
parallel to the inclined plane.
b) Calculate the force exerted by the vehicles engine.
c) Calculate the average power developed by the car engine.
Exercise 4.6
1. Write down an equation that is used to calculate the average power required to
maintain a constant velocity along a rough surface. Give the meaning of each
symbol.
2. A car maintains a constant speed of 110 km.h–1 on a straight, level road. The
total resistive force acting on the car is 750N. Calculate:
a) the work done against friction over a distance of 10 km
b) the power output of the car.
3. Horses were once used to raise water from coal mines. Given that an average
horse can lift a load of 70 kg at a speed of 4 km.h–1. Calculate the power output
of such a horse.

4. On a straight, level road a cyclist with a power output of 90 W can cycle at a

maximum constant speed of 5 m.s–1. The combined mass of the cyclist and cycle
is 80kg.
a) Calculate the total resistive force exerted on the cyclist.
b) Assuming that the resistive force remains the same, calculate the
maximum speed the cyclist can maintain up a slope which is inclined at 15°
to the horizontal.
5. A 1 500 kg taxi travels 200 m while accelerating uniformly from 14 m.s–1 to
21 m.s–1. During the entire motion, the taxi experiences a frictional force of
295 N whilst travelling along a horizontal road.
a) Determine the maximum power required.
b) Determine the average power required to maintain a constant speed
of 21 m.s–1.
6. In Figure 4.70, a cyclist of total mass 85 kg
maintains a constant speed up an inclined
plane. The plane is inclined at 20° to the
horizontal. Her bicycle experiences a
constant frictional force of 120 N. The
cyclist covers a distance of 50 m along the
inclined plane in 20 s.
a) Draw a fully labelled force diagram
for this situation.
b) Calculate the work done by the
cyclist’s applied force.
Fig 4.70: A cyclist rides up an inclined plane at c) Calculate the change in gravitational
constant speed. potential energy of the cyclist.
d) Calculate the average power output
of the cyclist.
7. In Figure 4.71, a car of mass 1400 kg accelerates uniformly from rest to 25 m.s–1
along a level road. The car experiences an average frictional force of 3 500 N.
Fig 4.71: A car accelerates along a level road
a) Calculate the change in kinetic energy of the car in this process.

b) The distance travelled by the car during the acceleration is 130 m. Calculate:
i) The average net force acting on the car.
ii) The average forward force exerted by the car’s engine.
iii) The average power developed by the engine.

The car now travels at a constant speed of 25 m.s–1 up a road that makes an angle of
10° to horizontal as shown in Figure 4.72.
Fig 4.72: The car maintains a constant speed up an inclined plane
The car now experiences a frictional force of 3 000 N.

c) Calculate the average power output of the car’s engine required to maintain
this constant speed.
8. A car of mass 1 000 kg has a maximum power output of 195 kW.
a) What maximum constant speed could the car reach if it experienced a
frictional force of 3 920 N along a straight level road?
b) The car now travels up a plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal. Assume
that the frictional force acting on the car is now 3 400 N. Determine the
maximum constant speed reached by the car.
9. In Figure 4.73, a girl pushes a crate of mass 20 kg at constant speed of 2 m.s–1
along a rough horizontal surface. The power output of the woman is 160 W.
a) Calculate the woman’s applied force.
b) Determine the frictional force acting on
the crate.
c) The same woman now pushes the crate up a
plane inclined at 5° to the horizontal. The
frictional force acting on the crate is now
75 N. Calculate the maximum constant speed Fig 4.73
reached by the crate if the power output of
the woman remains unchanged.
10. Calculate the power output required by a 950 kg car in order to climb a slope at
a constant speed of 30 m.s–1 while encountering wind resistance and friction
totalling 600 N. The slope is inclined at 2° to the horizontal.

Power of an electric motor

In this lesson you learn how to calculate the power
of an electric motor which is used to pump water
out of a borehole. The borehole shown in Figure 4.74
is a narrow hole made into the ground to extract
underground water. An electric motor is used to
pump water up to the ground level.
The water will be pumped at a particular rate
through a vertical height h. The rate at which water
is pumped is often given in litres per minute
(L.min–1). For example, an electric motor is able to
pump water at 180 litres per minute. This means
that 180 litres of water is pumped to the ground
level every minute.
Fig 4.74: An electric motor is used to pump underground

water from a borehole.
Worked example:
Refer to Figure 4.73. Calculate the minimum power required of an electric motor to pump
water at a rate of 120 litres per minute from a depth of 12 m.
Solution:
Firstly you need to calculate the work done by the pump to raise 120 litres the water
through a vertical height of 12 m:
The upward force exerted by the pump is a non-conservative force. You learnt in Unit 4.3
that the work done by a non-conservative force is equal to the change in mechanical
energy of the water:
Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp
The electric motor pumps water at a constant rate, therefore the water will move through
the pipe at a constant speed. If there is no change in the speed of the water then its change
in kinetic energy is zero (ΔEk = 0)
This means that the work done by the electric motor is equal to the change in
gravitational potential energy of the water only:
Wnc = ΔEp
1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg.
Therefore 120 litres of water will have a mass of 120 kg.
Wnc
= ΔEp= mgh = (120)(9,8)(12) = 14 112 J
14 112 J of work will be done to raise 120 kg of water in 60 s, therefore the minimum
power required by the electric motor is:
W _______
14 112 J
P = ____
  tnc
 =    = 235,2 W
60 s

Check point 13
An electric motor drives a water pump which is submerged at the bottom of a borehole
that is 8 m deep.
a) Calculate the minimum power of the electric motor required to pump water at a
rate of 21 litres per minute.
b) Explain why this function would have to be performed by an electric motor with
a higher power rating than the one calculated in a)?
Science around us
Windmills (wind pumps)
Wind energy is an abundant resource in South Africa. Windmills
are used to pump underground water to the surface (wind
pumps) in arid regions (Figure 4.75). Many hundreds of
thousands of wind pumps have been installed throughout the
country which require very little maintenance and do not rely on
electric motors to perform their function. Fig 4.75: A windmill
Exercise 4.7
1. Calculate the minimum power output of an electric motor which is used to

pump water at a rate of 13,3 kg per second from a borehole 13 m deep.
2. A water pump rated at 2 kW is claimed to pump water from a borehole 30 m
deep at a rate of 50 litres per minute. Determine if this claim is reasonable.
3. In order to keep a ship from sinking, it is necessary to pump 5,5 litres of water
per second from a deck below up to a height of 2 m and over the side. What is
the minimum power of the motor that can be used to save the ship?
4. A pump lifts 200 kg of water per hour to a height of 5 m. What is the minimum
necessary power output rating of the pump?
Extend yourself
1. In Figure 4.76, a box of mass 60 kg starts from rest

at height h and slides down a rough slope of length
10 m, which makes an angle of 25° with the
horizontal. It undergoes a constant acceleration of
magnitude 2 m.s–2 while sliding down the slope.
a) State the work-energy theorem
in words. (2)
Fig 4.76: A box slides from rest down an

inclined plane

b) Draw a free-body diagram to show all the forces acting on the box while it
slides down the slope. (3)
c) The box reaches the bottom of the slope.
Calculate:
i) the kinetic energy of the box, using equations of motion (4)
ii) the work done on the box by the gravitational force. (3)
iii) the work done on the box by the frictional force, using the
work-energy theorem. (3)
iv) the magnitude of the frictional force acting on the box. (3)
2. Figure 4.77 shows a toy car of mass 0.3 kg moving along a horizontal surface.
It is travelling at 4 m.s–1 when it reaches the foot of a ramp inclined at 20° to the
horizontal. The car does not generate its own driving force while moving up
the ramp.
a) Calculate the kinetic energy of
the car at the instant it reaches
the foot of the ramp. (2)
b) The car rolls up the ramp until
it stops. Ignoring resistive
forces, calculate the vertical
height (h) through which
Fig 4.77 the car will have risen when
it stops. (3)
c) Is the mechanical energy of the car conserved as it moves up the ramp?
d) In practice the car only rises 75% of this theoretical value. Calculate the
energy dissipated by the resistive forces. (3)
e) Calculate the average resistive force acting on the car, parallel to the slope
of the ramp. (3)
f) On another occasion, the car travels up the ramp at a constant speed of
4 m.s–1. Calculate the average power of the car’s engine required to do this.
(4)
3. A car of mass 1 200 kg accelerates from rest along a straight, level road and
reaches a speed of 20 m.s–1 over a distance of 50 m. The car experiences an
average frictional force of 3 000 N.
a) Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the magnitude of the net force
acting on the car (4)
b) Calculate the power output of the car’s engine. (4)
c) Calculate the rate at which energy is dissipated through friction. (3)

4. A 60 kg skier moving at 12 m.s–1 coasts up
a 2,5 m high rise as shown in Figure 4.78.
The skier experiences a frictional force of
48 N between her skis and the snow.
Calculate her final speed at the top of
the slope. (6)
5. In Figure 4.79, a car of mass 750 kg is Fig 4.78

travelling at 110 km.h–1 when it reaches
the bottom of a ramp
inclined at 2,5°to the
horizontal. The engine
is disengaged as the car
enters the ramp and the
car free-wheels to a
height of 22 m.
a) How much thermal Fig 4.79
energy is generated by
friction?(6)
b) Calculate the magnitude of the average frictional force acting on the car. (3)
6. A train of mass 5,0 × 105 kg travels along a straight horizontal track at 60 m.s–1.
The motors are switched off. The train free-wheels to rest in 2,5 minutes without
using its brakes.
a) Calculate the magnitude of the retarding force acting on the train,
assuming it to be constant. (6)
b) On another occasion, the train is travelling at 60 m.s–1 along the same
track when the brakes are applied. It decelerates at 1,75 m.s–2.
Calculate the stopping distance. (4)
c) Calculate the power of the braking system of the train. (2)
7. An electric motor drives a water pump which is submerged at the bottom of
a 10 m deep borehole. Calculate the minimum power of the electric motor
required to pump water at a rate of 150 litres per minute. (4)
[78]

Definitions
average power required to keep a car moving at constant speed is given by:
  Wt
= __
Pav
gravitational potential energy (Ep) the energy an object has because of its position in the
gravitational field relative to some reference level:
Ep = mgh
Kinetic energy (Ek) the energy an object possesses as a result of its motion:
Ek=  __12 mv2
law of conservation of energy energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted
from one form to another.
mechanical enbergy the sum of the gravitational potential energy (Ep) and kinetic energy (Ek) of
an object:
E
m = E
p + E
k
net work (Wnet), is calculated by adding the positive and negative work done by each force.
conservative force the net work done by the force is zero, while moving an object around a closed
path, starting and ending at the same point.
non-conservative force the work done is equal to the change in the total mechanical energy of the
system:
Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp
Power the rate at which work is done:
  W 
P = ___
t
work-energy theorem the net work done on an object is equal to the change in the object’s kinetic
energy:
Wnet = E
kf – E
ki

Summary


Topic
5 Doppler effect
• The Doppler effect with sound and ultrasound:

• The Doppler effect with light
When a high speed motorbike like the one shown in this photograph passes a
stationary observer, a definite “EEEOOOOWWW” sound is heard. A similar sound
is heard when racecars, police cars and ambulances pass a stationary observer. The
reason for the distortion in sound is because of a phenomenon known as the
Doppler Effect. We will investigate the Doppler Effect in this topic.
Topic 5: Doppler effect • 211

In Grade 10, in the topics ‘Longitudinal waves’ and ‘Sound’, you learnt that sound is a
longitudinal wave. You also learnt that sound needs a material medium in order to be
propagated and that longitudinal waves occur as a result of the compression and
rarefaction of the particles of the medium.
1. Draw a diagram of a longitudinal wave. Include the following labels
k
Chec on your diagram:
lf
myse • compression
• rarefaction
2. Explain how sound is propagated from one point to another.
212 • Topic 5: Doppler effect

Doppler effect with sound and ultrasound
Explaining the Doppler effect with sound

The Doppler effect was named after Christian Doppler, who first came up with the idea
in 1842. He thought that the frequency of sound waves would change if there is relative
motion between a sound source and an observer. There are many everyday examples of
the Doppler effect. You will hear a change in sound when any object which is making a
sound moves relative to you, such as when a police car with its siren on passes you.
The Doppler Effect is the apparent change in the frequency of a wave when there is
relative motion between the source of the wave and an observer.
The pitch of a sound wave is related to the wave’s frequency. The frequency of a sound
wave is the number of wavefronts that pass a given point in one second. The higher the
frequency, the higher the pitch of the sound produced. The pitch of a sound is how high
or deep it sounds.
Let us first consider a stationary
train, shown in Figure 5.1. When
its whistle is sounding, a sound
wave is emitted in all directions.
The sound travels at the same
speed in all directions, and so
the distance between any two
successive compressions is the
same in all directions. An
observer therefore observes the
same frequency, and so hears the
same pitch, from the whistle, no
matter where they are standing
Fig 5.1: Sound waves emitted from a stationary object Next, consider the train that is
travelling to the right, as shown
in Figure 5.2. The compressions
in front of the train at position A
will be closer together than
when the train was at rest. This
is because the train is moving
towards the previously emitted
wavefront when the next
wavefront is sent. A stationary
observer in front of the train
will experience more wavefronts
arriving per second than when
the train was stationary. This
increased frequency of the wave
results in this observer hearing a
Fig 5.2: Sound waves emitted from a moving source higher pitched sound.

Lastly, consider the train that is travelling away from a stationary observer who is at
position B in Figure 5.2. The compressions behind the train will be further apart than
when it was at rest. This is because the train is moving away from the previously emitted
wavefront when the next wave front is sent. An observer behind the train will experience
fewer wavefronts arriving per second than when the train was stationary. This decreased
frequency of the wave results in this observer hearing a deeper pitched sound.
Checkpoint 1
1. What is the Doppler effect?
2. How will the sound’s wavelength change and how will an observer hear the sound’s
frequency change when a sound’s source moves:
a) towards the observer? b) away from the observer?
Recommended demonstration
Aim: To demonstrate the Doppler effect

You will need:
• Tuning fork
• String
Method:
The teacher demonstrates.
1. attach the tuning fork to a piece of string about 1 m long.
2. strike the tuning fork to activate its sound and then circle the tuning fork above
the head in a horizontal circle.
Results:
Record your observations.
Calculations involving the Doppler Effect

The frequency that the observer hears depends on the actual frequency of the source and
the relative velocities of the sound source and the observer. We can use the following
equation to calculate the frequency heard by the observer:
In symbols: Where:
fL = frequency heard by observer (listener), measured in Hertz (Hz)
(
v±v
fL = ______ )
  v ± vL   fS
S fS = frequency of source (Hz), measured in Hertz
−1
v = speed of sound in medium, measured in metres per second (m.s )
−1
vL= speed of observer (listener), measured in metres per second (m.s )
−1
vS= speed of source, measured in metres per second (m.s )

Using the plus (+) or minus (–) signs depends on the relative motions of the source and
observer. If the relative motion of the source and observer is towards one another,
use the equation:
(v+v
fL = ______ )
  v – vL  fS
s
If the relative motion of the source and observer is away from one another,
use the equation:
( )
v–v
fL = _____
  v + vL   fS
S
Worked examples:
In all these worked examples, take the speed of sound in air to be 340 m.s–1.
1. The siren of an ambulance emits waves at a frequency of 250 Hz. Determine the
frequency of the sound heard by a stationary observer if the ambulance is moving:
a) towards the observer at 25 m.s–1
Solution:
If the observer is stationary, vLis zero. Because the relative motion of the source and
observer is towards one another, we will use the equation:
( v+v
fL = ______
  v − vL  fS
S
)
f = ?
L
( )
v±v
fL = ______
  v ± vL  fS
S
= (______
  v – v )f
f = 250 Hz v+v L
S fL  
–1 S S
v = 340 m.s
–1
v = 0 m.s
(
fL = ________
340 − 25 )
  340 + 0    250
L
–1 fL= 269,84 Hz
v = 25 m.s
S
b) away from the observer at 25 m.s–1.

Solution:
Since the relative motion of the source and observer is away from one another
use the equation:
( )
v−v
fL = ______
  v + vL  fS
S
fL= ? ( )
v±v
fL = ______
  v ± vL  fS
S
= (______
  v + v )f
fS= 250 Hz v−v L
fL   S
–1 S
v = 340 m.s
–1
vL= 0 m.s (
  340 − 0    250
fL = ________
340 + 25 )
–1 fL = 232,88 Hz
vS= 25 m.s

2. A police car is travelling at 30 m.s–1 towards a stationary observer. The frequency of the
sound heard by the observer is 384 Hz. What is the frequency of the police car’s siren?
Solution:
Since the relative motion of the source and observer is towards one another,
use the equation:
v+v
fL = ______ ( )
  v – vL  fS
S
= (______
  v ± v )f
v±v L

fL = 384 Hz fL   S
S
= (______
  v – v )f
fS = ?
v+v L
fL  
S S
v = 340 m.s–1

vL= 0 m.s–1

(
  340 + 0    fS
384 = ________
340 − 30 )

vS = 30 m.s–1
fS = 384________(
  340 −   
340
30
)
fS = 350,12 Hz
3. An ambulance is in attendance at an accident scene. The ambulance is stationary and its

siren is emitting a sound of frequency 280 Hz. A police car is travelling towards the accident
scene at 27 m.s–1. What is the frequency of the sound heard by the police car driver?
Solution:
If the source is stationary, vSis zero. Since the relative motion of the source and
observer is towards one another, use the equation:
( )
v+v
fL = ______
  v – vL  fS
S
= (______
  v ± v ) f
fL = ? v±v L
fL   S
S
fS= 280 Hz
= (______
  v – v )f
v+v L
–1 fL  
v = 340 m.s S S
–1
v L= 27 m.s (
  340 + 27   280
fL = ________
340 − 0 )
–1
v S = 0 m.s fL = 302,24 Hz
4. A school bell rings with an unknown frequency. A car drives away from the school
and the frequency heard by a passenger in the car is 0,96 times that of the frequency
of the bell. What is the speed of the car as it drives away?
Solution:
Since the relative motion of the source and observer is away from one another, use
the equation:
( )
v–v
fL = _____
  v + vL   fS
S
f = (______
  v ± v )f
fL = 0,96x
v±v L
L   S
S

fS = x
f = (_____
v–v L
  v + v )f
L    S
v = 340 m.s–1
S
0,96x = (________
340 + 0 )
340 − v L

vL= ?      x

vS = 0 m.s–1
(0,96x)(340) = (340 − vL)(x)
326,4 = 340 − vL
–1
v L= 13,6 m.s
Checkpoint 2
1. A police car races towards an accident scene at 20 m.s–1. The siren emits a sound of
frequency 680 Hz. What is the frequency of the sound that people at the accident
scene will hear from the siren?
2. A factory siren emits a sound of frequency 350 Hz. While a car drives away from the
factory the driver hears the siren’s frequency as 334 Hz. What is the car’s speed?
Application of the Doppler effect (ultrasound)

in medicine
The Doppler flow meter in Figure 5.3 uses the Doppler
effect to measure the velocity of blood flowing through a
person’s blood vessels. The transmitter sends out a sound
that is reflected off a moving red blood cell. The reflected
sound has a different frequency to the incident
(incoming) sound because the blood cells are moving.
This difference in frequency enables us to find the blood’s
velocity. This is important because a high blood velocity
may show that blood vessels have narrowed, increasing
the pressure exerted on the blood, and so increasing its
velocity. A narrowed
blood vessel may be
Fig 5.3: A Doppler flow meter measures the an early warning
speed of blood through the blood vessel. sign of a stroke or
heart-attack.
The machine in Figure 5.3 uses ultrasound.
Ultrasound is sound with a frequency higher than
20 000 Hz. This is higher than the human ear can
hear. Ultrasound can be used to scan a human foetus
(unborn baby), as shown in Figure 5.4. There is no
evidence to suggest that ultrasound is harmful to the Fig 5.4: An ultrasound machine
foetus at all. scans a human foetus.
Exercise 5.1
The speed of sound in air is 340 m.s–1.

1. The siren of a train emits waves of frequency 300 Hz. Determine the frequency
of the sound heard by a stationary observer if the train is moving:
2. The siren of a police car emits waves of frequency 275 Hz. Determine the
frequency of the sound heard by a stationary observer if the police car is
moving:

3. A flying bat emits squeaks of frequency 80 kHz. If a stationary observer hears
the frequency of the squeaks as 78 kHz, is the bat moving towards or away from
the observer? Determine the speed at which the bat is flying.
4. The siren of a police car emits waves of frequency 425 Hz. The police car is
stationary. Determine the frequency of the sound heard by the observer if the
observer is moving:
a) towards the police car at 6 m.s–1
b) away from the police car at 8 m.s–1.
5. A siren at a fire station emits sound of frequency 850 Hz. What frequency will
the driver of a car hear if he is travelling towards the fire station at 60 km.h–1?
(Hint: convert 60 km.h–1 to m.s–1).
6. The speed of blood in the aorta can be determined
using a blood flow meter, as shown in Figure 5.5.
a) Do the reflected sound waves have a higher,
lower or the same frequency as the incident
waves? Explain.
b) This blood flow meter uses ultrasound waves
of frequency 3 500 Hz. The speed of sound in
human tissue is taken as 15,4 m.s–1. What
frequency will the receiver detect if the blood
flows through the aorta at 2 cm.s–1? Fig 5.5

The Doppler effect with light
Explaining the Doppler effect with light

The Doppler effect is a characteristic of all waves, including light waves. Whereas the
Doppler effect is detected as a change in pitch with sound waves, it is detected as a
change in colour with light waves.
A star, such as the Sun, emits waves into space. These waves are called electromagnetic
radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 5.6) is the full range of wavelengths, and
therefore also frequencies, of
electromagnetic radiation. The Sun
emits all the waves in the
electromagnetic spectrum, but only
those waves having wavelengths
within the range of visible light can
be seen with the naked eye. Of the
colours of visible light, red light has
the longest wavelength and lowest
frequency, while violet light has
the shortest wavelength and
highest frequency.
Figure 5.7 shows a light source
which is moving from left to right.
Light waves move outwards in all
directions from this light source. The
light source is moving away from
the observer on the left. Therefore,
this observer sees the light’s
Fig 5.6: The electromagnetic spectrum wavelength as being increased by
the Doppler effect. Since red has the
longest wavelength of visible light,
this observer sees the light as being
red. On the other hand, the light
source is moving towards the
observer on the right. Therefore, this
observer sees the light’s wavelength
as being decreased. Since blue has
the shortest wavelength of visible
light, this observer sees the light as
being blue. In fact, the light source
would need to be moving extremely
quickly for these observers to see
these colours.
Fig 5.7: A moving light source causes the colour of the light observed
to change.

Line absorption spectra
If the white light emitted by the filament
of a bulb is shone through a prism the
white light splits up into the seven colours
of the visible spectrum (Figure 5.8). This
shows that white light is made up of all
seven colours.
A spectroscope is a device that is able to
show what colours of light are present in a
sample of light. Figure 5.9 shows the
spectrum of white light that is observed
using a spectroscope. The spectrum
produced is continuous and no colours in
the spectrum are missing.
However, when white light is shone Fig 5.8: White light being split into its spectrum of colours
through a gas, not all of the light will make
it through. An absorption spectrum is produced
when white light from a source passes through a
“cool” gas, a gas that is substantially cooler than
the source of light. Photons of the appropriate
energies are absorbed by the atoms in the gas.
Although the photons may be re-emitted, they are
effectively removed from the beam of light, Fig 5.9: The continuous spectrum of white light
resulting in a dark line in the spectrum. Certain emitted by a hot and glowing dense object, like a
frequencies of light are absorbed by the atoms in bulb filament
the gas, resulting in the dark lines of the
spectrum. The atmospheres of stars act as a cooler blanket around the hotter interior of a
Photons packets
star so that we observe absorption spectra from stars when observing the light from a star
of light that
through a spectroscope. make up
electromagnetic
Figure 5.10 shows the absorption spectrum for hydrogen gas. Each gas has its own radiation
unique absorption spectrum. It is thus possible to determine what gases are in a star’s
atmosphere by observing its absorption spectrum. From the absorption spectrum of
the Sun it seems that the Sun is mainly made
of hydrogen.
Line absorption spectra of gases will be explained
in more detail in Topic 11 Optical phenomena and
properties of materials.
Fig 5.10: The absorption spectrum for hydrogen gas
Red shift and the explanation of an

expanding universe
We already know that stars emit light. Galaxies, such as the Milky Way, are each made up
of a collection of millions of stars. In 1929, Edwin Hubble observed that the absorption
spectra of distant galaxies had their wavelengths stretched towards the red end of the

spectrum.
Figure 5.11 shows absorption spectra obtained from different galaxies or stars at different
distances from the Earth. The laboratory reference shows the absorption spectrum
obtained for a stationary light source. The absorption spectrum obtained from a nearby
star shows how the spectrum is shifted slightly towards the red end of the spectrum. The
absorption spectrum obtained from a nearby galaxy, which is further away than a nearby
star, shows an even greater degree of shift towards the red end of the spectrum. The
further away the light source is, in the form of a distant galaxy, the greater the degree of
shift towards the red end of the spectrum.
This phenomenon is
known as red shift.
Red shift is a shift in
the spectra of distant
galaxies toward
longer wavelengths,
toward the red end
of the spectrum.
Figure 5.11 can be
interpreted as
showing that the
further a galaxy is
from us, the faster it
is moving away from
us. This suggests that
the Universe is
Fig 5.11: Absorption spectra obtained from different galaxies or stars at different expanding. The
distances from the Earth finding that all
galaxies seem to be
moving away from the Earth might be seen as evidence that the Earth is the center of the
Universe, or might be seen as evidence that it is not actually the galaxies which are
moving, but rather the space between them which is expanding. A rising loaf of raisin
bread, as shown in Figure 5.12, is a good visual model
of this. Each raisin will ‘see’ all other raisins moving
away from it as the loaf expands.
Some scientists reason that if the Universe is
expanding it must have been smaller in the past and
so at some time in the past the entire universe may
have been a single point. According to the Big Bang
Theory, the Universe began as very hot, small and
dense, with no stars, planets or atoms. Then about
14 billion years ago, it expanded very quickly - thus
the name “Big Bang” - resulting in the formation of
Fig 5.12: A model of the expanding universe atoms which eventually led to the creation of stars
and galaxies.

Exercise 5.2
1. What are electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic spectrum?

2. What type of electromagnetic radiation can be observed by the human eye?
3. How do the frequencies and wavelengths of red and violet light compare?
4. If a star is moving away from the Earth, what is observed? Explain.
5. What evidence do we have that the universe is expanding?
6. What is a spectroscope?
7. How are scientists able to deduce what
gases different stars are made up of?
8. Explain why this bumper sticker in
Figure 5.13 is funny.
Fig 5.13
Extend yourself
1. A mosquito’s annoying buzz is produced by it flapping its wings at 600

vibrations per second. The speed of sound in air is 340 m.s–1.
a) What is the frequency of the buzz generated by the mosquito’s wings? (1)
b) Calculate the wavelength of the mosquito’s buzz (3)
c) How would you know from the sound of its buzz if the mosquito is
flying towards you as you lie in bed in a dark room? (2)
d) Name the effect that changes the sound of the mosquito’s buzz as it
flies towards you. (2)
After a few more minutes the sound of the mosquito’s buzz changes to 598 Hz
even though it is still flapping its wings at 600 vibrations per second. You are lying
still in your bed in the dark room.
e) Calculate the speed of the mosquito relative to you when you hear the
sound at 598 Hz. (5)
f) Is it good or bad news for you that the sound has changed to 598 Hz?
Explain briefly. (3)
g) Draw a sketch showing the compressions of the air made by the mosquito
flying at the velocity calculated in 1e) relative to you. (Make sure to include
your position on the diagram as well.) (4)

2. Figure 5.14 shows a moving source of sound waves. This phenomenon was
named the Doppler Effect after the German scientist, Christian Doppler.
a) In which direction is the source moving? (1)
b) What happens to the observed wavelength of the waves on the left
of the source? (1)
c) The sound source is moving towards you, a stationary observer.
How will the pitch of the sound you hear differ from its pitch when
the source is stationary? (1)
There are many applications of the Doppler effect. In the Navy,
Fig 5.14 submarines use the Doppler effect to detect the speed of ships.
A submarine is lying motionless under water in the sea. It detects a
sound coming from a moving ship. The frequency detected is 1,003 times
greater than the actual frequency of the sound emitted by the ship. The
speed of sound in salt water is 1 470 m.s–1.
d) Why does sound travel so much faster in water than it does in air? (1)
e) The actual frequency of the sound that the ship emits is fs. Write an
equation for the frequency detected by the submarine, fL , in terms of fs.(2)
f) Calculate the speed of the ship. (4)
g) Give one other application of the Doppler Effect which has a profound
effect on the quality of human life (or society). Explain how it works, and
explain why you consider its effect so important. (5)
3. Daniel’s Grade 4 class visited the fire station. They rode on a fire engine which
had a flashing red light on the roof and a hooter that emits a sound of frequency
250 Hz. After the ride, the fire engine went out on a call. It raced away from the
children at 20 m.s–1 with its hooter blaring and its red light flashing. Daniel
noticed that the sound of the hooter seemed to change when the fire engine
moved away from him.
(Take the speed of sound in air as 340 m.s–1.)
a) Name the effect that Daniel is observing. (1)
b) Calculate the apparent frequency of the sound from the hooter when the
fire engine is moving away from Daniel at a speed of 20 m.s-1.(5)
c) Draw a diagram to show the advancing wavefronts that are produced by
the hooter when the fire engine moves away from Daniel. In your diagram,
indicate Daniel’s position and the direction of the fire engine’s velocity. (2)
d) There is a noticeable change in the hooter’s frequency, but not a noticeable
change in the colour of the flashing red light as the fire engine changes
speed and direction. Explain these observations. (3)
[46]

Definitions
Doppler effect the apparent change in the frequency of a wave when there is relative motion
between the source of the wave and an observer
electromagnetic radiation all the different kinds of energies released into space by stars
electromagnetic spectrum shows the range of wavelengths over which the electromagnetic
radiation extends
frequency (f) the number of wavefronts that pass a point in one second
red shift a shift in the spectra of distant galaxies toward longer wavelengths, toward the red end
of the spectrum
Summary
• The Doppler Effect is the apparent change in the frequency of a wave when
there is relative motion between the source of the wave and an observer.
• If the source and the observer are moving towards one another, the wavelength
of the sound wave will decrease and the frequency will increase, resulting in an
increase in the pitch.
• If the source and the observer are moving away from one another, the
wavelength of the sound wave will increase and the frequency will decrease,
resulting in a decrease in the pitch.
• The Doppler effect is used in medicine to determine the flow rate of blood. The
difference in frequency between sound waves incident to, and reflected from,
blood cells in the blood, can be used to calculate the velocity of the blood.
• The Doppler effect is observed in red shift. The observation that most stars and
galaxies show red shift suggests that most stars and galaxies are moving away
from us, suggesting that the universe is expanding.

Topic
6 Rate and extent of reaction
• Rates of reaction and factors affecting rate

• Measuring rates of reaction
The photograph on this page shows a sparkler burning. The reaction that occurs here
happens very quickly and the burning of the sparkler is quite vigorous. However,
the chemical reactions that occur to cause a child to grow into an adult are quite
slow. Different factors affect the speed at which a reaction occurs. We will investigate
the factors that affect the speed of reaction in this topic.
Topic 6: Rate and extent of reaction • 225

In Grade 10 and 11 you investigated chemical reactions. You learnt that in order for a
chemical reaction to occur, that the molecules of reactants must collide with one another.
It is these collisions and how quickly they occur that determines how quickly the reaction
takes place.
Will sugar dissolve more easily in hot water or cold water? Explain.
k
Chec
lf
myse
226 • Topic 6: Rate and extent of reaction

Rates of reaction and factors affecting rate
Rates of reaction and factors affecting the rate of a

chemical reaction
The photograph of the sparkler burning on the previous page is an example of a reaction
that occurs quickly, whilst the ripening of fruit is a reaction that occurs slowly. A chemical
reaction occurs when reactant molecules successfully collide with one another to
form products.
The collision theory

The collision theory states that, for a reaction to occur between atoms, ions or molecules,
they must collide. The collision provides the energy needed for a reaction to take place. A
collision which results in a reaction that produces one or more products is called an
effective collision. A reaction can only occur if the collision is effective.
The collision theory suggests that the speed at which a reaction occurs is directly
proportional to:
• the number of collisions per unit of time between the reacting particles
• the fraction of these collisions that are effective.
Factors affecting the rate of a reaction

The rate of a chemical reaction describes how quickly products are formed or how
quickly reactants are used up. This is always measured relative to time (per second).There
are certain factors that affect the rate of the reaction:
• Temperature
If the temperature of the reactants increases, then the
kinetic energy and therefore the speed at which the
molecules are travelling increases. As a result, the
low kinetic energy high kinetic energy molecules will collide with each other more frequently,
causing more effective collisions and so the reaction rate
will increase. Figure 6.1 shows the comparison between
molecules at a low temperature and molecules at a high
temperature. The speed at which the molecules are
travelling is indicated by the length of the arrows. At
low temperatures, the molecules are moving slowly and
Fig 6.1 Increasing temperature increases the rate will not collide frequently. Those molecules at a high
of a reaction. temperature are travelling faster and will collide more
frequently.

• Concentration
If the concentration of a solution is increased, as shown in
Figure 6.2, then the particles are found closer together. If
the particles are closer together, then they will yield a
greater number of effective collisions per unit time. As the
number of collisions per unit time increases, the reaction
rate increases. Changing concentration will only apply to
substances in solution, as the concentration of solids
cannot be altered. The concentration of a gas can only be Fig 6.2: Increasing concentration increases
altered by changing its pressure. the rate of a reaction
• Surface Area
If a solid reactant was broken up into smaller pieces, as
shown in Figure 6.3, the total surface area of the reactants,
and thereby the total number of particles available for
reacting, would increase. Since the reaction takes place on
the surface of the solid, more particles are available to react.
As a result, more effective collisions per unit time can take
place and the reaction rate increases.
Fig 6.3: Increasing surface area increases
• Pressure the rate of a reaction
If the pressure of gaseous reactants is increased, as shown in
Figure 6.4, the rate of their reaction increases. If the pressure
is increased, the molecules are forced closer together and
more effective collisions will occur per unit time, thereby
increasing the reaction rate. It is only gases that are affected
by a change in pressure.
• Catalysts
Fig 6.4: Increasing the pressure of a gas increases
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical
the rate of a reaction
reaction without being chemically changed in the reaction.
It lowers the activation energy needed for the reaction.
The mass of the catalyst present after the reaction is the same as the mass of the catalyst
before the reaction. activation
energy the
energy that a
• Nature of reactants system must
The type, strength and number of chemical bonds or attractions between atoms acquire before a
chemical
determine the speed that the particles have to collide with, to create an effective reaction. reaction can
For example, reactions involving simple ions are most often instantaneous. This is due to occur.
the fact that the positive and negative charges attract each other and no bonds have to be intramolecular
broken in creating the new substances. As a result, many effective collisions per unit time forces any force
take place with reactions between ions and the reaction rate will be fairly fast. that holds atoms
For example, a reaction with NaCl(aq), which dissociates into Na+(aq) and Cl–(aq) ions. together to
make up a
On the other hand, reactions between molecules are usually slower than ions. In molecule or
compound.
molecules, for example H2O or NH3 bonds have to be broken and new bonds reformed.
This slows down reaction rate and results in fewer effective collisions per unit time taking
place between the molecules, compared with the collisions that take place between ions.

Science around us
Epoxy glues – catalysts at work
Two-component epoxy glues, such as
the one shown in Figure 6.5, contain two
parts: a resin and a hardener. The resin
is the glue and the hardener consists of
chemicals and a catalyst that determine
how quickly the glue will harden. The Fig 6.5: Epoxy glues contain a catalyst
rate of the chemical reaction can be
altered by changing the temperature or
the catalyst used in the hardener.
Checkpoint 1
1. In the following chemical reaction, state four ways in which the rate of the reaction
can be increased.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2. In the following chemical reaction, state three ways in which the rate of the reaction
can be increased.
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)
Experiment
Determining the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction

You will need:
• Vinegar • Thermometer
• Baking soda • Manganese dioxide
• 2 beakers (150 cm3) • 6% hydrogen peroxide
• Measuring cylinder • Potassium iodate
• Distilled water • Sodium sulphate
• Spatula • Starch
• Bunsen burner and tripod • Concentrated sulphuric acid
Safety first:
• Ensure gas tap is closed at the beginning and end of experiment.
• Be certain that whatever you are heating can be heated safely and will not explode.

number
Vinegar 5
Baking soda/sodium bicarbonate Low hazard 10
Potassium iodate -
Sodium sulphite 11
Starch Low hazard 38
Concentrated sulphuric acid 4
Hydrogen peroxide 32
Manganese dioxide 23
Activated carbon Low hazard 33

Dilute hydrochloric acid Low hazard 2
Copper Low hazard 16
Part 1:
Aim: To determine the effect of concentration on reaction rate
Method:
1. Make up 2 beakers of vinegar. In one beaker add 30 cm3 vinegar and in the
other beaker add 15 cm3 of vinegar and 15 cm3 of water.
2. Place one spatula full of baking soda into the two beakers at the same time.
Record and explain your observations using the collision theory.
Part 2:
Aim: To determine the effect of temperature on reaction rate

Method:
1. Place 50 cm3 of undiluted vinegar in two beakers.
2. Place one of the beakers on a tripod and gauze and using a Bunsen burner, heat
the vinegar in that beaker to 60 °C, measuring the temperature of the vinegar
with a thermometer. Remove the beaker from the Bunsen burner and place both
beakers side by side.
3. Place one spatula full of baking soda into the two beakers at the same time.
Record and explain your observations using the collision theory.
Note: Reactions to investigate the effect of temperature on reaction rate could be
performed by dissolving a Cal-C-Vita ® or an Alka Seltzer ® tablet in equal
quantities of cold and hot water.
Part 3:
Aim: To determine the effect of temperature and concentration on reaction rate.
Method:
Preparation of solutions:
Solution A
Dissolve 2 g of potassium iodate (KIO3) in water. Then top up with water to 1 dm3.
Solution B
Dissolve 1 g of sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) in about 700 cm3 of water. Dissolve 5 g of
starch in 75 cm3 of water and add these together. Add 4 cm3 of concentrated
sulphuric acid. Bring the volume of the solution up to 1 dm3 with water.
1. Temperature
a) Determine how the temperature affects the rate of reaction by using four
separate 100 cm3 samples of Solution A, heated to the following
temperatures: 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C and 60 °C.
b) To each sample, add 100 cm3 of Solution B and measure how much time it
takes for the solution to change colour. Record and explain your
observations using the collision theory.
2. Concentration
a) Determine how the concentration affects the rate of reaction by combining
four sets of 50 cm3 samples of Solution A and Solution B. For example,
make up the following solutions – (50 cm3 solution + 0 cm3 water), (40 cm3
solution + 10 cm3 water), (30 cm3 solution + 20 cm3 water), (20 cm3 solution
+ 30 cm3 water).
b) In each case, add 50 cm3 of Solution A to 50 cm3 of Solution B of the same
concentration and measure how much time it takes for the solution to
change colour. Record and explain your observations using the collision
theory.

Part 4:
Aim: To determine the effect of a catalyst on reaction rate.
Method:
1. Hydrogen peroxide and manganese dioxide
a) Place a 250 cm3 beaker in a tray that will contain overflow.
b) Pour 100 cm3 of a 6 % hydrogen peroxide solution (H2O2) into the beaker.
c)  14 of a teaspoon of manganese dioxide (MnO2) into the beaker.
Add about __
Record your observations and draw a conclusion.
2. Sugar cube and activated carbon
a) Place a sugar cube into a watch glass. Hold a burning splint to the sugar
cube and observe.
b) Coat a second sugar cube in activated carbon (powdered charcoal) and
place it into a watch glass. Hold a burning splint to the second sugar cube.
Record your observations and draw a conclusion.
3. Zinc, hydrochloric acid and copper turnings
a) Place zinc pieces of similar sizes into 2 test tubes.
4. Add dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to both test tubes to the same level.
a) Now add a few copper turnings to one of the test tubes.
b) Record your observations and draw a conclusion.
Exercise 6.1
1. Which of the reactions in each of the following pairs, (a) or (b) will have the
highest reaction rate? Give a reason for your answer.
1.1 a) Zn(s) + 2HCl(0,1 mol.dm–3) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
b) Zn(s) + 2HCl(0,2 mol.dm–3) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
1.2 a) Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2 at 50 °C
b) Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2 at 20 °C
1.3 a) Mg(s) + I2(s) → MgI2(g) (I2 is in a pellet form)
b) Mg(s) + I2(s) → MgI2(g) (I2 is in a crushed form)
1.4 a) Mg powder + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
b) Mg ribbon + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
1.5 a) H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g) (300 kPa)
b) H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g) (150 kPa)

Measuring rates of reaction
Measuring the rate of a chemical reaction

It is necessary to be able to measure the actual rate of a reaction and not just observe the
rate of reaction as the reaction proceeds in a container. The rate of a reaction could be
measured using either of the following two equations:
[change in concentration of reactants]
__________________________________
Rate of reaction =           
time
Or
[change in concentration of products]
Rate of reaction =  __________________________________
         
time
Here are some ways that the rate of reaction could be measured in a practical situation:
• By recording the change in mass of the the contents in the reaction vessel, if one or
more of the products is a gas and is allowed to escape.
• By recording the volume of gas produced using a gas syringe if a gas is one of the
products.
• By measuring the colour change or precipitate formation.
If a graph of the concentration of the reactants or products versus time was given, then the
rate could also be found by calculating the gradient of the curve at a point. Consider the
equation:
A+B→C+D
Fig 6.6: The change in concentration of A Fig 6.7: The change in concentration of C
The graph in Figure 6.6 shows the change in concentration of A during the course of the
reaction. Since A is a reactant, it will get used up during the reaction and its concentration
will decrease. The rate of a reaction can be measured by calculating the gradient of the
graph at a point. The gradient of the graph is constantly changing. It is steeper at the
beginning of the reaction, because the concentration of reactants is higher, so the reaction
will be more vigorous. As the reaction proceeds, the reactants will get used up and the
reaction will slow down, represented by a gentler gradient on the graph.
The graph in Figure 6.7 shows the change in concentration of C during the course of the
reaction. C is a product in the reaction, so there will initially be no C present in the
reaction vessel, which is why the graph starts off with the concentration of C at zero.

As with the graph in Figure 6.6, the gradient of the graph is steeper at the start and
becomes more gentle as the reaction proceeds. Both the graphs in Figure 6.6 and Figure limiting
reagent the
6.7 flatten out and become parallel at the end. This indicates that the reaction is complete
reactant that is
because the limiting reagent has been used up completely. completely used
up in a reaction
Checkpoint 2 and thus
determines
5 g of zinc pieces react with 50 cm3 of 0,2 mol.dm–3 hydrochloric acid according to the when the
following chemical equation: reaction stops.

The hydrochloric acid is in excess. The graph of the volume of H2 against
time is shown in Figure 6.8. Redraw the graph shown in Figure 6.8 and
on it show how the graph would look if:
a) 5 g zinc powder had been used instead of 5 g zinc pieces.
b) The concentration of hydrochloric acid used was changed to
0,1 mol.dm–3.
c) 100 cm3 0,2 mol.dm–3 hydrochloric acid was used.
d) A suitable catalyst was used.
e) The temperature was decreased.
Fig 6.8
Science around us
Chernobyl – a reaction that caused a disaster
The Chernobyl disaster that occurred on
26 April 1986 in the Ukraine was a
catastrophic nuclear accident, resulting in
the loss of many lives. An explosion,
blamed on operator error, released large
quantities of radioactive gas into the
atmosphere, which spread over large
parts of Western Europe (Figure 6.9). The
disaster occurred during a routine test,
when a part inside the reactor was
exposed to air, causing it to ignite, Fig 6.9: The power plant at
resulting in a nuclear reaction that Chernobyl after the explosion.
occurred faster than anyone could have
anticipated. This resulted in 31 immediate deaths of people at or near the power
plant and Greenpeace estimates that the number of cancer-related deaths due to
the disaster to be at
200 000 or more. However, the entire city of Chernobyl was evacuated and an area
extending 31 km in all directions around the plant is still unoccupied to this day,
except for a few residents who refused to leave. Ukrainian officials estimate the
area will not be safe for human life again for another 20 000 years.

Experiment
Design and perform an experiment that will demonstrate how the following factors
affect the rate of the chemical reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid:
• Concentration • Surface area
• Temperature • Catalyst (copper(II)sulphate)
Aim: To determine the quantitative reaction rate and to draw graphs for the reaction
between sodium thiosulphate and dilute hydrochloric acid
Safety first:
• Ensure your clothes are safely tucked in. No loose clothing.
• Ensure gas tap is closed at the beginning and end of experiment.
• Be certain that whatever you are heating can be heated safely and will not
explode.

Sodium thiosulphate Low hazard 12
Dilute hydrochloric acid Low hazard 2
You will need:
• 1 × 150 ml beaker • Stopwatch

• 1 × 100 ml beaker • Sheet of paper with a ‘X’ marked on it
• 1 × 1 000 ml beaker • Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3)
• 10 ml measuring cylinder • Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Bunsen burner, tripod and gauze • Ice
• Thermometer
Preparation of solution:
Dissolve 1,5 g of sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) in 150 cm3 of water.
Method:
1. Pour 50 cm3 of the sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) into the beaker.
2. Place the beaker containing sodium thiosulphate into the 1 000 ml beaker and
pack the 1 000 ml beaker with ice.

3. Place the thermometer in the beaker containing the sodium thiosulphate.
4. Remove the smaller beaker when its contents reach a temperature of 10 °C.
5. Add 5 cm3 dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to the sodium thiosulphate solution
and start the stopwatch.
6. Place the beaker over the ‘X’ and time how long it takes for the cross to
disappear.
7. Repeat the experiment with the sodium thiosulphate at temperatures of 20 °C,
30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C, heating the sodium
thiosulphate solution using the Bunsen burner when necessary.
Results:
Copy the table below and record your results.
Temperature (°C) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (s)
  1   (s−1
_____ )
time
Plot the following graphs:
• Temperature(°C) vs time(s)
  1  (s−1)
• Temperature (°C) vs ____
time
Questions:
1. In this experiment, what will be
a) the independent variable?
b) the dependant variable?
c) the fixed variables?
2. What conclusion can you draw from the temperature (°C) vs time(s) graph?
  1   (s )?
What is represented by ____
−1
3.
time
  1   (s ) graph?
What conclusion can you draw from the temperature (°C) vs ____
−1
4.
time
5. What can you conclude about the rate of reactions based on this experiment?
Explain using the kinetic molecular theory.

Exercise 6.2
1. Chlorine was prepared according to the following reaction. The acid was in
excess:
4HCl(aq) + MnO2(s) → MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
The volume of the gas produced at different times was
measured and the results plotted as the graph shown in
Figure 6.10.
Sketch the graph which would have been obtained if:
a) less concentrated hydrochloric acid had been used.
b) the reaction had taken place at a higher temperature.
c) the manganese(IV)oxide used had been ground into a
finer powder.
2. The reaction between zinc and excess hydrochloric
Fig 6.10 acid can be represented by the following equation:
a) Name four methods that can be applied to
increase the reaction rate.
b) How would the reaction rate be influenced if the
volume of the hydrochloric acid was doubled?
Explain.
c) The volume of hydrogen gas released over a
period of time is represented in the graph in
Figure 6.11:
i) Explain why the gradient of the graph is
steeper at t1 than t2.
ii) What can be deduced about the reaction at t3?
Fig 6.11 Explain.
3. 1 g of zinc is added to 6 cm3 of HCl of concentration
2 mol.dm–3.
The volume of the liberated hydrogen gas is collected
and a graph is plotted as a function of time as shown by
curve A in Figure 6.12.
A second experiment is performed using once again 1 g zinc
with 6 cm3 of 3 mol.dm–3 HCl. The results of the second
experiment are shown on curve B in Figure 6.12. Give four
possible reasons why curve B does not coincide with curve A.
Fig 6.12

4. Some excess zinc pellets are allowed to react with hydrochloric acid.
The volume of hydrogen gas is collected, recorded and graphed as graph A
(solid line) in Figure 6.13. The equation for the reaction is:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) (ΔH<0)
a) Explain why the curve is steep during the first 10 s.
b) Explain why the gradient gets gentler
from 15 to 20 s.
c) Look at graph A and say why the curve
levels out at 20 s.
d) The following changes are made to the
system. In each case, say which curve
best represents the change (B, C or D):
i) Repeating the reaction with the
same mass of zinc pellets and the
same volume and concentration of
HCl at a lower temperature.
ii) Repeating the reaction with the
same mass of powdered zinc and
the same volume and concentration
of HCl at the same temperature. Fig 6.13
iii) Repeating the reaction with the
same mass of zinc pellets and the same volume of more concentrated
HCl at the same temperature.
e) How would curve A change if the reaction was repeated using the same
mass of zinc pellets, at the same temperature, using a greater volume of
HCl of the same concentration.
Mechanism of reaction and of catalysts

In order for a chemical reaction to occur, reactant molecules have to collide successfully
so that product molecules can be formed. In order for a successful collision to occur, the
reactant molecules have to have enough kinetic energy to allow the collision to be
effective. This is called the activation energy – the minimum amount of energy needed
for a chemical reaction to take place. Colliding molecules must have, apart from the
correct orientation, kinetic energy that is equal to or bigger than the activation energy in
order for the collision to be successful.
In any mixture of substances, the energy of each molecule varies greatly. Some molecules
will have enough energy to collide successfully and react but some will not. The more
molecules that have enough energy to react, the faster the reaction rate will be.

The graph in Figure 6.14 shows how the number of molecules

in any given container compares to the energy of the
molecules. You can see from the graph that the average kinetic
energy of the molecules, represented by the peak of the curve,
is lower than the required energy to react. Only a small portion
of the molecules present in the container at any time have
enough energy to successfully react, represented by the area
shaded in green.
The graph in Figure 6.15 shows what happens to the energy
curve if the temperature is increased. At a lower temperature the
majority of the molecules do not have enough energy to react.
However, at the higher temperature more molecules have
enough energy to react, therefore there will be more effective
Fig 6.14: The energy of reactant molecules collisions per second, thereby increasing the reaction rate.
Fig 6.15: The energy of reactant molecules when temperature is increased
The graph in Figure 6.16 shows the effect that a catalyst has on a chemical reaction. A
catalyst functions by reacting with the reactants in such a way that the reaction follows an
alternative path of lower activation energy. Figure 6.16 shows how the addition of a
catalyst lowers the activation energy, making successful collisions more frequent, as the
activation energy for the reaction is now lower.
The enthalpy of the reaction, or ∆H, can be found
using the following equation:
∆H = Eproducts – Ereactants
An endothermic reaction would have a positive ∆H
value, as more energy is absorbed than released,
resulting in the energy of the products, Eproducts,
being higher than the energy of the reactants,
Ereactants. An exothermic reaction would have a
negative ∆H value, as more energy is released than
absorbed, resulting in the energy of the products,
Eproducts, being lower than the energy of the
reactants, Ereactants.
Fig 6.16: An energy curve with and without a catalyst

The graph in Figure 6.17 shows what
happens to the energy curve if a catalyst is
used. The addition of a catalyst lowers the
activation energy, resulting in a greater
proportion of the molecules having
enough energy to react. As a result the
reaction will proceed more quickly.
Some points to note about catalysts:
• A catalyst takes part in a reaction, but
emerges unchanged at the end of the
reaction.
• Catalysts do not cause a reaction to
take place that wouldn’t have taken
place already. Fig 6.17: The energy of reactant molecules when a catalyst is used
• Catalysts function by creating an alternative path of lower activation energy.

• Catalysts do not change the enthalpy (∆H) of a reaction.
• Catalysts do not affect the amount of product formed, only the speed at which these
products are obtained.
Checkpoint 3
1. Define ‘activation energy’.
2. What effect does a catalyst have on the activation energy?
3. Do we obtain more product when using a catalyst than without? Explain.
Science around us
Catalytic converters
Many motor cars nowadays are fitted with
catalytic converters such as the one shown
in Figure 6.18 in their exhausts. The catalyst
inside speeds up the reactions in the car’s
exhaust pipe, removing the harmful
pollutants before they can be emitted into
the atmosphere. There are numerous
chemical reactions that occur in a catalytic
convertor, some of which include:
2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2 Fig 6.18: A catalytic converter
hydrocarbons + NO → CO2 + N2 + H2O

2NO → N2 + O2
Carbon dioxide produced in the process is still a greenhouse gas, but is less harmful than
the CO and NO being emitted by the combustion of petrol. The catalyst used in the
converter is a combination of platinum and rhodium. The catalytic converter has a
honeycomb structure on the interior. This is done to increase the surface area of the
catalyst and as a result, to increase the rate of the reactions.

Exercise 6.3
1. The graph in Figure 6.19 shows an energy graph for a chemical reaction.
a) Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic?
Explain.
b) Copy the graph into your book. Fill in the
values of X, Y and Z on your graph if the
following information is given.
• The activation energy without a catalyst is 480 kJ.
• The activation energy with a catalyst is 350 kJ.
• he energy released in the formation of products in
T
the uncatalysed reaction is 1 030 kJ.
c) What is the value of ∆H for this reaction.
d) How is the value of ∆H affected by the use of
Fig 6.19 a catalyst?
2. The graph in Figure 6.20 shows an energy graph for a chemical reaction.
a) Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic?
Explain.
b) Copy the graph into your book. Fill in the
values of X, Y and Z on your graph if the
following information is given.
• The activation energy without a catalyst is 800 kJ.
• The activation energy with a catalyst is 490 kJ.
• he energy released in the formation of products
T
in the uncatalysed reaction is 520 kJ.
c) Calculate ∆H for this reaction.
Fig 6.20

Extend yourself
1. Propanone reacts with iodine in the presence of an acid catalyst according to the
following chemical equation:
CH3COCH3 (aq) + I2 (aq) → CH3COCH2I(aq) + HI(aq)
The rate at which this reaction takes place can be measured by finding the time
taken for the iodine colour to disappear. You can follow the rate of the reaction
using a colorimeter.
A colorimeter is an instrument which compares the amount of light passing
through a solution with the amount which can pass through a sample of pure
solvent.
This amount will be recorded as: ‘% of light transmitted’ in this experiment. The
propanone and iodine are mixed with the acid catalyst in a small container
which is immediately placed in the colorimeter. Initially the solution is very
dark but as time passes the solution gradually clears and the % of light
transmitted increases and is displayed on the digital colorimeter and recorded
every 15 seconds.
This process is carried out four times with four different concentrations of
iodine solution in an effort to determine the effect of changing the concentration
of iodine on the reaction rate.
The results of this process have been recorded in the following four tables.
Colorimeter results for the reaction between propanone and iodine

a) Write down a suitable investigative question from what has been

described.(1)
b) Care must be taken to control certain variables. Explain why the
temperature must be kept constant. (1)
c) Name another variable that must be kept constant. (1)
d) On the same system of axes plot a graph of ‘% of light transmitted’ versus
time for each table. Using a best fit line, join the points for each set of
results and label each line clearly. (8)
e) Explain why all the graphs eventually become horizontal. (1)
f) Copy the following table and fill in the appropriate values:
Time taken to reach Concentration of [I2] –1

Rate:  ___
t (s )
80% transparency Iodine (mol.dm–3)
g) According to the values in your table, describe the relationship between

the reaction rate and the concentration of the iodine. (1)
h) Explain the trend you described in g) by referring to the behaviour of the
reacting molecules in the solution. (3)
2. Tshepiso and Belinda have been set a task to investigate how concentration
affects the rate of a chemical reaction. One of the many techniques that may be
used to investigate this is a chemical reaction known as the ‘Iodine Clock’. The
reaction occurs between two solutions, one containing an excess of iodate ions
(IO3–) called Solution A, and another containing hydrogensulphite ions (HSO3–)
in the presence of starch, called Solution B. When Solution B is added to
Solution A, a chemical reaction takes place in which iodine (I2) is released and
causes the starch solution to turn a deep blue colour, hence indicating the end of
the reaction. Tshepiso and Belinda wish to vary the concentration of Solution A
and measure the time taken for the iodine to turn the starch blue.
a) i) State what is meant by the term ‘hypothesis’ for an experiment. (2)
ii) Write a suitable hypothesis for this experiment. (2)
b) What would be the independent, dependent and control variables in this
experiment?(3)
c) Belinda has been provided with a scrambled sequence of instructions
telling her how to perform the experiment.
A Accurately measure 50 cm3 of Solution B in a measuring cylinder.
B Dilute each sample of Solution A with distilled water so that the
TOTAL VOLUME in each polystyrene cup is 100 cm3.

C STOP the stopwatch immediately when the deep blue colour is
observed.
D Add the sample of Solution B to the sample of Solution A in the
polystyrene cup.
E Carefully measure out and pour 50 cm3 , 40 cm3 , 30 cm3 , 20 cm3 and
10 cm3 of Solution A separately into the five polystyrene cups.
F You are provided with five identical polystyrene cups.
G START the stopwatch immediately as the two solutions begin to mix.
H Repeat all steps now using a different volume of Solution A.
Using just the letters provided, list the correct sequence of instructions to
assist Belinda in planning the experiment. (4)
Tshepiso and Belinda now perform the experiment and write down the results as
follows:
Results obtained from the Iodine clock experiment
When we added 50 cm3 of Solution B to the polystyrene cup containing
50 cm3 of Solution A and 50 cm3 of distilled water, we stopped the stopwatch at
exactly 12,34 s when the solution turned a dark blue. We repeated this method for
the next cup which now contained 40 cm3 of Solution A and 60 cm3 of distilled
water. This time it took a bit longer for the Solution to turn dark blue and we
stopped the stopwatch when it read 15,53 s. Again we repeated this for the
remaining three cups which contained various dilutions as explained in the method.
We obtained time readings of 20,56 s, 27,03 s and 55,55 s respectively.
Tshepiso now takes the readings of time and calculates the reciprocal of time (1/t)
for each set of readings.
d) Using all the information provided in the ‘Results obtained from the Iodine
clock experiment’ paragraph, draw up a neat table with suitable headings
and transfer all the data onto the table to record Tshepiso and Belinda’s
results. Include in your table all the volume and dilution data for Solutions
A and B as well as all Tshepiso’s 1/t calculations. (Approximate Tshepiso’s
1/t results to the third decimal place). (5)
e) Tshepiso now wishes to analyse his results by plotting a graph using the
data from the volume of Solution A used and the reciprocal of time (1/t)
calculated in the table. Use the graph paper provided to plot this graph. (6)
f) How long would it take for the reaction mixture to react if 35 cm3 of
Solution A was used in the experiment? By using a dotted line on your
graph, carefully show how you obtain this data and then show all
calculations.(2)
g) What conclusion were Tshepiso and Belinda able to draw from this
experiment?(2)

h) The experiment was conducted in identical polystyrene cups of identical

dimensions. Why do you think this was so? (2)
i) Using exactly the same apparatus and identical solutions, would you
expect the results to be the same if Belinda performed the experiment
instead of Tshepiso? Explain your answer. (4)
j) Redraw a sketch graph of your original graph and label it ‘P’. On the
same set of axes, sketch the graph you would expect to obtain if this entire
experiment was performed at a higher temperature.
Label this graph ‘Q’.(2)
3. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) undergoes decomposition to form water and
oxygen gas. Usually this is a slow process, but the reaction can be catalysed by
using one of a number of substances. Michael and Thembi are working on a
school project to evaluate three different catalysts to see how effectively they
work to bring about this decomposition. They have been asked to rank the
three catalysts in terms of how quickly they bring about the decomposition.
The catalysts that they have been asked to evaluate are MnO2, PbO2 and
Fe2O3 powders.
correct answer:
a) Which one of the following statements could be a suitable hypothesis for
this task?
A Fe2O3 catalyses the reaction faster than PbO2 whilst MnO2 is the worst
catalyst for this reaction.
B The powders act to speed up the reaction.
C The powders act to speed up the reaction relative to the uncatalysed
reaction.
D Iron oxide powder is the best catalyst. (2)
b) Suggest a suitable physical quantity that Michael and Thembi are going
to measure in order to carry out the experiment. (2)
c) Write down a suitable method for Michael and Thembi to follow.
(Use point form) (6)
d) List the key apparatus that they will need. (2)
Michael suggests that they add the catalyst to the peroxide and time the
experiment once for each catalyst. Thembi says that they will need to repeat the
experiment at least three times for each catalyst. Michael argues that it is a
simple experiment and that doing the experiment once will be sufficient and
not be a waste of time and chemicals. Thembi argues that there must be a better
reason to repeat the experiment from a scientific point of view.

correct answer:
e) A valid scientific experiment with a high level of precision requires that the
person doing the experiment:
A works carefully and accurately.
B repeats the experiment at least 5 times.
C gets results that are similar to each other when the experiment is
repeated.
D gets data with values closest to the published figures. (2)
After repeating the experiment, they get the following results:
MnO2 1st reading 4,8 seconds PbO2 1st reading 7,2 seconds
Fe2O3 1st reading 11,3 seconds MnO2 2nd reading 5,2 seconds
PbO2 2ndreading 6,9 seconds Fe2O3 2nd reading 11,7 seconds
MnO2 3rd reading 5,4 seconds PbO2 3rd reading 7,1 seconds
Fe2O3 3rd reading 11,5 seconds
f) Draw up a table of results using this data. (5)

g) What observation would Thembi and Michael correctly make when
adding each catalyst to the peroxide? (2)
h) Write a suitable conclusion for this experiment. (3)
[14]
Definitions
activation energy the minimum amount of energy needed for a chemical reaction to take place
catalyst a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being chemically
changed in the reaction
effective collision a collision between particles that results in a chemical reaction
rate of chemical reaction describes how quickly products are formed or reactants are used up

Summary

Topic
7 Chemical equilibrium
• Chemical equilibrium and factors affecting equilibrium

• The equilibrium constant
• Application of equilibrium principles – equilibrium graphs – equilibrium graphs
The photograph on this page shows a terrarium. A terrarium is a sealed container in

which a plant is planted, watered and then the bottle is sealed. Inside the terrarium,
some of the water evaporates from the soil as well as some of the water condensing
on the inside of the container. Eventually a situation is reached in which the rate of
evaporation of water equals the rate of condensation, so the soil remains moist and
the plant hardly ever needs to be watered again. The system is said to be in
equilibrium. We will investigate such equilibrium situations in this topic.
248 • Topic 7: Chemical equilibrium

You know that in a reaction equation, that the reactants are written on the left hand side
of the arrow and that the products are written on the right hand side of the arrow.
Reactants are the substances that are present at the start of the reaction and the products
are produced during the reaction.
Methane gas (CH4) is reacted with oxygen and the products are carbon
k
Chec dioxide and water.
lf
myse 1. Give a balanced reaction equation for the above reaction.
2. Give a list of the reactants in the reaction.
3. Give a list of the products of the reaction.
Topic 7: Chemical equilibrium • 249

Chemical equilibrium and factors
affecting equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium and factors affecting the
equilibrium position
Figure 7.1 shows a terrarium like the one shown in the topic opener photograph on the
previous page. The sand is watered and the container is sealed. Initially a lot more
evaporation occurs compared to condensation, as there is not much water vapour
present, as shown in Figure 7.1a). But eventually a point will be reached when the rate of
evaporation is equal to the rate of condensation, as shown in Figure 7.1b). To an observer
it may seem that at this point nothing is taking place in the container as there is no visible
change in the amount of condensation occurring. However, this is not the case. Two
reactions are occurring simultaneously, at the same rate – evaporation and condensation.
The system is now said to be in dynamic equilibrium. Dynamic equilibrium refers to the
fact that the forward and reverse reactions continue to take place simultaneously, at the
same rate.
Fig 7.1: A terrarium showing evaporation and condensation
The change that is occurring in the terrarium is a reversible change. A reversible change is
a change that does not go to completion and occurs in both the forward and reverse
direction. The equation for the change occurring in the terrarium can be represented as
follows:
H2O (l) ⇄ H2O(g)
A reversible reaction is denoted by a double arrow pointing both directions in a chemical
equation. However, if a chemical reaction is in a state of dynamic equilibrium, in which
the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, then the double
arrow is represented in the following way:
H2O(l) ⇌ H2O(g)
In order for equilibrium to be reached, the change has to take place in a closed system. A
closed system is one in which the system is isolated from its surrounding environment in
such a way that there is no mass transferred into or out of the system. This means that the
container must be sealed and that no heat can enter or escape.

An open system is one in which mass or energy can be transferred into or out of the
system during a reaction. For example, if the reaction in Figure 7.1 above took place in a
container that was not sealed, then as soon as the water evaporated, the water vapour
would be lost into the air and condensation would be unlikely to occur. An open beaker is
an open system and equilibrium can never be reached if gases are involved.
Certain factors can affect a system that is in equilibrium. For example, in Figure 7.1c) the
system that was in equilibrium is now heated. The rate of evaporation suddenly increases
and this results in the system no longer being in equilibrium. However, the rate of
condensation will slowly increase, until the rate of evaporation equals the rate of
condensation again and the system returns to equilibrium.
Factors that affect equilibrium position

If a system is in equilibrium, it will stay that way indefinitely, unless something happens
to upset the equilibrium situation. In 1885, Henry Le Chatelier, an influential French
chemist, came up with the following principle to explain the system’s response to change:
Le Chatelier’s principle states that a change in any of the factors that determine
equilibrium conditions of a system will cause the system to change in such a manner
as to reduce or counteract the effect of the change.
In our discussions regarding the re-establishing of

equilibrium once it has been disturbed, we will be
using two terms to explain the system’s response to
the change – we will say that either ‘the forward
reaction is favoured’ or we will say that ‘the reverse
reaction is being favoured’. If the forward reaction
Fig 7.2: The forward reaction being favoured is being favoured, this means that the rate of the
forward reaction will be greater than the rate of the reverse reaction. As a result, the
concentration of the substances on the left hand side of the equation will decrease and the
concentration of the substances on the right hand side of the equation will increase. If the
forward reaction is favoured, we say that equilibrium shifts to the right. This means that
there will be an overall increase in the concentration of the substances on the right hand
side of the equation when equilibrium is re-established. This concept is illustrated in
Figure 7.2.
If the reverse reaction is being favoured, this means
that the rate of the reverse reaction will be greater
than the rate of the forward reaction. As a result, the
concentration of the substances on the left hand side
of the equation will increase and the concentration
of the substances on the right hand side of the
Fig 7.3: The reverse reaction being favoured
equation will decrease. If the reverse reaction is
favoured, we say that equilibrium shifts to the left. This means that there will be an
overall increase in the concentration of the substances on the left hand side of the
equation when equilibrium is re-established. This concept is illustrated in Figure 7.3.

Let’s study the factors that affect chemical equilibrium in more detail by working through
the examples. Factors that affect the equilibrium position include:
• Concentration
• Temperature
• Pressure
Concentration
Worked example:
Consider the following equilibrium situation:
A(g) + B(g) ⇌ C(g) + D(g)
Let’s upset the equilibrium by altering the concentrations of the substances.
a) What would happen if you changed the conditions by increasing the concentration of A?
Solution:
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the system will respond to counteract the effect
of the change. As a result, the system will use up some of the A that has been added.
The forward reaction will be favoured as this is the reaction that would cause the A to
be used up. As a result, the concentration of A and B will decrease and the
concentration of C and D will increase. Equilibrium will shift to the right.
b) What would happen if you changed the conditions by decreasing the concentration of B?
Solution:
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the system will respond to counteract this
change. As a result, the system will replace some of the B that has been removed. The
reverse reaction will be favoured as this reaction will produce more B. As a result, the
concentration of A and B will increase and the concentration of C and D will
decrease. Equilibrium will shift to the left.
c) What would happen if you changed the conditions by increasing the concentration
of C?
Solution:
change. As a result, the system will use up some of the C that has been added. The
reverse reaction will be favoured as this is the reaction that would cause the C to be
used up. As a result, the concentration of A and B will increase and the concentration
of C and D will decrease. Equilibrium will shift to the left.
d) What would happen if you changed the conditions by decreasing the concentration
of D?
Solution:
change. As a result, the system will replace some of the D that has been removed. The
forward reaction will be favoured as this reaction will produce more D. As a result,
the concentration of A and B will decrease and the concentration of C and D will
increase. Equilibrium will shift to the right.

Checkpoint 1
Consider the following equilibrium reaction:
CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ H2O(g) + CO(g)
What would the effect be on the equilibrium system be if:
a) CO2 is added to the system? Explain.
b) CO is added to the system? Explain.
c) H2 is removed from the system? Explain.
d) H2O is removed from the system? Explain.
Science around us
Hyperparathyroidism – a negative case of Le Chatelier’s
principle
Bone is a complex material consisting of mostly
calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2. The solid calcium
phosphate in the bones is in equilibrium with the
constituent calcium and phosphate ions dissolved
in the blood, according to the following reaction:
Ca3(PO4)2(s) ⇌ 3Ca2+(aq) + 2PO43-(aq)
If our glands secrete too much of a substance
known as parathormone, this will result in the
kidneys removing phosphate ions (PO43-) ions from
the blood. According to Le Chatelier’s principle,
the body will replace some of the phosphate ions
that have been removed from the blood. As a result,
the forward reaction will be favoured. So the
calcium phosphate from the bones dissolves in
order to free the calcium and phosphate ions and in Fig 7.4: X-ray showing
the process the bone literally dissolves. Figure 7.4 bone degeneration
shows an X-ray in which areas of bone degeneration
as a result of hyperparathyroidism is shown. The bone is literally non-existent, as it
has dissolved away. A temporary solution is to prescribe tablets containing
phosphate ions, in order to try and reverse the process.
Temperature
To understand the effects of temperature on chemical equilibrium, it is important to
remember the following facts about exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions:
• a +DH value means that the forward reaction is endothermic
• a -DH value means that the forward reaction is exothermic
Once you have determined whether the forward reaction is endothermic or exothermic,
you can conclude that the reverse reaction is the opposite.

Worked examples:
1. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) (∆H = –ve)
∆H = –ve (negative) means that the forward reaction is exothermic while the reverse
reaction will be endothermic (always opposite), i.e.
a) What would the effect on the equilibrium position be if the temperature in the
container was decreased? Explain.
Solution:
According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in such a way as to
counteract the change. That means that the position of equilibrium will move so that
the temperature is increased again, thus increasing the heat energy in the system.
Exothermic reactions release heat energy, so the exothermic reaction, which in this
case is the forward reaction, will be favoured. As a result, the concentration of N2 and
H2 will decrease and the concentration of NH3 will increase. Equilibrium position
will shift to the right.
b) What would the effect on the equilibrium position be if the temperature in the
container was increased? Explain.
Solution:
counteract the change. That means that the position of equilibrium will move so that the
temperature is reduced again, thus decreasing the heat energy in the system. Endothermic
reactions absorb heat, so the endothermic reaction, which in this case is the reverse
reaction, will be favoured. As a result, the concentration of N2 and H2 will increase and the
concentration of NH3 will decrease. Equilibrium position will shift to the left.
A guideline to follow is:
• An increase in temperature always favours the endothermic reaction in an
equilibrium reaction.
• A decrease in temperature always favours the exothermic reaction in an
equilibrium reaction.
2. CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ H2O(g) + CO(g) ∆H = +ve
∆H = +ve means that the forward reaction is endothermic while the reverse reaction will
be exothermic (always opposite), i.e.
a) What would the effect on the equilibrium position be if the temperature in the
Solution:
the temperature is increased again, thus increasing the heat energy in the system.

Exothermic reactions release heat, so the exothermic reaction, which in this case is the
reverse reaction, will be favoured. As a result, the concentration of H2O and CO will
decrease and the concentration of CO2 and H2 will increase. Equilibrium position will
shift to the left.
b) What would the effect on the equilibrium position be if the temperature in the
Solution:
the temperature is reduced again thus decreasing the heat energy in the system.
Endothermic reactions absorb heat, so the endothermic reaction, which in this case is
the forward reaction will be favoured. As a result, the concentration of H2O and CO
will increase and the concentration of CO2 and H2 will decrease. Equilibrium position
will shift to the right.
Checkpoint 2
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) (∆H < 0)
a) What would be the effect on the equilibrium position if the temperature in the
b) What would be the effect on the equilibrium position if the temperature in the
Pressure
When assessing how pressure affects equilibrium, we specifically look at the number of
moles of gas on each side of the equation. The reason is that a change in pressure does not
noticeably affect solids and liquids.
Worked examples:
1. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
Start by comparing the total number of moles of gas on both sides of the equation:
i.e.
a) What would happen if you changed the conditions by increasing the pressure in
the container?
Solution:
The equilibrium position will shift in the direction that reduces the pressure. The
reaction shifts towards the side with the fewer number of moles of gas, thereby
decreasing the total pressure in the system. In this case, the forward reaction will be
favoured and equilibrium will shift to the right. As a result, the concentration of N2
and H2 will decrease and the concentration of NH3 will increase.

b) What would happen if you changed the conditions by decreasing the pressure in the
container?
Solution:
The equilibrium position will shift in the direction that increases the pressure. The
reaction shifts towards the side with the greater number of moles of gas, thereby
increasing the total pressure in the system. In this case, the reverse reaction will be
favoured. Equilibrium position will shift to the left. As a result, the concentration of
N2 and H2 will increase and the concentration of NH3 will decrease.
A guideline to follow is:
• Increasing the pressure favours the reaction that proceeds towards the fewer number
of moles of gas.
• Decreasing the pressure favours the reaction that proceeds towards the greater
number of moles of gas.
2. C(s) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2CO(g)
Start by comparing the total number of moles of gas on both sides of the equation.
As carbon is a pure solid, we ignore it when it comes to determining the total number
of moles.
i.e.
a) What would happen if you changed the conditions by increasing the pressure in the
container?
Solution:
The equilibrium position will shift in the direction that decreases the pressure. The
equilibrium position shifts towards the side with the fewer number of moles of gas,
thereby decreasing the total pressure in the system. In this case, the reverse reaction
will be favoured and equilibrium position will shift to the left. As a result, the
concentration of CO will decrease and the concentration of CO2 will increase. The
concentration of C will stay the same, as it is a solid and the concentration of solids
cannot change.
b) What would happen if you changed the conditions by decreasing the pressure in the
container?
Solution:
The equilibrium position will then shift in the direction that increases the pressure.
The equilibrium position shifts towards the side with the greater number of moles of
gas, thereby increasing the total pressure in the system. In this case, the forward
reaction will be favoured. Equilibrium position will shift to the right. As a result, the
concentration of CO will increase and the concentration of CO2 will decrease. The
concentration of C will stay the same, as it is a solid and the concentration of solids
cannot change.

3. CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ H2O(g) + CO(g)

Start by comparing the total number of moles of gas on both sides of the equation:
i.e.
Solution:
If the number of moles of gas on the left hand side equals the number of moles of gas on
the right hand side, altering the pressure will have no effect on the equilibrium situation.
Checkpoint 3
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
a) What would the effect be on the equilibrium system if the pressure on the system
was increased? Explain.
b) What would the effect be on the equilibrium system if the pressure on the system
was decreased? Explain.
Catalysts
Since catalysts increase the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions equally,
catalysts do not affect the equilibrium position.
Example: A(g) + B(g) ⇌ C(g) + D(g)
A catalyst is added to the above equilibrium situation. The resulting effect is that the
catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions equally, but the
equilibrium position is unaffected.
If a catalyst is added to a system that is not yet in equilibrium, then equilibrium would be
reached sooner with a catalyst compared to a system without one.
Checkpoint 4
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
What would the effect be on the equilibrium system if a suitable catalyst was used? Explain.

Sealed fizzy drinks – a system in equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium exists in a sealed fizzy drink bottle, such as the one shown
in Figure 7.5a). In this situation,
equilibrium exists between carbon dioxide
that is dissolved in the liquid as carbonic
acid and the carbon dioxide that exists in
the gaseous space in the bottle, according
to the following equation:
CO2(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3(aq)
a) closed fizzy drink b) open fizzy drink

Fig 7.5: Sealed fizzy drinks represent
The gas is dissolved into the water at high a system in equilibrium
pressures and the bottle is sealed. At the
high pressures inside the closed bottle, the forward reaction is favoured, as there
are fewer moles of gas on the right hand side of the equation than the left hand
side. As a result, at high pressures, the majority of the carbon dioxide gas is in
aqueous solution. When the bottle is opened, as in Figure 7.5b), the pressure inside
the bottle is suddenly decreased and the reverse reaction is then favoured. Much
of the CO2 that was in solution will now change phase into the gaseous phase and
this results in all the bubbles that are seen when the bottle is opened.
The common ion effect

If a compound is added to a system in equilibrium and that compound contains an ion
that is already present in the equilibrium system, then the reaction that uses up that ion
will be favoured.
Worked example:
The following system is in equilibrium:
CoCl42– + 6H2O ⇌ [Co(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl–
blue pink
Some sodium chloride solution (NaCl(aq)) is now added to the equilibrium mixture. State
and explain what observations you would make.
Solution:
The addition of NaCl involves the common ion Cl–, as the NaCl dissociates into Na+ and
Cl– ions. The system will use up some of the Cl– ions that have been added. As a result,
the reverse reaction will be favoured and the solution will turn blue.

Checkpoint 5
PbCl2(s) ⇌ Pb2+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
What would the effect on the equilibrium system be if some lead nitrate solution
(Pb(NO3)2) is added to the system? Explain.
Exercise 7.1
1. In the equation:
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) (∆H > 0)
How would the following affect the equilibrium position and the concentration
of SO3?
Change that took place Effect on Effect on the

equilibrium concentration of
position SO3
Increasing the concentration of SO2 a) b)
Removing SO3 c) d)
Increasing pressure e) f)
Decreasing the concentration of O2 g) h)
Decreasing temperature i) j)
2. In the equilibrium reaction represented by:

C(s) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2CO(g) (∆H > 0)
How would the following affect the equilibrium position and the concentration
of CO?

equilibrium concentration
position of CO
Increasing the concentration of CO a) b)
Increasing pressure c) d)
Increasing the concentration of CO2 e) f)
Cooling vessel g) h)
Adding catalyst i) j)
Decreasing the concentration of CO k) l)
Increasing temperature m) n)

3. In the following reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) (∆H < 0)
How would the equilibrium position and the concentration of N2 be affected by
the following changes?

equilibrium concentration
position of N2
Removing NH3 a) b)
Heating vessel c) d)
Increasing pressure e) f)
Increasing the concentration of H2 g) h)
Adding catalyst i) j)
Decreasing the concentration of H2 k) l)
Decreasing pressure m) n)
4. In the equilibrium reaction:

CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ H2O(g) + CO(g) (∆H = +150 kJ)
a) Give 5 ways in which the equilibrium position can be shifted to the right.
b) Give 2 factors that will NOT affect the equilibrium position.
5. The following reaction is in equilibrium and is initially a purple colour:
CoCl42– + 6H2O ⇌ [Co(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl– (∆H < 0)
blue pink
State what would be observed in each of the following situations and then
explain your observations.
a) The equilibrium mixture is heated.
b) The equilibrium mixture is cooled.
c) Water is added to the equilibrium mixture.
d) Concentrated HCl is added to the equilibrium mixture.
e) Concentrated H2SO4 is added to the equilibrium mixture. (Hint: Conc.
H2SO4 is a strong dehydrating agent.
f) Some silver nitrate solution (AgNO3) is added to the equilibrium mixture.
(Hint: AgNO3(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s) + NO3-(aq))

Investigating equilibrium reactions

number
Cobalt chloride hexahydrate -
Concentrated hydrochloric acid

2
Potassium chromate(VI) solution

22
Potassium dichromate(VI) solution
Sodium hydroxide solution 9
Dilute hydrochloric acid (1M)

Low hazard 2
Experiment 1
Aim: To investigate equilibrium and the factors influencing the equilibrium of
CoCl2 and H2O
You will need:
• 5 test tubes and test tube rack
• 1 x 100 ml measuring cylinder
• 1 x 125 ml beaker
• Hot water bath (over 90 oC)
• Ice water bath
• Cobalt chloride hexahydrate (CoCl2 · 6H2O)
• Concentrated hydrochloric acid
Preparation of solutions:
Step 1:
Prepare a 0,4 mol.dm-3 cobalt chloride solution by dissolving 4 g CoCl2 · 6H2O in
40 ml of water using the 100 ml measuring cylinder.

Step 2:
Keep the 40 ml of cobalt chloride solution that you have made up in the 100 ml
measuring cylinder. Place 60 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid in the 125 ml
beaker. Now make the cobalt chloride solution up to 100 ml by adding the 60 ml of
concentrated hydrochloric acid from the beaker. A violet-coloured solution should
form. Adding too much hydrochloric acid will produce a blue solution, while
adding more water will make the solution go back to pink. Make the necessary
adjustments to get the solution to be violet-coloured.
The equation for the equilibrium reaction is:
CoCl42– + 6H2O ⇌ [Co(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl– (∆H < 0)
blue pink
Part 1:
Aim: To investigate the effect of concentration on equilibrium
Method:
1. Half-fill three test tubes with the cobalt chloride
solution prepared in the steps above. Refer to
Figure 7.6.
2. Keep one test tube as a control. Use a propette to add
water to the second test tube until a colour change is
observed. Record and explain your observations.
3. Use a propette to add concentrated hydrochloric acid
to the third test tube until a colour change is observed.
Record and explain your observations.
4. Now add concentrated hydrochloric acid to the second
test tube until a colour change is observed. Record and
explain your observations.
5. Now add water to the third test tube until a colour
change is observed. Record and explain your
observations. Fig 7.6 Diagram of experimental setup.
Part 2:
Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature on equilibrium
Method:
1. Prepare three half-filled test tubes of the cobalt chloride solution that you have
prepared.
2. Keep one test tube as a control. Place the second test tube in a hot water bath at
a temperature over 90 oC until a colour change is observed. Record and explain
your observations.
3. Place the third test tube in an ice water bath until a colour change is observed.

4. Now place the test tube that was in the hot water bath into the cold water bath.
5. Now place the test tube that was in the cold water bath into the hot water bath.
Experiment 2
Aim: To design and perform an experiment to investigate the effects of pH on an
equilibrium system
Pre-prac discussion:
In the following equilibrium system, the solution is slightly acidic due to the
presence of H+ ions. The pH of the solution cannot be determined using indicators
because the colours of the other ions interfere with the indicator’s colour.
Cr2O72–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ 2CrO42–(aq) + 2H+(aq)
orange yellow
Investigate the effect of changing the concentration of H+ ions on the equilibrium
reaction. You can do this by:
1. Adding some sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH).
2. Adding nitric acid (HNO3).
Instructions:
1. Design an experiment to investigate the effects of pH on an equilibrium system.
You are required to supply an aim, list of apparatus, method and table of results.
2. Before performing the experiment, predict what results you expect to observe.
The application of equilibrium principles to

industrial processes
There are many industrial processes that make use of equilibrium principles in the
formation of their products. The saying ‘time is money’ is so important in industry, with
the emphasis being on producing as much product in as short a time as possible. Thus,
the reaction conditions must be such that forward reaction needs to be favoured as much
as possible. However, it is important to note that sometimes the most ideal conditions are
not always the most financially feasible.
The Haber process

The Haber process is the name given to the industrial process for the formation of
ammonia (NH3). The reaction proceeds according to the following reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH<0

Let us look at the conditions that are most practical in order to produce the highest yield
for this industrial process: yield the
amount of
product
• Pressure obtained in a
chemical
With 4 moles of gas on the left and 2 moles of gas on the right, it is clear that very high reaction
pressures would favour the production of NH3. However, the reaction occurs at 200 times
atmospheric pressure. However, very high pressures require very specialised equipment
which is extremely expensive. The pressures used are such that the yield of ammonia is
offset by the financial cost of the equipment that is used to produce that ammonia – hence
the pressure used is a “balance” between financial cost and yield.
• Temperature
The forward reaction is exothermic and would be favoured by decreasing temperature.
However, there is a problem as too low a temperature will decrease the reaction rate
significantly. The lower the temperature you use, the slower the reaction becomes. A
manufacturer is trying to produce as much ammonia as possible per day thus it makes no
sense to try to achieve an equilibrium mixture which contains a very high proportion of
ammonia if it takes a very long time for the reaction to reach that equilibrium. As a result
of this, the reaction occurs at higher temperatures of around 550 oC. So although the
proportion of ammonia produced is not as high as if the temperature was lower, it is
produced quicker and that is what counts.
• Catalyst
Without a catalyst, the reaction proceeds so slowly that it is virtually non-existent. The
catalyst increases the rate at which the whole reaction proceeds and will ensure that
equilibrium is reached as soon as possible. An iron or iron oxide catalyst is used.
• Concentration
The constant removal of NH3 as it is produced ensures that the forward reaction is
permanently favoured, increasing the yield of NH3. Also, N2 and H2 will constantly be
added to the reaction vessel, also favouring the forward reaction.
Checkpoint 6
Consider the Haber process.
a) Write the equation for the reaction for the Haber process.
b) Name the product of the Haber process.
c) What conditions of temperature are used in the Haber process? Explain.
d) What conditions of pressure are used in the Haber process? Explain.
e) Name the catalyst used in the Haber process.
f) How is the effect of concentration used to increase the yield of products in the Haber
process? Explain.

Science around us
Fritz Haber
Fritz Haber (1868 – 1934), the man who developed the Haber
process, was born in Germany to Jewish parents. Haber played
a major role in the development of chemical warfare in World
War I. Part of this work included the development of gas masks
with absorbent filters (Figure 7.7). Gareth Morgan invented the
first gas mask and Haber improved on it. In addition to leading
the teams developing chlorine gas and other deadly gases for
use in trench warfare, Haber was on hand personally to aid in
its release. Ironically with Haber being Jewish, the gas that he
helped develop (Zyklon B) was the gas used in the Nazi
extermination camps.
In 1933, Haber had to leave Germany because of the Fig 7.7: Soldiers wearing gas masks to
persecution of the Jews. protect themselves from deadly gases
The Contact process

The Contact process is the name given to the industrial process for the formation of
sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
The Contact process occurs in these 4 steps:
Step 1: S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
Step 2: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) (ΔH<0; vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) catalyst)
Step 3: SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) → H2S2O7(l) (fuming sulphuric acid)

Step 4: H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(l)
Let us look at the conditions that are most practical in order to produce the highest yield
for step 2 of this industrial process:
NOTE : The only step in which a reversible reaction occurs is step 2, therefore it is only
this step that can be affected using Le Chatelier’s principle.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) (ΔH<0)
• Pressure
High pressures would increase the yield of SO3, but it is more economically viable for the
reaction to occur at atmospheric pressure, so the pressure is not increased.
• Temperature
The forward reaction is exothermic and would be favoured by decreasing temperature.
However, too low a temperature will decrease the reaction rate significantly. The lower
the temperature you use, the slower the reaction becomes. A manufacturer is trying to

produce as much sulphur trioxide (SO3) as possible per day. It makes no sense to try to
achieve an equilibrium mixture which contains a very high proportion of sulphur trioxide
if it takes a very long time for the reaction to reach that equilibrium. As a result of this,
the reaction occurs at higher temperatures of around 450 oC. So although the proportion
of sulphur trioxide produced is not as high as if the temperature was lower, it is produced
quicker and that is what counts.
• Catalyst
Without a catalyst, the reaction proceeds so slowly that it is virtually non-existent. The
catalyst increases the rate at which the whole reaction proceeds and will ensure that
equilibrium is reached as soon as possible. A vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) catalyst is used.
• Concentration
The constant removal of SO3 as it is produced ensures that the forward reaction is
permanently favoured, increasing the yield of SO3. In addition, SO2 and O2 will
constantly be added to the reaction vessel, so that the forward reaction is favoured.
Checkpoint 7
Consider the Contact process.
a) Write the equations for the reactions for the Contact process.
b) Name the product of the Contact process.
c) What conditions of temperature are used for the Contact process? Explain.
d) What conditions of pressure are used for the Contact process? Explain.
e) Name and write the chemical formula of the catalyst used in the Contact process.
f) How is the effect of concentration used to increase the yield of products in the
Contact process? Explain.
Science around us
Acid rain
The sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3) formed in
the Contact process are contributors to pollution and acid rain.
Sulphur dioxide that is emitted into the atmosphere reacts with
oxygen in the atmosphere to become sulphur trioxide. Sulphur
trioxide reacts with atmospheric water to form a weak solution of
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) – acid rain. The equation for the reaction is:
H2O + SO3 → H2SO4
Acid rain causes damage to crops, buildings and statues. Figure
7.8 shows photographs of a statue after being exposed to acid rain.
You can see the significant damage done to the statue as a result of
this exposure.
One beneficial use of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is that it is used as a Fig 7.8: Damage caused by
food preservative. acid rain

The equilibrium constant
The equilibrium constant expression

The equilibrium constant can be defined as being an expression, or ratio, of the
concentration of the products over the concentration of the reactants for a reaction that is
in equilibrium.
In symbols: Where:
[products] Kc = equilibrium constant (no unit)
Kc = __________
   
[reactants] [products] = concentration of products (mol.dm–3)
[reactants] = concentration of reactants (mol.dm–3)
A large Kc value means that there are more products than reactants present in the
container at equilibrium and a small Kc value means that there are more reactants than
products present in the container at equilibrium.
Formulating the equilibrium constant expression

When writing the expression for the equilibrium constant for a reaction, take note of the
following rules:
• The equation must be balanced before and expression for Kc can be written.
• The concentration of solids (s) and pure liquids (l) remains constant. Therefore solids
and pure liquids are excluded from the Kc equation. Only gases (g) and aqueous
solutions (aq) are included in the Kc equation.
• Kc changes as temperature changes.
The general equilibrium expression for a reaction:

[C]c[D]d
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD is written as: Kc=  ________  
[A]a [B]b
The brackets “[ ]” represent the concentration of the species (mol.dm-3). “a, b, c, and d”
represent the coefficients used to balance the equation. The “c” in Kc indicates that the
value of K is determined using the concentrations of each species.
Worked examples:
Write down expressions for the equilibrium constant for the following equilibrium
reactions:
1. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
Solution:
[SO ]
2
Kc=   __________ 3
 
[SO ].[O ]
2
2 2

2. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
Solution:
[NH3]2
Kc=  _________  
[N2].[H2]3
3. Cl2(g) + 2HI(g) ⇌ I2(s) + 2HCl(g)
Solution:
I2 is a solid and is therefore not included in the expression for K
c. Only gases and
aqueous solutions are included.
[HCl]2
Kc=  _________2 
[Cl ].[HI]
2
4. 2Ag(s) + O2(g) ⇌ 2AgO(s)

Solution:
Ag and AgO are solids and are therefore not included in the expression for K
c.
1  
Kc=  ____
[O ]
2
Checkpoint 8
Write down expressions for the equilibrium constant for the following equilibrium
reactions:
1. CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ H2O(g) + CO(g)
2. C(s) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2CO(g)
Calculating the equilibrium constant

The equilibrium constant can be calculated only if the concentrations of the substances at
equilibrium are known.
Worked example:
Hydrogen and iodine are mixed in a closed vessel and kept at a temperature of 425 °C.
After reaching equilibrium, the reaction mixture was analysed and found to be:
[H2] = 1,14 mol.dm–3 [I2] = 2,61 mol.dm–3 [HI] = 8,41 mol.dm–3
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant at this temperature.
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Solution:
The Kcvalue is unitless due to the fact that it is a ratio.
[HI]2 (8,41)2
Kc=  _______  =  __________ 
[H ][I ] (1,14)(2,61)
2 2
= 23,77

Checkpoint 9
Consider the following equilibrium reaction at 325 °C:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
After reaching equilibrium, the reaction was analysed and the concentrations of the
substances present was found to be:
[N2] = 2,34 mol.dm-3 [H2] = 1,43 mol.dm-3 [NH3] = 3,76 mol.dm-3
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant at this temperature.
Exercise 7.2
1. The following equilibrium exists in a container: 2CO(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2CO2(g)

At equilibrium [CO] = 1,2 mol.dm-3, [O2] = 1,8 mol.dm-3 and
[CO2] = 1,6 mol.dm–3. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant under
these conditions.
2. Glowing carbon reacts with carbon dioxide and forms carbon monoxide in a
closed container according to the equation: C(s) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2CO(g)
At equilibrium [CO2] = 5 mol.dm-3 and [CO] = 2 mol.dm-3. Calculate value of Kc.
3. The following equilibrium exists in a container: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
The value of the equilibrium constant for the reaction under these conditions is
4. If the concentrations of SO2 and SO3 are 4,5 × 10–2 mol.dm-3 and
1,5 × 10–2 mol.dm–3 respectively, calculate the concentration of oxygen in the
equilibrium mixture.
4. At equilibrium in the following reaction: 2CO(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2CO2(g)
The value of Kc = 48, [CO] = 2 mol.dm-3, [O2] = 5 mol.dm-3 and [CO2] = x.
Calculate the value of x.
More equilibrium constant calculations

The concentrations of substances in the reaction vessel are not the same at the beginning
of the reaction as at equilibrium. In order for us to calculate the equilibrium constant, we
have to know the concentration of both products and reactants only when they are at
equilibrium. Sometimes information will be given to us about the concentration of
substances at the beginning of a reaction which means that we will first be required to
determine the concentration of the substances at equilibrium before calculating the
equilibrium constant.

Follow these steps in answering questions of this type.
• Set up a table as shown in the worked examples on the next page.
• Use the balanced equation to determine the mole ratio of the substances in
the equation.
• Fill in all the information given in the question in the block where the
information belongs.
• Calculate whatever you can in the table, keeping in mind that the mole ratio ONLY
applies in the ‘used/formed’ row of the table.
• Once the number of moles at equilibrium is known, the concentration at equilibrium
can then be calculated.
• Once the concentration of each substance at equilibrium has been filled in, the
equilibrium constant can then be calculated.
Worked examples:
1. 1 mol of A and 2 mol of B react in a 2 dm3 container. If at equilibrium 0,75 mol of C
has formed, calculate value of Kc.
Solution:
A (g) + 2B (g) ⇌ C (g)
Start 1 mol 2 mol 0 mol

Mole ratio 1 2 1
Used/Formed n = 0,75 mol n = 2 × 0,75 n = 0,75 mol
= 1,5 mol
Equilibrium n = 1 – 0,75 n = 2 – 1,5 n = 0,75 mol
= 0,25 mol = 0,5 mol
Concentration
V = 2 dm3 n  
c =  __ n  
c =  __ n  
c =  __
V V V
0,25 0,5 0,75
=  ____   =  ___  =  ____  
2 2 2
= 0,125 mol.dm–3
= 0,25 mol.dm–3
= 0,375 mol.dm–3
[C] (0,375)
c=   _______2  =  ____________
K   2  = 48
[A][B] (0,125)(0,25)
2. A reaction mixture originally contained 4 g of A and 5 g of B. If, at equilibrium, 3,5 g
of A remains unreacted, calculate value of Kc for the reaction at this temperature. The
volume of the container is 0,5 dm3.
(Mr(A) = 12 g.mol–1 and Mr(B) = 25 g.mol–1)

Solution:
A (g) + B (g) ⇌ 2C (g)
Start m = 4g m = 5g 0 mol
m  
n =  ___   m  
n = ___
M M
4  
=  ___ =  ___5  
12 25
= 0,33 mol = 0,2 mol
Mole ratio 1 1 2
Used/Formed n = 0,33 – 0,29 n = 0,04 mol n = 0,04 × 2
= 0,04 mol = 0,08 mol
Equilibrium m = 3,5g n = 0,2 – 0,04 n = 0,08mol
  m  
n = ___ = 0,16mol
M
3,5
___
=    
12
= 0,29 mol
Concentration c =  __n   n  
c =  __ n  
c =  __
V V V
V = 0,5 dm3 0,29 0,16 0,08
=  ____  =  ____  =  ____ 
0,5 0,5 0,5
= 0,58 mol.dm–3 = 0,32 mol.dm–3 = 0,16 mol.dm–3
[C]2 (0,16)2
Kc=   ______  =  __________  = 0,14

[A][B] (0,58)(0,32)
3. 0,5mol H2 and 0,5 mol O2 are placed in a container and allowed to react according to
the chemical reaction below. At equilibrium, 9,6 g O2 remains. Calculate value of Kc if
the volume of the container is 200 cm3.
Solution:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 H2O(g)
Start 0,5mol 0,5mol 0 mol

Mole ratio 2 1 2
Used/Formed n = 0,2 x 2 n = 0,5 – 0,3 n = 0,4 mol
= 0,4 mol = 0,2mol
Equilibrium n = 0,5 – 0,4 m = 9,6g n = 0,4 mol
= 0,1 mol m  
n =  ___
M
9,6
=  ___ 
32
= 0,3 mol
Concentration n  
c =  __ n  
c =  __ n  
c =  __
V V V
V = 0,2 dm3 0,1 0,3 0,4
=  ___  =  ___  =  ___ 
0,2 0,2 0,2
= 0,5 mol.dm–3 = 1,5 mol.dm–3 = 2 mol.dm–3
[H O]2 (2)2
Kc=  _________
2
  =  _________   = 10,67
[H ] [O ] (0,5)2 (1,5)
2
2 2

Checkpoint 10
In the following reaction, 2 mol N2 and 4,5 mol H2 are initially placed in the 2,5 dm3
container. Equilibrium is established at 300 °C. At equilibrium,1,2 mol N2 remains in the
container. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant at 300 °C.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
The significance of the Kc value

The value of the equilibrium constant tells us the equilibrium ratio of products to
reactants. If Kc is greater than 1 it means that at equilibrium, there are more products
present than reactants. If Kc is less that 1 it means that at equilibrium, there are more
reactants present than products.
A very important thing to note is that only a change in temperature has the ability to
change the Kc value for a given reaction.
If you would like to increase the Kc value, then adjust the temperature that would favour
the forward reaction. Then the equilibrium will shift to the right and the Kc value will
increase by increasing the concentrationof products and reducing the concentration of
reactants.
If you would like to decrease the Kc value, then adjust the temperature that would favour
the reverse reaction. Then the equilibrium will shift to the left and the Kc value will
decrease by reducing the concentration of products and increasing the concentration of
reactants.
Worked examples
1. In the following equilibrium reaction, what would have to be done to temperature in
order to decrease Kc?
CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ H2O(g) + CO(g) ∆H = +150 kJ
Solution:
You would need to favour the reverse reaction. This would decrease the
concentration of the products and increase the concentration of the reactants, and as a
result decrease Kc. The reverse reaction is exothermic and is favoured by a decrease
in temperature, therefore temperature must be decreased.
2. C(s) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2CO(g) ∆H > 0
In the above reaction at 300 K the equilibrium constant is 12. Explain what would
happen to the value of the equilibrium constant if the temperature is increased to 600 K.
Solution:
Increasing temperature would favour the endothermic reaction. In this case it will be
the forward reaction that is favoured. The concentration of the products will increase
and the concentration of the reactants will decrease. As a result, Kc will increase.
If the change in temperature causes Kc to increase then the forward reaction was
favoured, as favouring the forward reaction would have caused the concentration
of the products to increase and the concentration of the reactants to decrease,
thereby causing Kc to increase.

If the change in temperature causes Kc to decrease then the reverse reaction was
favoured, as favouring the reverse reaction would have caused the concentration of the
products to decrease and the concentration of the reactants to increase, thereby causing
Kc to decrease.
Checkpoint 11
Consider the following equilibrium reaction: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) ∆H < 0
The equilibrium constant for this reaction at 250 oC is 0,8.
a) What is the significance of the value of the equilibrium constant?
b) What would have to be done to the temperature of the reaction vessel in order to
increase the value of the equilibrium constant? Explain.
Exercise 7.3
1. 9 mol H2 is placed in a 1,5 dm3 container with 9 mol I2 and the reaction proceeds
until equilibrium is reached. At equilibrium, 14 mol of HI are present. Calculate
value of Kc.
H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI (g)
2. 3 mol N2 is placed in a 2 dm3 container with 8 mols H2 and the reaction
proceeds until equilibrium is reached. At equilibrium 4 mols of NH3 is present.
Calculate value of Kc.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
3. 1 mol A2 and 1 mol B2 are allowed to react together in a 2 dm3 container.
At equilibrium, 0,8mol A2 are present. Calculate value of Kc.
A2 (g) + 3B2 (g) ⇌ 2AB3 (g)
4. 3,5 g H2 reacts with 317 g of I2 in a 2 dm3 container. At equilibrium, 2 g of H2
remains. Calculate value of Kc.
H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI (g)
5. 42 g N2 reacts with 12 g of H2 in a 500 cm3 container. At equilibrium, 4g of H2
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
6. 12 g H2 reacts with 118 g O2 in a 1,5 dm3 container. At equilibrium 9 g of H2
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 H2O(g)

Application of equilibrium principles -
equilibrium graphs
Interpreting equilibrium graphs
The concentrations of the substances present in the reaction vessel as a function of time
can be plotted on a graph. It is possible for us to interpret from a graph what is occurring
in the reaction vessel over time.
Worked example:
1. N2 and H2 are placed in a container and are allowed to
react until equilibrium is reached. The equation for the
equilibrium reaction is:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
A graph plotting the concentrations of the substances
present versus time is given in Figure 7.9.
a) Describe what happens at t = 10 s. Explain.
b) Give an explanation for the change that occurs
at t = 20 s.
c) Calculate Kc at t = 15 s.
d) Calculate Kc at t = 35 s.
Fig 7.9.
Solution:
a) The system is in equilibrium as the concentration of the reactants and products
are constant.
b) The concentration of N2 was increased. According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the
system will change to decrease the concentration of N2. The forward reaction will
be favoured and the concentration of N2 and the concentration of H2 will
decrease and the concentration of NH3 will increase until 30 s when equilibrium
is re-established.
[NH ]2
c) Kc=   _________3
 
[N ][H ]3
2 2
(0,246)2
=  _________3 
(0,1)(0,3)
= 22,4
[NH ]2
Kc=  _________
d) 3
  Kc value stays the same as ONLY
[N ][H ]3 temperature can change Kc.
2 2
(0,3) 2
=  _________3 
(0,5)(0,2)
= 22,5

2. The following equilibrium reaction is given:
2HI(g) ⇌ H2(g) + I2(g) ∆H > 0 A change in pressure will not

affect equilibrium in this case as
A graph plotting the number of moles of gas is
the concentrations the same on both sides of the
of the substances equation.
present versus
time is given in Figure 7.10.
a) Explain the physical situation in the container
from t = 0 s to t = 5 s.
b) Which external factor was altered in order to
bring about a change in the shape of the graph
at t = 5 s? Explain.
c) Calculate Kc at t = 3 s.
Fig 7.10
Solution:
a) The system is in equilibrium as the concentration of the reactants and products are
constant.
b) The temperature was increased. The forward reaction is being favoured because [HI]
decreases and [H2] and [I2] increases. The forward reaction is endothermic and is
favoured by an increase in temperature.
[H2][I2]
c) Kc=  _______  
[HI]2
(0,2)(0,1)
=  ________  
(0,5)2
= 0,08
3. 0,1 mol COCl2 is placed in a gas syringe of volume 1 dm3. COCl2 decomposes
according to the following equation:
COCl2(g) ⇌ CO(g) + Cl2(g) ∆H = +109 kJ
Study the equation above and the graph in
Figure 7.11. Answer the questions that follow.
a) How much time was required for the system to
first reach equilibrium?
b) How do the rates of the forward and reverse
reactions compare at the following times?
i) 10 s ii) 45 s iii) 130 s
c) What change took place at t = 60 s to upset
equilibrium? How did the system respond to
this change?
d) What change took place at t = 120 s to upset
equilibrium? How did the system respond to
this change?
Fig 7.11
e) Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant at:
i) 165 s
ii) 225 s
f) Using the values calculated in e) above, state what change to place at 180 s to upset
equilibrium. How did the system respond to the change?
Solution:
a) 30 seconds
b) i) Rate of forward reaction > Rate of reverse reaction
ii) Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction
iii) Rate of forward reaction < Rate of reverse reaction
c) [Cl2] was increased. The system uses up some of the Cl2 that has been added. The
reverse reaction will be favoured and [CO] and [Cl2] will decrease and [COCl2] will
increase until 90 s when equilibrium is re-established.
d) At 120 s, the concentration of all three gases increases. This occurred because the
volume of the reacting vessel was decreased. This will cause the pressure in the
vessel to increase. The reverse reaction will be favoured. [CO] and [Cl2] decrease and
[COCl2] increases until 150 s, when equilibrium is re-established.
[CO][Cl ] [CO][Cl ]
e) i) Kc=  _________2
  ii) Kc= ________
  2

[COCl ] [COCl ]
2 2
(0,079)(0,104) (0,085)(0,110)
___________
 
=    = ___________
   
(0,042) (0,015)
= 0,20 = 0,62
f) Only a change in temperature has the ability to change the value of Kc. Therefore,
temperature was altered. The forward reaction is being favoured, as [CO] and [Cl2]
increase and [COCl2] decreases. The forward reaction is endothermic (positive ∆H)
and is favoured by an increase in temperature. Therefore, temperature was increased.
We could also have said that, as Kc increases from 0,20 to 0,62, that the forward
reaction is being favoured. The forward reaction is endothermic and is favoured by
an increase in temperature. Therefore, the temperature was increased.

Exercise 7.4
1. 0,1mol COCl2 is placed in a gas syringe of volume 1 dm3. COCl2 decomposes

COCl2(g) ⇌ CO(g) + Cl2(g)
Study the equation above and the graph in
Figure 7.12 and answer the questions that follow.
a) If the change at 120 s is due to an increase in
temperature, is the forward reaction
endothermic or exothermic? Explain.
b) What change took place at 180 s? How did the
system respond to this change?
c) Calculate the equilibrium constant at 45 s.
d) How would the value of the equilibrium
constant at 100 s compare to the answer
Fig 7.12 obtained in question c). Explain.
e) How would the value of the equilibrium constant at 230 s compare to the
answer obtained in question c). Explain.
2. The following equilibrium exists in a container:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
a) Use the graph in Figure 7.13 to calculate the equilibrium constant at t1.
b) What change took place to upset the
equilibrium mixture at t2? How did the
system respond to this change?
c) Without doing any further calculations,
explain how the value of the
equilibrium constant at t4 would
compare to the value of the equilibrium
constant at t1.
Fig 7.13
Reasearch task
1. Do some reasearch and list some examples of reversible and irreversible

reactions that occur in everyday life. Write a report.
2. Observe the effect of changes in concentration or temperature on chemical
equilibria using a computer simulation. A good website to use is:
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/reversible-reactions

Extend yourself
1. The Haber process was developed near the beginning of the twentieth century
to produce ammonia gas. In this process
nitrogen and hydrogen gas react according to
the following equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH < 0
The graph in Figure 7.14 illustrates the change
in concentration of nitrogen, hydrogen and
ammonia over a period of time for the Haber
Process.
The initial equilibrium of the system was
disturbed after 5 minutes by adding ammonia
gas to the sealed container.
a) Explain why the concentration of nitrogen
and hydrogen started to
increase after 5 minutes. (2)
b) After what time was the final
equilibrium established? (1)
c) Write down an expression for the
equilibrium constant for this reaction. (2)
d) Calculate the value of the equilibrium
constant for the final equilibrium. (2)
e) Without doing any calculations, write
down the value of the equilibrium
constant during the first 5 minutes. Fig 7.14
Explain how you got to your answer. (2)
2. Fazul and Holly are enthusiastic members of their school Science Club and are
busy with a school project that is investigating artificial fertilisers and how
these are produced. Their research shows that the reaction between hydrogen
and nitrogen to produce ammonia is an example of a chemical reaction that is
able to reach dynamic chemical equilibrium within a closed system according to
the following chemical equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH = – 46 kJ.mol–1
a) In this process, the reactants and products are said to reach dynamic
chemical equilibrium. Explain what is meant by the term ‘dynamic’. (2)
In his research, Fazul finds that under certain conditions of temperature and
pressure, the following amounts of reactant and product were present when
equilibrium was reached inside the reaction vessel:
N2 = 6 mol H2 = 29 mol NH3 = 18 mol
The volume of the reaction vessel is 105 litres.
b) Using the data provided, calculate (in mol.dm–3) the concentrations of
reactants and products present in the reaction vessel at equilibrium.
(Note: 1 litre = 1 dm3)(3)

c) Write down the expression for the equilibrium constant (Kc) for the
reaction.(2)
d) Calculate the value of Kc for this reaction. (2)
Holly observes that one of the conditions affecting the equilibrium is
changed and a new equilibrium is established. At the new equilibrium, the
concentration of NH3 is 0,24 mol.dm–3.
e) By how much, in mol.dm-3, did the concentration of ammonia increase
from what it was originally in 2b)? (2)
f) If the value of Kc remains constant after the new equilibrium has been
reached, what TWO factors could have led to this change? (4)
A discussion between Fazul and Holly now takes place.
Fazul says:
This reaction is exothermic and therefore it should be performed at low
temperatures. This will make the forward reaction more favourable and you will get
a higher yield of ammonia.’
Holly disagrees and says:
‘If you want the forward reaction to be more favourable, then you need to make the
forward reaction faster and thus you need a higher temperature to get a higher
yield. I think you should perform the reaction at a much higher temperature.’
g) Who do you think is correct? With reference to both arguments, explain
why you have made this decision. (5)
Fazul then adds the following to the argument:
‘I think we should also use a catalyst because then we will get more
ammonia being produced.’
Fazul has made a crucial error in his understanding of how catalysts work
in chemical reactions.
h) Carefully analyse this statement by identifying and stating the error
he has made with reference to the workings of a catalyst. (2)
i) Correct the statement he has just made by writing a correct statement. (2)
3. The manufacture of sulphuric acid is a key industrial process. Sulphuric acid
is used to make a huge number of other chemicals, including fertiliser. The
process for manufacturing sulphuric acid is called the Contact Process.
The flow diagram in Figure 7.15 represents the Contact process.
Fig 7.15

a) Name the product of the burning of sulphur (at A). (1)
b) The Contact step can be represented by the equation:
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) (ΔH = –197 kJ)
Can the Contact step be considered to ever reach equilibrium in this
non-closed system? (1)
c) If the Contact step is carried out at 450 °C and 1 atmosphere and it reaches
equilibrium:
i) Write down an expression for the equilibrium constant, (Kc)
at 450 °C. (3)
ii) What would a value of Kc = 0,1 indicate about this reaction at
equilibrium?(2)
iii) How could this value be increased for this reaction system? (3)
iv) If the engineer monitoring the Contact step was trying to make the
reaction occur more quickly, state 3 conditions that she might
change. The engineer is able to get immediate feedback data about the
concentration of the gases in the system at equilibrium. For a 10 m3
reaction vessel, the concentrations of the gases are: (5)
[SO2] = 3,1 mol.dm-3; [SO3] = 5,0 mol.dm-3; [O2] = 1,9 mol.dm-3
v) Calculate the number of moles of SO3 in the container at
equilibrium.(4)
vi) Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction. (4)
4. In the Haber process, the manufacture of ammonia occurs according to the
following chemical equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) (ΔH < 0)
In the Haber process, the product is removed as quickly as it forms.
a) Does this reaction ever reach equilibrium? Explain your answer. (3)
b) Explain why ammonia is removed from the reaction
vessel.(2)
c) Sketch a potential energy diagram for this reaction.
Plot Epotential on the y-axis and reaction co-ordinate on
the x-axis.(3)
d) List three factors that could speed up this reaction. (3)
The graph in Figure 7.16 shows the percentage of ammonia
produced at equilibrium for varying conditions of temperature
and pressure. Consider the data presented in the graph.
The Haber process typically operates at about 400 °C, and at a
pressure of 200 atmospheres.
e) What is the term used to describe the percentage of
ammonia produced? (2)
Fig 7.16

f) Discuss why the conditions mentioned are chosen when lower

temperatures and higher pressures would ensure a higher yield of
product at equilibrium. (4)
In a laboratory, a simulation of the Haber Process is set up and an
equilibrium is established at 400 °C and a pressure of 150 atm. The
following concentrations were measured at equilibrium:
[NH3] = 0,4 mol.dm–3
[N2] = 0,7 mol.dm–3
[H2] = 0,3 mol.dm–3
g) Write down an expression for the equilibrium constant (Kc) for
this reaction. (3)
h) Calculate the value of the constant under these conditions. (2)
i) How would this value change when equilibrium has been re-established
after (Write only INCREASES; DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME)
i) the temperature has been increased? (2)
ii) a catalyst is added? (2)
iii) more N2 has been pumped into the container? (2)
[65]
Definitions
closed system one in which the system is isolated from its surrounding environment in such a way
that there is no mass is transferred into or out of the system.
dynamic equilibrium a reaction in which the forward and reverse reactions continue to take place
simultaneously, at the same rate.
endothermic a reaction which absorbs more energy than is released.
equilibrium constant an expression of the concentration of the products over the concentration of
the reactants for a reaction that is in equilibrium.
exothermic a reaction which releases more energy than is absorbed.
Le Chatelier’s principle a change in any of the factors that determine equilibrium conditions of a
system will cause the system to change in such a manner as to reduce or counteract the effect of
the change.
open system one in which mass or energy can be transferred into or out of the system during a
reaction.
reversible reaction a reaction that does not go to completion and occurs in both the forward and
reverse direction.

Summary
Le Chatelier’s principle states that a change in any of the factors that determine
equilibrium conditions of a system will cause the system to change in such a manner
as to reduce or counteract the effect of the change.
Factors affecting equilibrium position:
Factors that affect the equilibrium position include:
1. Concentration
The reaction that favours counteracting the change will be favoured.
2. Temperature
Remember that:
• a +DH value means that the forward reaction is endothermic and
• a -DH value means that the forward reaction is exothermic
A quick guideline to follow is:
• An increase in temperature always favours the endothermic reaction.
• A decrease in temperature always favours the exothermic reaction.
3. Pressure
• If pressure is increased, the reaction that proceeds towards the least number of
moles of gas will be favoured.
• If pressure is decreased, the reaction that proceeds towards the most number of
moles of gas will be favoured.
CATALYSTS DO NOT AFFECT THE EQUILIBRIUM POSITION
Equilibrium constant
The equilibrium constant can be defined as being an expression of the concentration
of the products over the concentration of the reactants for a reaction that is in
equilibrium.
[products]
Kc =  __________ 
[reactants]
• If Kc is greater than 1 it means that at equilibrium, there are more products

present than reactants.
• If Kc is less that 1 it means that at equilibrium, there are more reactants present
than products.
Only a change in temperature has the ability to change the Kc value.

Topic
8 Acids and bases
• Acid-base reactions
• Applications of acids and bases
Antacids such as the one shown in the photograph on this page are taken for the
relief of heartburn and indigestion, which occurs as a result of an overproduction of
stomach acid. A neutralization reaction occurs to reduce the acidity in the stomach
and bringing the sufferer relief. The reaction between the stomach acid and the
antacid tablet is an example of an acid-base reaction. We will investigate acid-base
reactions in more detail in this topic.
Topic 8: Acids and bases • 283

When you studied acids and bases in Grade 10 and Grade 11, you learnt:
The properties of acids:
• Acids have a sharp, sour taste.
• Acids have a pH less than 7.
• Acids conduct electricity in solution.
The properties of bases:
• Bases have a soapy feel.
• Bases have a pH greater than 7.
• Bases taste bitter.
Figure 8.1 shows the colour range observed when using universal
k
Chec indicator.
lf
myse
Fig 8.1
1. Where on this scale would you find acids?
2. Where on the scale would you find bases?
284 • Topic 8: Acids and bases

Acid-base reactions
Acid-base models
Our bodily functions, ranging from the microscopic transport of ions across nerve cell
membranes to the macroscopic acidic digestion of food in the stomach, are all ruled by
the principles of acid-base chemistry. We will study acid-base reactions in more detail in
this topic.
An acid solution is defined as a solution that has an excess of H+ or H3O+ ions. A base
solution is defined as a solution that has an excess of OH– ions. A neutral solution has
equal concentrations of H+ and OH– ions present in solution. An alkali is a soluble base
that contains hydroxide (OH–) ions which can be released into solution.
Acid-base models are useful in describing the nature of acids and bases.
Arrhenius’ theory
The Swedish scientist, Svante Arrhenius, introduced a theory in 1887 that acids are
substances that produce hydrogen ions (H+) in solution and bases produce hydroxide
ions (OH–) in solution.
For example, hydrogen chloride ionises into its ions in water according to the following
ionise the equation:
process whereby
covalent HCl → H+ + Cl–
compounds
break up into It is now known that hydrogen ions cannot exist on their own in solution and that
ionic substances hydrogen ions quickly combine with a water molecule to produce the hydronium (or
for the first time
oxonium) ion (H3O+). The equation for the combining of the hydrogen ion with a water
molecule is:
We now speak about the presence of the hydronium ions that give solutions of acids their
dissociate the
process whereby acidic properties.
ionic
compounds A base, such as sodium hydroxide, dissociates into its ions in water according to the
break up into following equation:
their separate
ions in the NaOH → Na+ + OH–
presence of
water It is the presence of OH– ions that give solutions of bases their properties.
So according to Arrhenius’ theory:
• Acids are substances that produce hydrogen (H+) ions and ultimately hydronium
ions (H3O+) in solution.
• Bases are substances that produce hydroxide (OH–) ions in solution.

Lowry-Brønsted theory
In 1923, the Danish scientist Johannes Brønsted and the Englishman Thomas Lowry
refined Arrhenius’ theory of acids and bases. The Lowry-Brønsted definition of acids is
very similar to the Arrhenius definition. A Lowry-Brønsted acid is defined as any
substance that can donate a hydrogen ion. In other words, acids are proton donors
because a H+ ion without its electron is simply a proton.
Bases can be described as substances that dissociate to form OH- ions according to the
Arrhenius’ theory. However, the Lowry-Brønsted definition of a base is that a base is a
substance that accepts hydrogen ions, or protons.
So according to the Lowry-Brønsted theory:
• Acids are proton donors.
• Bases are proton acceptors.
In an acid-base reaction, the proton which is donated by the acid is received by the base
in the same reaction. In the reaction below, HCl is the acid in the reaction, as it donates a
proton to the ammonia molecule (NH3), and in doing so leaves behind the chloride ion
(Cl–). NH3 is the base in the reaction, as it accepts the proton, and in doing so forms the
ammonium ion (NH4+).
Checkpoint 1
1. Define an acid and a base according to Arrhenius’ theory.
2. Define an acid and a base according to the Lowry-Brønsted theory.
Science around us
Aspirin can cause stomach ulcers
Aspirin (Figure 8.2) is an acidic molecule, but not as
acidic as the hydrochloric acid that is found in the
stomach. When the aspirin arrives in the stomach, it is
not able to donate its proton because of the very acidic
environment. However, it is able to penetrate the
stomach lining and when it gets there, it donates its
proton. This lowers the pH in the stomach lining and
can cause tissue damage and even bleeding and Figure 8.1: An aspirin
ulcers. Some aspirin tablets have a special coating tablet dissolving.
which stops them dissolving at all until they have
passed through the stomach, to try and prevent this from happening.

Reaction equations of aqueous solutions of acids

and bases
When acids and bases are dissolved in water according to the Lowry-Brønsted theory,
acids act as proton donors and bases act as proton acceptors. This is evident when they
are dissolved in water.
For example, when hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, the following reaction occurs:
HCl(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

HCl, being the acid, acts as a proton (H+) donor and in so doing leaves the chloride ion
(Cl–) in solution.
When ammonia, a base, is dissolved in water, the following reaction occurs:
NH3(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

NH3, being the base, acts as a proton (H+) acceptor and in doing forms the ammonium
ion (NH4+) in solution
Conjugate acid-base pairs are compounds that differ by the presence of one proton, or
H+. All acids have a conjugate base, which is formed when they donate a proton.
Likewise, all bases have a conjugate acid, formed after they accept a proton.
Worked examples:
1. Indicate the conjugate acid-base pairs when HCl, an acid, is dissolved in water.
Solution:
Pair 1: Acid – HCl, Conjugate base – Cl–

Pair 2: Base – H2O, Conjugate acid – H3O+
Explanation: HCl donates a proton to H2O which then forms H3O+. This makes HCl the
acid in the forward reaction as it is the proton donor and H2O acts as the base as it is the
proton acceptor. The conjugate base of HCl is Cl– and the conjugate acid of H2O is H3O+.
2. Indicate the conjugate acid-base pairs when NH3, a base, is dissolved in water.
Solution:

Pair 1: Base – NH3 Conjugate acid – NH4+
Pair 2: Acid – H2O Conjugate base–OH–
Explanation: H2O donates a proton to NH3 which then forms NH4+. This makes H2O the
acid in the forward reaction as it is the proton donor and NH3 acts as the base as it is the
proton acceptor. The conjugate base of H2O is OH– and the conjugate acid of NH3 is NH4+.
3. What is the conjugate base of:
a) HNO3?
Solution:
NO3–
Explanation: When asked to find the conjugate base, HNO3 acts as the acid. Acids are
proton donors, so one proton (H+) is removed from HNO3. HNO3 has an overall charge of
zero and so when HNO3 donates an H+ what remains is NO3–, as the charge will go down
by 1 if an H+ ion is donated. Remember – conjugate bases differ from the acid by one
proton (H+)
b) NH4+?
Solution:
NH3
Explanation: NH4+ must be acting as an acid if we are being asked to find the conjugate
base. Acids are proton donors, so one proton (H+) is removed from NH4+. NH4+ has an
overall charge of +1 and so when NH4+ donates an H+, what remains is NH3, as the charge
will go down by 1 if an H+ ion is donated. Remember – conjugate bases differ from the acid
by one proton (H+)
4. What is the conjugate acid of:
a) HSO4–?
Solution:
H2SO4
Explanation: HSO4– acts as a base if we are being asked to find the conjugate acid. Bases are
proton acceptors, so we must add one proton (H+) to HSO4–. HSO4– has an overall charge of
–1 and so when we add an H+ what we are left with is H2SO4, as the charge goes up by 1 if
we add an H+. Remember – conjugate acids differ from the base by one proton (H+)
b) CO32–?
Solution:
HCO3–
Explanation: CO32– acts as a base if we are being asked to find the conjugate acid.
Bases are proton acceptors, so we must add one proton (H+) to CO32–. CO32– has an overall
charge of -2 and so when we add an H+ what we are left with is HCO3-, as the charge
goes up by 1 if we add an H+. Remember – conjugate acids differ from the base by one
proton (H+).

Checkpoint 2
1. Indicate the conjugate acid-base pairs in the following equations:
a) HCl + NH3 ⇋ NH4+ + Cl–
b) NH4+ + F– ⇋ HF + NH3
a) OCl–? b) H2O?
a) HClO2? b) H2O?
Exercise 8.1

a) H2SO4? b) HSO4–?
c) HF? d) H2CO3?
a) NH3? b) NO3–?
c) H2O? d) H2PO4–?
Science around us
Limestone sunscreen
Limestone is a naturally occurring rock
composed of mainly calcium carbonate. It has
been used as an alkali for centuries. This means
it is added to a mixture that is too acidic, to
reduce the acidity. In farming, limestone
mixtures can be added where nitrogen fertilizer
is used. The Zulu people use traditionally
prepared limestone, called umcako, as a Fig 8.2: Limestone used as sunscreen
sunscreen, as shown in Figure 8.3.

Acid-base terminology
There are terms, such as ‘strong’ and ‘concentrated’, as well as ‘weak’ and ‘dilute’, that
can be used to describe acids and bases. These terms, although they sound very similar,
have very different meanings and must not be confused or be used incorrectly when
classifying acids and bases.
Relative strengths of acids and bases

Let us differentiate between the terms ‘strong’ and ‘weak’, when describing an acid
or a base.
• A strong acid is an acid that tends towards complete ionisation in solution to produce
a large amount of H3O+ ions in solution. ionise the
process whereby
covalent
compounds
This reaction is technically reversible, but the strong acid ionizes so well that we can think break up into
of the reaction as almost being one way. Almost 100 % of the HCl molecules ionise, ionic substances
for the first time
meaning that the forward reaction is very much favoured. As a result, there are many
H3O+ ions in solution.
Table 8A shows a list of strong acids.
Table 8A
Formula Name of strong acid

HCl Hydrochloric acid
HNO3 Nitric acid
H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
HBr Hydrobromic acid
HI Hydroiodic acid
HClO4 Perchloric acid
• A weak acid is one which ionises partially in solution to form H3O+ ions.
Ionisation of weak acids do reach equilibrium with the equilibrium lying far to the left for
weak acids, hence the double arrow with the reverse reaction favoured. Very few of the
CH3COOH molecules are ionised.
Any other acids other than the strong acids mentioned in Table 8A are weak acids.
dissociate the
• A strong base is a base that tends towards complete dissociation in solution to form process whereby
OH– ions. ionic
compounds
break up into
their separate
This reaction is technically reversible, but the strong base dissociates so well that we can ions in the
think of the reaction as almost being one way. Almost 100 % of the NaOH molecules presence of
water
dissociate, meaning that the forward reaction is very much favoured. As a result, there
are many OH– ions in solution.

Table 8B shows a list of strong bases.

Table 8B
Formula Name of strong base

KOH Potassium hydroxide
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
LiOH Lithium hydroxide
RbOH Rubidium hydroxide
CsOH Caesium hydroxide
• A weak base is a base that dissociates partially in solution to form OH- ions.
Dissocciation of weak bases do reach equilibrium with the equilibrium lying far to the left
for weak bases, hence the double arrow with the reverse reaction favoured. Very few of
the NH3 molecules dissociate.
Any other bases other than the strong bases mentioned in Table 8B are weak bases.
Concentration of acids and bases

The concentration of an acid or a base is an indication
of how many acid or base molecules there are per unit
volume in the liquid. Concentration is a ratio of the
amount of solute to the volume of solvent in a solution.
So, if there is little or no water added to an acid, it is
said to be concentrated, but if an acid is added to water,
so that the acid is present in a small proportion, then it
is said to be dilute. Concentrated acids and bases have
concentrations usually in excess of 4-5 mol.dm–3. Dilute
acids and bases have concentrations usually less than
2 mol.dm–3.
Figure 8.4 shows two samples of hydrochloric acid.
Since the samples both contain HCl, they are both
regarded to contain a strong acid, as a strong acid is
a) small amount of HCl b) large amount of one that ionises completely and that cannot be altered
molecules per unit volume HCl molecules per by the amount of water present. Figure 8.4a) shows a
unit volume dilute sample of HCl. The concentration is 1 mol.dm–3,
Fig 8.4: Comparing the concentration of two sample of which is below 2 mol.dm–3, meaning that the HCl is
HCl, which is a strong acid present in a low proportion compared to water.
Figure 8.4b) shows a concentrated sample of HCl.
The concentration is 8 mol.dm–3, which is above
4-5 mol.dm–3, meaning that HCl is present in a higher
proportion compared to water.

Figure 8.5 shows two samples of acetic acid.
Since the samples both contain CH3COOH, they
are both regarded to contain a weak acid, as a weak acid is one
that ionises partially in water and this ionization cannot be
altered by the amount of water present. Figure 8.5a) shows a
dilute sample of CH3COOH. The concentration is 1 mol.dm-3
which is below 6 mol.dm-3, meaning that the CH3COOH is
present in a low proportion compared to water. Figure 8.5b)
shows a concentrated sample of CH3COOH. The concentration is
8 mol.dm-3, which is above 6 mol.dm-3, meaning that CH3COOH
is present in a higher proportion compared to water. a) Dilute CH3COOH b) Concentrated
CH3COOH
Fig 8.5: Comparing the concentration of two
samples of CH3COOH, wich is a weak acid
Science around us
Stomach acid – a strong acid
Stomach acid, sometimes referred to as gastric acid, is made up in part of
hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. The pH of stomach acid
ranges from 1,5 to 3,5, depending on the contents of the stomach. Stomach acid
plays a key role in the digestion of foods. The concentration of the hydrochloric
acid in stomach acid rises to a maximum of 0,16 mol.dm-3.
The unit for concentration can either be given in mol.dm–3

or M, both of which measure the moles of solute per dm3.
Checkpoint 3
Copy and complete the following table:
Sample Acid or base? Strong or weak? Concentrated or

dilute?
8 M HCl
9,5 M NH3
2 M NaOH
9 M CH3COOH
1,5 M H2SO4
8,5 M KOH
0,8 M Mg(OH)2
1,2 M H2CO3

Conductivity and reactivity of acids and bases
Conductivity of acids and bases

The greater the number of ions in solution, the better the conductivity of a solution. This
means that strong acids, having a high concentration of ions in solution because of their
high degree of ionisation, will be good conductors of electricity. A weak acid has a lower
degree of ionisation and will have a lower concentration of ions in solution and will not
be a good conductor of electricity.
Strong bases will have a high concentration of ions in solution as a result of their high
degree of dissociation and will be good conductors of electricity. Weak bases have a lower
concentration of ions in solution as a result of their lower degree of ionization and will
not be good conductors of electricity.
Reactivity of acids and bases

A strong acid reacts faster than a weak acid of the same concentration. This is because the
strong acid has more ions present in solution because of its high degree of ionisation and
will therefore react faster than the weak acid.
A strong base reacts faster than a weak base of the same concentration. This is because the
strong base has more ions present in solution because of its high degree of dissociation
and will therefore react faster than the weak base.
Checkpoint 4
1. Which sample in each of the following pairs will conduct electricity the easiest?
a) HCl(aq) or H2CO3(aq)?
b) Ca(OH)2 or NaOH?
2. Which sample in each of the following pairs will react the most vigorously in a
reaction?
a) KOH or Mg(OH)2?
b) CH3COOH or H2SO4?
Research task
Do research on one of the following topics. Write a report.

1. Find examples of naturally occurring acids and bases and their chemical
composition.
2. Find information about the hazardous nature of acids and bases.

Exercise 8.2
Classify the following samples of acids and bases as either weak or strong and
concentrated or dilute:
Description Acid or base? Strong or Concentrated

weak? or dilute?
1 1 mol.dm–3 HCl
2 5 mol.dm–3 Ca(OH)2
3 2 mol.dm–3 NaOH
4 7 mol.dm–3 CH3COOH
5 4,8 M KOH
6 8,2 M H2SO4
7 0,8 M Ba(OH)2
8 2,2 M H2CO3
Ionisation equilibria of acids and bases

In topic 7 (Chemical equilibrium), you learnt how to determine the equilibrium constant
expression, Kc, for a system in equilibrium. The strengths of acids and bases can be
compared by using their equilibrium constants for the reaction when the acid or base
dissolves in water. Let us consider the equilibrium equation for when HCl dissolves
in water:
We know that the concentration of H3O+ ions can be used as a measure of the
concentration of the acid. The more the acid ionises, the greater the concentration of H3O+
ions there will be. The equilibrium constant expression for the ionization of HCl can be
represented as:
−
[H O+ ][Cl ]
___________
Kc=   3  
[HCl][H O]
2
When we are dealing with the equilibrium constant for pure acids, we can use the symbol
Ka instead of Kc:
−
[H O+ ][Cl]
Ka=  ___________
3
 
[HCl][H O]
2
However, water is a pure liquid, thus the concentration of H2O remains constant and can
be replaced by a constant value of 1 in the equation:
− −
[H O+ ][Cl ] [H O+ ][Cl ]
___________
Ka=   3   ___________
∴ Ka=   3  
[HCl] × 1 [HCl]

Ka is called the ionisation constant of the acid. A strong acid will ionise completely and
will result in higher concentrations of the products that appear on the top line of the
equation. Thus, strong acids will have high Ka values, while weak acids will have low Ka
values.
Let us consider the equilibrium equation for when a base, NH3, dissolves in water:
We know that the concentration of OH- ions can be used as a measure of the
concentration of the base. The more the base dissociates, the greater the concentration of
OH- ions there will be. The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of NH3 can be
represented by the following equation:
[NH + ][OH− ]
Kc= ____________
    
   4
 
[NH ][H O]
3 2
When we are dealing with the equilibrium constant for pure bases, we can use the symbol
Kb instead of Kc:
[NH + ][OH− ]
____________
Kb=    
   4
 
[NH ][H O]
3 2
However, the concentration of H2O remains constant and can be replaced by a constant
value of 1 in the equation:
[NH + ][OH− ] [NH + ][OH− ]
Kb=  ____________
   4
  b=  ____________
∴K    4
 
[NH ] × 1 [NH ]
3 3
Kb is called the dissociation constant of the base. A strong base will dissociate completely
and will result in higher concentrations of the products that appear on the top line of the
equation. Thus, strong bases will have high Kb values, while weak bases will have low Kb
values.
Checkpoint 5
Determine whether the following acids and bases are strong or weak. Then explain how
their ionisation/dissociation constants compare?
1. CH3COOH and HNO3. 2. NaOH and Ca(OH)2.
Acid-base reactions
We will investigate the reactions with a variety of acids and bases. However, before we
do, we need to be able to identify the common acids and bases by name. Consider the
following list of the common acids and bases that you will need to know, along with their
formulae (Table 8C):

Table 8C Common acids and bases
Acids Bases
Nitric acid HNO3 Ammonia NH3
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Hydrochloric acid HCl Potassium hydroxide KOH
Ethanoic acid/ CH3COOH Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Acetic acid
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3
Acids can undergo a neutralisation reaction with a few different types of bases and each
reaction has its own general equation that we will work from. We will investigate these
reaction types one at a time.
Acids reacting with metal hydroxides

A metal hydroxide is a compound made up of a metal which has formed a compound
with the hydroxide ion (OH-), such as NaOH and Ca(OH)2. Acids and metal hydroxides
react together according to the following general equation:
acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
A salt is an ionic compound produced by the reaction of an acid with a base. It contains
the residue anion from the acid, once the H+ ion has been removed from the acid
molecule. Below is a guideline to give you an idea of what salt will be formed from
different acids.
• Nitric acid (HNO3) will form a nitrate (NO3–) salt.
• Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) will form a sulphate (SO42–) salt.
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) will form a chloride (Cl–) salt.
• Ethanoic/acetic acid (CH3COOH) will form an acetate (CH3COO–) salt.
Worked example:
Write a balanced equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and
sodium hydroxide.
Solution:

Acids reacting with metal oxides

A metal oxide is a compound made up of a metal ion combined with the oxide ion (O2-)
e.g. Na2O, CaO. Acids and metal oxides react together according to the following general
equation:
acid + metal oxide → salt + water
Worked examples:
Write a balanced equation for the reaction between sulphuric acid and sodium oxide.
Solution:
Acids reacting with metal carbonates

A metal carbonate is a compound made up of a metal ion combined with the carbonate
ion (CO32-) e.g. CaCO3, Na2CO3. Acids and metal carbonates react together according to
the following general equation:
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Worked example:
Write a balanced equation for the reaction between nitric acid and sodium carbonate.
Solution:

Science around us
Acid rain
Acid rain, in the form of dilute sulphuric acid,
H2SO4, has very damaging effects on building
and statues. Statues and the cement on buildings
are made of calcium carbonate, CaCO3. An acid-
base reaction occurs between the sulphuric acid
and the calcium carbonate, according to the
following reaction:
H2SO4 + CaCO3 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
Fig 8.6: Damage to statue
The resulting effect is damage on the buildings
caused by acid rain
and statues, such as that shown in Figure 8.6.
Checkpoint 6
Give a balanced equation for the reaction between:
1. Acetic acid + potassium hydroxide 3. Sulphuric acid + calcium oxide
2. Hydrochloric acid + magnesium carbonate 4. Acetic acid + calcium hydroxide
Practical design
Design and perform experiments which investigate:

1. The actions of dilute acids on metals, metal carbonates, metal
hydrogencarbonates, metal oxides and metal hydroxides.
2. The action of dilute bases on aqueous metal ions to form metal
hydroxide precipitates.
3. The corrosive nature of concentrated acids and bases (drain cleaners, battery
acid, swimming pool acid etc.)
Exercise 8.3
Give a balanced equation for the reaction between:

1. Hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide
2. Nitric acid + sodium oxide
3. Nitric acid + potassium carbonate
4. Hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate
5. Hydrochloric acid + sodium oxide
6. Nitric acid + sodium hydroxide

Acid-base indicators and concentration calculations
The pH scale
The pH scale is used to measure how acidic or basic a liquid is. Although there may be
many types of ions in a solution, pH focuses on concentrations of hydronium ions (H3O+).
The scale goes from values very close to 0 through 14. Distilled water is neutral and has a
pH of 7. Acids have a pH range of less than 7. Bases have a pH range of greater than 7.
The most common method to get test the pH of a solution is to use an acid base indicator.
organic derived An indicator is usually a weak organic dye that changes colours at definite pH values. A
from living
matter such as
variety of indicators change colour at various pH levels. Below are some of the indicators
cabbage that are used in the lab, showing their colours and pH range.
The ranges of acid-base indicators

• Methyl orange
Approximate pH range for color change: 3,1– 4,4
• Bromothymol blue
Approximate pH range for color change: 6,0–7,6
• Phenolphthalein
Approximate pH range for color change: 8,0–9,8
• Universal indicator
Universal indicator has a different colour for every pH.

Checkpoint 7
Indicator Colour in acid Colour in base

(approximate pH of 2) (approximate pH of 12)
Methyl orange
Bromothymol blue
Phenolphthalein
Universal indicator
Calculation of concentration
The concentration of a solution is measured in the units mol.dm-3 (M).
The equation used to calculate concentration is:
In symbols: Where:
c = concentration, measured in mol per decimetre3 (mol.dm-3)
n  
c =  __
V n = amount, measured in moles (mol)
V = volume, measured in decimetre3 (dm3)
It may be necessary to calculate the number of moles first, using this equation:
In symbols: Where:
n = amount, measured in moles (mol)
m
__
n =    
M m = mass, measured in grams (g)
M = molar mass, measured in grams per mole (g.mol-1)
Worked examples:
1. If 25 g HCl is mixed with water so as to produce 375 cm3 of solution, what would the
concentration of the solution be?
Solution:
m = 25 g
V = 375 cm3= 0,375 dm3
M = 1,01 + 35,45 = 36,46 g.mol–1

m   n  
c =  __
n =  ___ V
M
25  
n =  _____ 0,69
36,46 c = _____
   
0,375
∴ n = 0,69 mol ∴ c = 1,83 mol.dm– 3

2. Calculate the mass of K2CO3 in 425 cm3 of a solution of concentration 0,25 mol,dm–3.
V = 425 cm3= 0,425 dm3
c = 0,25 mol.dm-3
M = (2 × 39,1) + (12) + (3 × 16) = 138,2 g.mol-1
  n  
c = __ m  
n =  ___
V M
n = c.V m = n.M
n = (0,25)(0,425) m = (0,11)(138,2)
∴ n = 0,11 mol ∴ m = 14,68 g
Checkpoint 8
1. If 57 g H2SO4 is mixed with water so as to produce 245 cm3 of solution, what is the
concentration of the solution?
2. Calculate the mass of KOH in 340 cm3 of a solution of concentration 3,4 mol,dm–3.
Exercise 8.4
1. If 14 g HNO3 is mixed with water so as to produce 250 cm3 of solution, what is

the concentration of the solution ?
2. If 20 g of NaOH was dissolved in 200 cm3 of solution, what is the concentration
of the solution ?
3. Calculate the mass of Na2CO3 in 120 cm3 of a solution of concentration
0,1 mol,dm–3.
4. What mass of H2SO4 is contained in 250 cm3 of a solution of concentration
0,2 mol.dm-3.
pH calculations
pH of acids
The pH of a solution can be calculated using the following equation:
pH = –log[H3O+]
The concentration of H3O+ ions, represented by [H3O+] in the equation, can be determined
by the ionisation of the acid.

Worked examples:
1. Calculate the pH of a solution of HNO3 with a concentration of 1 × 10–2 mol.dm–3.
Solution:
In a solution of HNO3, the molecules ionise almost completely:
Thus we can approximate that 1 molecule of HNO3 will ionise to form 1 H3O+ ion.
Therefore, [HNO3] = [H3O+] = 1 × 10–2 mol.dm-3.
[H3O+] = 1 × 10–2 mol.dm–3
pH = − log[H O+]
3
pH = − log(1 × 10−2
)
pH = 2
2. 0,18 g of HCl is dissolved in 5 dm3 of water. Calculate the pH of the solution.
Solution:
n =  __ m 
M
0,18
n =  _____ 
36,46
∴ n = 4,93 × 10−3 mol
c = __   n   pH = − log[H O+ ]
V 3
4,93 × 10−3 pH = − log(9,87 × 10−4

)
c = __________
   
5 pH = 3
c = 9,87 × 10−4 mol.dm–3
c = 9,87 × 10−4
mol.dm-3
∴ [H O+ ] = 9,87 × 10−4
mol.dm–3
3
3. Calculate the pH of H2SO4 of concentration 1,8 × 10– 4 mol.dm–3, assuming complete

ionisation of the acid occurs.
Solution:
H2SO4, when it ionises in water, causes the production of 2H3O+ ions for every one
molecule of H2SO4 according to the equation:
H2SO4(l) + 2H2O(l) → 2H3O+(aq) + SO42– (aq)
Therefore, it is necessary to multiply the concentration of H2SO4 by 2, in order to get
the concentration of the H3O+ ions, [H3O+].

[H O+ ] = 2 × (1,8 × 10−4) = 3,6 × 10−4

mol.dm–3
3
pH = − log[H O+]
3
pH = − log(3,6 × 10−4)
pH = 3,44
Checkpoint 9
1. 4,5 g of HNO3 is dissolved in 500 cm3 of water. Calculate the pH of the solution.
2. Calculate the pH of H2SO4 of concentration 1,2 × 10– 4 mol.dm–3, assuming complete
ionisation of the acid occurs.
The auto-ionisation of water

Water undergoes auto-ionisation, in which a proton is transferred from one water
molecule to another. As a result water ionises into hydroxide ions (OH–) and hydronium
ions (H3O+) according to the following equation, although to a very limited extent:
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇀ H3O+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
The equilibrium constant for the auto-ionisation of H2O can be represented by the
following expression:
[H O+ ][OH− ]
____________
Kc=     3
 
[H O]2
2
However, the concentration of H2O remains constant and can be replaced by a constant
value of 1 in the equation:
[H O+ ][OH− ]
____________
Kc=     3
 = [H3O+][OH–] ∴ Kw= [H3 O+ ][OH− ]
12
At room temperature, the Kw remains a constant 1 × 10–14. We call this the dissociation
constant for water and the following equation is derived:
Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1 × 10–14 mol.dm–3
In a neutral solution, [H3O+] = [OH–] = 1 × 10–7 mol.dm–3.

In any other aqueous solution that is not neutral, the ionic product [H3O+][OH-] remains
constant and is equal to 1 × 10–14 at 25 °C. From this information we can derive the
following equation:
[H3O+][OH–] = 1 × 10–14
The above equation will be useful in the calculation of the pH of bases below.

pH of Bases
If the concentration of a strong base such as KOH or NaOH is calculated, then that
concentration will be equal to the concentration of OH– ions in the solution, as strong
bases dissociate to form OH– ions. However, in every basic solution, there are also some
H3O+ ions present due to the auto-protolysis of water, although there will be fewer H3O+
ions present than OH– ions. It is the concentration of H3O+ ions that will need to be
calculated first, before the pH can be calculated.
Worked example:
1. Calculate the pH of a solution of NaOH with a concentration of 1 × 10–4 mol.dm–3.
Solution:
In a solution of NaOH, the molecules dissociate almost completely:
NaOH(s) ⇀ Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
1 molecule of NaOH dissociates to form 1 OH– ion.
Therefore, [NaOH] = [OH–] = 1 × 10– 4 mol.dm–3
[H O+ ][OH− ] = 1 × 10−14
pH = − log[H O+ ]
3 3
1 × 10
[H3O+ ] =  ________
−14

  pH = − log(5 × 10−12
)
[OH− ]
1 × 10−14  pH = 11,30
[H3 O+ ] =  ________
2 × 10−3
[H3O+ ] = 5 × 10−12 mol.dm–3
Checkpoint 10
1. Calculate the pH of a solution of KOH with a concentration of 2,4 × 10–4 mol.dm–3.
2. 1,2 g KOH is dissolved in water and made up to a volume of 425 cm3. Calculate the
pH of the solution.
Exercise 8.5
1. Calculate the pH of a solution of HCl of concentration 1 × 10–2 mol.dm–3.

2. Calculate the pH of a solution of HNO3 of concentration 1 × 10–3 mol.dm–3.
3. Calculate the pH of a solution of H2SO4 of concentration 5 × 10–2 M, assuming
complete ionisation of the acid.
4. Calculate the pH of a solution of H2SO4 of concentration 1 × 10–2 M, assuming
complete ionisation of the acid.
5. Calculate the pH of a solution of NaOH of concentration 1 × 10–2 M.
6. Calculate the pH of a solution of KOH of concentration 10 mol.dm–3.

7. Calculate the pH of the following solutions:

a) 1 × 10-4 mol.dm–3 HNO3
b) 3,4 x 10–3 mol.dm–3 H2SO4, assuming complete ionisation of the acid.
c) 1,5 x 10–4 mol.dm–3 NaOH
8. 2,65 g of HCl is dissolved in water and made up to a volume of 10 dm3.
a) Calculate the concentration of the HCl solution.
b) Calculate the [OH–] of the solution.
Hydrolysis
A salt is formed by reaction between an acid and a base. Usually, a neutral salt with a
pH of 7, when in solution, is formed when a strong acid and a strong base are neutralized
in a reaction. However, if the acid and base used to make the salt are not of a comparable
strength, then the resulting salt solution is unlikely to be neutral.
Hydrolysis is the ability of the ions to react with the water molecules, thus altering the pH.
The ions in an acid-base reaction form a salt solution. Ions that originate from a strong
acid and a strong base have little tendency to react with water. Thus, salts consisting of
these ions are neutral salts.
Worked examples:
1. Determine the approximate pH when the following
salts are dissolved in water. NaCl is a salt that is
produced by the reaction of HCl, a strong acid, with
NaOH, a strong base, as shown in Figure 8.7 HCl
reacts with NaOH according to the following reaction: Fig 8.7
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
The Na+ and Cl- ions in the resulting solution will not react with water and the
solution will be neutral. Hydrolysis has not occurred, as the pH has not changed.
2. Determine the approximate pH when the

following salts are dissolved in water. NH4Cl is a
salt that is produced by the reaction of HCl, a
strong acid, with NH3, a weak base, shown in
Figure 8.8. In the solution, the NH4+ ions react Fig 8.8
with water, according to the equation:

The presence of the H3O+ ions in the solution is the reason why NH4Cl is said to be an
acidic salt. Hydrolysis has occurred, as the pH has changed.
3. Determine the approximate pH when the following salts are

dissolved in water. K2S is a salt that is produced by the
reaction of H2S, a weak acid, with KOH, a strong base,
shown in Figure 8.9. In the solution, the S2– ions react with
Fig 8.9
water according to the equation:
The presence of OH– ions in the solution is the reason why K2S is said to be a basic salt.
Hydrolysis has occurred, as the pH has changed.
We can use the following rules to predict the acidic, basic or neutral properties of a salt:
• A salt derived from a strong acid and a strong base → hydrolysis does not occur,
pH = 7.
• A salt derived from a strong acid and a weak base → hydrolysis does occur, with a
resulting pH < 7 (acidic).
• A salt derived from a weak acid and a strong base → hydrolysis does occur, with a
resulting pH > 7 (basic).
Checkpoint 11
1. What will the resulting pH be when KCl is dissolved in water? Explain with the use
of equations.
2. What will the resulting pH be when Ca(NO3)2 is dissolved in water? Explain with the
use of equations.
Exercise 8.6
1. Identify from which acid and base are the following salts derived. Are the acids
and bases from which they are derived, weak or strong?
Example: NaCl
Na+Cl–
comes from NaOH, comes from HCl,

a strong base. a strong acid.

a) KNO3 b) LiCl
c) K2CO3 d) CaF2
2. Determine whether hydrolysis occurs in each of the following solutions with
water and say what kind of solution forms (acidic pH < 7, basic pH > H or
neutral). Use reactions to assist your answers.
a) CuSO4 b) NH4Cl
c) KNO3 d) KMnO4
Neutralisation and titrations
Neutralisation
A neutralization reaction is a reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form a salt.
Water is frequently produced as well. The general equation for a neutralisation reaction is:
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
A very important thing to note is that a solution is considered to be neutral when the
concentration of H3O+ ions is equal to the concentration of the OH- ions.
Science around us
Antacids – an acid-base reaction
Antacid tablets are taken for the relief of
heartburn and indigestion, which occurs as a
result of an overproduction of stomach acid.
Antacids perform a neutralisation reaction,
increasing the pH to reduce the acidity in the
stomach. The stomach acid is neutralised by
the sodium hydrogencarbonate in the antacid
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2
The characteristic “burp” that one often
experiences after drinking a fizzy antacid
occurs as a result of the formation of
Fig 8.10: An antacid neutralises
CO2 gas (Figure 8.10).
stomach acid and gives relief
from heartburn

• Neutralising a strong acid with a strong base
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
HCl is a strong acid and ionises completely. NaOH is a strong base and dissociates
completely. The mole ratio of HCl to NaOH in this reaction in 1:1, so if 1 mol of HCl is
reacted with 1 mol of NaOH, this results in there being equal quantities of H3O+ and OH-
ions in the solution due to the ratio 1 : 1. If the strength of the acid is comparable in
strength to the base, then the reaction will neutralise at a pH = 7. So, the pH of this
solution at the end of the reaction would be 7.
• Neutralising a weak acid with a weak base

Example: CH3COOH + NH4OH → CH3COONH4 + H2O
CH3COOH is a weak acid and ionises partially. NH4OH is a weak base and dissociates
partially. The mole ratio of CH3COOH to NH4OH in this reaction is 1:1, so if 1 mol of
CH3COOH is reacted with 1 mol of NH4OH , this results in there being equal quantities
of H3O+ and OH- ions in the solution due to the ratio 1 : 1 . If the strength of the acid is
comparable in strength to the base, then the reaction will neutralize at a pH of 7. So, the
pH of this solution at the end of the reaction would be 7.
• Neutralising a strong acid with a weak base

Example: HCl + NH4OH → NH4Cl + H2O
HCl is a strong acid and ionises completely. NH4OH is a weak base and dissociates
partially. The mole ratio of HCl to NH4OH in this reaction is 1:1, so if 1 mol of CH3COOH
is reacted with 1 mol of NH4OH , there will thus be more H3O+ ions present in the
solution than OH- ions because of the complete ionization of HCl and the partial
dissociation of NH3. Therefore, once all the OH- ions have been neutralized by the H3O+
ions, there will still be some H3O+ ions left over. Therefore, after neutralization the pH
will be less than 7.
• Neutralising a weak acid with a strong base

Example: CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + 2 H2O
CH3COOH is a weak acid and ionizes partially. NaOH is a strong base and dissociates
completely. The mole ratio of CH3COOH to NaOH in this reaction is 1:1, so if 1 mol of
CH3COOH is reacted with 1 mol of NaOH, there will thus be more OH- ions present in
the solution that H3O+ ions. Therefore, once all the H3O+ ions have been neutralized by
the OH- ions, there will still be some OH- ions left over. Therefore, after neutralization the
pH will be greater than 7.
Checkpoint 12
Predict the approximate pH at the end of a neutralisation reaction between the following
acids and bases. Answer 7, greater than 7 or less than 7.
1. HNO3 and Mg(OH)2 2. CH3COOH and Mg(OH)2
3. CH3COOH and KOH 4. HNO3 and KOH

Science around us
Insect stings can be neutralized
A bee sting (Figure 8.11) is acidic and can be
neutralized by a household base, such as
bicarbonate of soda. On the other hand, a wasp
sting is alkaline and can be neutralized by a
household acid, such as vinegar. Fig 8.11: Bee stings are acidic
Titrations
A titration is a technique where a solution of known concentration is used to determine
the concentration of an unknown solution. This process involves the gradual
neutralisation of an acid by a base, or a base by an acid. The point where enough acid has
been added to base (or base added to acid) to bring about a colour change in the indicator
is called the end point of neutralisation. An indicator is used to determine the end point
which becomes visible by means of a colour change. As we have already discovered, this
will not necessarily be at a pH of 7, so we must choose a suitable indicator for the titration
that we do. Table 8D shows three indicators, as well as their pH ranges, so that we can
then select a suitable indicator for the titration being performed.
Table 8D Common indicators and their pH ranges
If we are titrating a strong acid and a strong base or a weak acid and a weak base, the end
point would be at approximately a pH of 7, so we would use bromothymol blue as the
indicator.
If we are titrating a strong acid with a weak base, the end point would be at a pH less
than 7, so we would use methyl orange as the indicator.
If we are titrating a weak acid with a strong base, the end point would be at a pH greater
than 7, so we would use phenolphthalein as the indicator.

Checkpoint 13
What indicator would you suggest to be used in a titration reaction involving the
following acids and bases?
1. HNO3 and Mg(OH)2 2. CH3COOH and Mg(OH)2
3. CH3COOH and KOH 4. HNO3 and KOH
Exercise 8.7
What would be a suitable indicator to use if solutions of the following acids and
bases were titrated against one another?
1. HNO3 and NaOH 2. CH3COOH and Ca(OH)2
3. H2SO4 and MgCO3 4. H2CO3 and KOH
Titration calculations
Titrations are carried out to determine the unknown concentration of an acid or a base.
If one solution, either acid or base of known concentration is added to a solution of
unknown concentration until it is exactly neutralised, the concentration of substance with
the unknown concentration can be calculated. This is known as volumetric analysis and
the titration is the technique used to perform this.
Note: A solution of known concentration which is used in the titration is called a
standard solution.
Worked examples:
1. 82 cm3 of hydrochloric acid of concentration 0,2 mol.dm–3 is required to neutralize
60 cm3 of Ba(OH)2, of unknown concentration. Calculate the concentration of Ba(OH)2.
HCl + Ba(OH)2→ BaCl2 + H2O
Solution:
The number of moles of acid and base are the ratio of acid to base in the equation and are
the same as the number in front of the acid and base in the balanced equation. Therefore,
it is always necessary to be working from a balanced equation when doing titration
calculations.
acid base
2HCl + 1Ba(OH)2→ BaCl2 + 2H2O
mole 2 : 1
ratio
ca = 0,2mol.dm-3 ca = concentration of acid
Va = 82 cm3 Va = volume of acid
cb = ? cb = concentration of base
Vb = 60 cm3 Vb = volume of base

Step 1:
Determine the mole ratio between the two reactants, using a balanced equation.
Acid : Base
HCl : NaOH
2:1
Step 2:
Using the equation n = c.V, formulate an equation that equates the number of moles of
acid to the number of moles of base, using the mole ratio from step 1.
n 2 caVa __
  na =  __
___   We know that n = c.V, therefore:  _____   =   2 
b 1 cbVb 1
Step 3:
Solve for the unknown.
c aVa __
 _____   =   2 
cbVb 1
(0,2)(82) __
________
   =   2 
cb(60) 1
cb= 0,14 mol.dm-3
2. The concentration of a solution of sodium carbonate is 0,5 mol.dm–3. 20 cm3 of this
solution neutralises exactly 24,5 cm3 of sulphuric acid. Calculate the concentration of
the sulphuric acid.
Na2CO3 + H2SO4→ Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
Solution:
base acid
1Na2CO3 + 1H2SO4→ Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
mole
ratio 1 : 1
ca = ? cb = 0,5 mol.dm–3
Va = 24,5 cm3 Vb = 20 cm3
Step 1:
Determine the mole ratio between the two reactants, using a balanced equation.
Acid : Base
H2SO4 : Na2CO3
1:1
Step 2:
Using the equation n = c.V, formulate an equation that equates the number of moles of
acid to the number of moles of base, using the mole ratio from step 1.
a __
n 1 c aVa __ 1
 ___ _____
nb =    1  We know that n = c.V, therefore:   c V  =   1 
b b

Step 3:
Solve for the unknown.
caVa __
 _____   =   1 
cb Vb 1
ca(24,5) __
 ________   =   1 
(0,5)(20) 1
ca = 0,41 mol.dm–3
Checkpoint 14
45 cm3 of nitric acid of concentration 0,4 mol.dm–3 is required to neutralise 30 cm3 of
magnesium hydroxide, of unknown concentration. Calculate the concentration of
magnesium hydroxide. Balance the equation first.
HNO3 + Mg(OH)2→ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
Tritation with oxalic acid

Safety first:
Oxalic acid dihydrate 7
Sodium hydroxide 9
Phenolphtalien indicator LOW HAZARD 39
Part 1:
Aim: To prepare a standard solution of oxalic acid.
You will need:
• Watchglass
• Spatula
• 100 ml volumetric flask
• Oxalic acid dihydrate (H2C2O4.2H2O)

Part 2:
Aim: To determine the unknown concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) by titrating it against a standard solution of oxalic acid (H2C2O4)
You will need:
• 1 x 25 ml pipette
• 2 x 125 ml beakers
• 1 x 50 ml burette, burette stand and clamp
• Conical flask
• Funnel
• Wash bottle filled with water
• Standard solution of oxalic acid
• Sodium hydroxide solution
• Phenolphthalein indicator
Method:
1. Pour the standard solution of oxalic acid that was prepared in
part 1 into the 125 ml beaker.
2. Using the pipette, transfer 25 ml of the oxalic acid solution into
the conical flask.
3. Add 6-8 drops of phenolphthalein to the conical flask.
4. Rinse the burette with some of the sodium hydroxide solution.
Fill the burette with the sodium hydroxide solution. Using a
funnel makes this easier. Make sure that the burette is filled
exactly to the zero mark. Read off the bottom of the meniscus
when taking readings.
5. See Figure 8.12 for the
setup for this step. Add the Keep the remainder of the
sodium hydroxide to the sodium hydroxide solution for
conical flask, drop by the next experiment.
drop, until there is a colour
change. If some sodium hydroxide sticks to the inside of the
conical flask, it can be washed into the solution using a wash
bottle filled with water. Record the volume of sodium
hydroxide used.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 another two times.
Fig 8.12: Diagram of experimental setup

Results:
The equation for this neutralisation reaction is:
2NaOH(aq) + H2C2O4(aq) → Na2C2O4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Copy the table below and record your results:
Volume of oxalic Volume of

acid (ml) sodium
hydroxide (ml)
Average
Now calculate the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution.

Questions:
1. Why is it difficult to see whether you have added the phenolphthalein to the
flask solution before you have titrated it?
2. Why did you need to rinse the burette with base before you completely filled it
with NaOH?
3. Does the amount of water in which you dissolved the oxalic acid affect the
outcome of the experiment? Explain.
4. Why is it important to wash down the sides of the reaction flask with water as
you near the end point?
5. How many moles of base (sodium hydroxide) are needed to neutralise one mole
of acid (oxalic acid)?
6. What are some sources of error for this experiment? Why might your result not
be accurate? How could you improve your results?
Exercise 8.8
1. 32,5 cm3 of a sulphuric acid solution neutralises exactly 25 cm3 of a potassium

hydroxide solution of concentration 0,6 mol.dm–3
a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
b) Name a suitable indicator for the reaction.
c) Calculate the concentration of the acid solution.

2. 12,4 g of NaOH is dissolved in 300 cm3 of water to make a standard solution.

57 cm3 of this solution is used to neutralise 30 cm3 of a solution of CH3COOH.
a) Calculate the concentration of the sodium hydroxide standard solution.
b) Name a suitable indicator for the reaction.
c) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
d) Calculate the concentration of the acetic acid solution.
3. What volume of a 0,5 mol.dm–3 solution of HCl is needed to neutralise 25 cm3 of
a 0,4 mol.dm–3 solution of NaOH?
4. In a titration between NaOH and HCl, it was found that 48 cm3 of the NaOH of
concentration 0,25 M just neutralised 25 cm3 of the acid of unknown
concentration. What is the concentration of the acid solution?
5. In the titration between H2SO4 and NaOH, it was found that 12 cm3 of the acid
of concentration 0,08 M just neutralised 8 cm3 of the base of unknown
concentration. What is the concentration of the base solution?
6. In an experiment to determine the concentration of a HCl solution, 30 cm3 of a
Na2CO3 solution of concentration 0,1 M neutralised 20 cm3 the HCl solution.
a) How many moles of Na2CO3 are there in 1 dm3 of the base solution?
b) What mass of Na2CO3 is there in 1 dm3 of the base of concentration 0,1 M?
c) Write a balanced equation for the above reaction.
d) Calculate the concentration of the HCl solution.
e) What would be a suitable indicator to use in this titration?
7. 50 cm3 of a 0,2 M solution of NaOH exactly neutralised 30 cm3 of
sulphuric acid solution.
a) Give a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
Calculate:
b) the concentration of the sulphuric acid solution.
c) the pH of the NaOH solution.
d) What would be a suitable indicator to use in this titration?
8. 2,5 g of NaOH is dissolved in water to make 250 cm3 of a standard solution. Of
this solution, exactly 25 cm3 are used to react completely with 15 cm3 of
sulphuric acid.
a) Calculate the concentration of the standard solution.
b) Calculate the concentration of the sulphuric acid.
9. 5 g NaOH are dissolved in water and made up to a volume of 750 cm3. 48 cm3 of
this solution exactly neutralises 10 cm3 of hydrochloric acid. Calculate the
concentration of the hydrochloric acid.
10. 2,8 g KOH are dissolved in water and made up to a volume of 450 cm3. 20 cm3
of this solution exactly neutralises 25 cm3 of hydrochloric acid. Calculate the
concentration of the hydrochloric acid.

Percentage by mass
The substances that we use in titrations are not always completely pure. They may
contain impurities and sometimes we have to calculate how pure the sample is or what
percentage by mass there exists in a sample.
Worked example:
3,68 g of washing soda crystals (Na2CO3.10H2O) are dissolved in water and made up to a
volume of 275 cm3. 25 cm3 of this sample is neutralised by 23,5 cm3 of HCl of
concentration 0,11 mol.dm–3. Calculate the percentage Na2CO3 in commercial
washing soda.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → CO2 + 2NaCl + H2O
Solution:
It is important to note that 3,68 g is not the mass of Na2CO3 – it is the mass of washing
soda crystals, which is comprised of some Na2CO3 as well as water of crystallization and
some impurities as well. The aim of our calculations is to determine how much of the
3,68 g of washing soda is actually Na2CO3. The HCl will only react with the Na2CO3 in
the washing soda, so we will use the titration information to determine the mass of
Na2CO3 in the washing soda.
Step 1:
Calculate the number of moles of the pure acid used in the titration.
n  
c =  __
V
n = c.V
n = (0,11)(0,0235)
n = 2,59 × 10−3 mol
Step 2:
Using the mole ratio, find the number of moles of Na2CO3 used in the titration.
We divide the number of moles of HCl by 2 to get the number of moles of Na2CO3
because the mole ration of HCl to Na2CO3 is 2:1 in the balanced equation.
n = (2,59 × 10−3) ÷ 2
∴n = 1,29 × 10−3 mol

Step 3:
Find the number of moles of Na2CO3 in the original 275 cm3 sample.
1,29 × 10–3 mol is the number of moles in 25 cm3 of the Na2CO3 solution and we need to
know the number of moles in the original 275 cm3 sample.
1,29 × 10−3
n =   __________
  × 275
25
∴n = 1,42 × 10−2 mol Na CO in 275 cm3 sample
2 3
Step 4:
Calculate the mass of Na2CO3 in the original 275 cm3 sample.
m  
n =  ___
M
m = n.M
m = (1,42 × 10−2)(106)
m = 1,51 g Na2CO3
Step 5:
Using the original mass used, calculate the percentage of Na2CO3 the original sample.
Only 1,51 g of the original sample is pure Na2CO3. Therefore, the percentage purity of the
Na2CO3 is:
1,51
% purity =  ____  × 100 = 41 %
3,68
Checkpoint 15
Acetylcylic acid (C9H8O4) is found in aspirin
tablets, shown in Figure 8.13. 2,5 g aspirin tablets
are dissolved in propanol and together they have
a volume of 125 cm3. 25 cm3 of the aspirin
solution was neutralized by 30,4 cm3 of a 0,1 mol.
dm–3 solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
Calculate the percentage purity of the aspirin if
the equation for the titration reaction is:
C9H8O4 + NaOH → C9H7O4Na + H2O
Fig 8.13: Aspirin tablets contain

acetylcylic acid

Experiment
Aim: To use a titration to determine:

• the concentration of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in vinegar and
• the percentage of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in vinegar
You will need:
• 1 x 10 ml measuring cylinder • Wash bottle filled with water
• 1 x 125 ml beaker • Standard solution of sodium hydroxide
from previous experiment
• 1 x 50 ml burette, burette stand • Vinegar
and clamp
• Conical flask • Funnel
• Phenolphthalein indicator In this experiment, assume that
Method: the density of vinegar is 1 g.ml–1.
So 5 ml = 5 g.
In this experiment, you will titrate the vinegar, which
contains an unknown quantity of acetic acid, against a
standard solution of sodium hydroxide. You will use the
sodium hydroxide solution from the previous
experiment. In that experiment, you calculated the
concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution, so this
concentration is known. For this reason, the sodium
hydroxide is the standard solution.
1. Using the 10 ml measuring cylinder, place 10 ml of
vinegar into the conical flask.
2. Add 6-8 drops of phenolphthalein to the conical
flask.
3. Rinse the burette with some of the sodium hydroxide
solution. Fill the burette with the sodium hydroxide
solution. Using a funnel makes this easier. Make sure
that the burette is filled exactly to the zero mark.
Read off the bottom of the meniscus when taking
readings.
4. See Figure 8.14 for the setup for this step. Add the
sodium hydroxide to the conical flask, drop by drop,
until there is a colour change. If some sodium
hydroxide sticks to the inside of the conical flask, it
can be washed into the solution using a wash bottle
filled with water. Record the volume of sodium
hydroxide used. Fig 8.14: Diagram of experimental setup
5. Repeat steps 1 to 6 two more times.

Results:
The equation for this neutralisation reaction is:
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
Copy the table below and record the results:
Volume of Volume of
vinegar (cm3) sodium
hydroxide
(cm3)
Average
Calculate:
1. The concentration of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) from the titration results.
2. The mass of CH3COOH in the 5 ml sample of vinegar used in the titration.
3. Calculate the percentage of CH3COOH in the vinegar sample.
Conclusion:
Give a conclusion based on the results.
Exercise 8.9
1. 7,5 g of commercial caustic soda (NaOH) is dissolved in water and made up to a

volume of 250 cm3. 10 cm3 of this solution is neutralised by 13,5 cm3 of nitric
acid of concentration 0,5 mol.dm-3. Calculate the percentage purity of the
caustic soda.
2. 5 g of commercial vinegar is dissolved in water and made up to a volume of
60 cm3. 25 cm3 of this solution is neutralised by 31,3 cm3 of sodium hydroxide of
concentration 0,12 mol.dm-3. Calculate the percentage of ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH) in commercial vinegar.
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
3. 16,65 g of impure NaHCO3 is dissolved in water and made up to a volume of
250 cm3. 20 cm3 of this solution neutralises 25,16 cm3 of a 0,29 mol.dm–3 HCl
solution. Calculate the percentage purity of the NaHCO3. The equation for the
reaction is:
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2

The application of acids and bases
The uses of acids and bases
Acids and bases in the chlor-alkali industry

Chlorine gas is produced in vast quantities in
industry by electrolysis, the chemical decomposition
of a compound produced by passing an electric
current through a conducting liquid (Figure 8.15).
Chlorine has numerous uses, including being used
for water purification and in the production of
plastics, solvents for dry cleaning, pharmaceuticals,
insecticides and household cleaning products. In the
case of the industrial production of chlorine, an
electric current is passed through a solution of
seawater, known as brine. The production of
chlorine involves a redox reaction, shown below: Fig 8.15: The electrolysis of brine
Anode 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– (oxidation)

At the anode, chloride ions are oxidised to chlorine molecules.
Cathode 2H2O + 2e– → H2 + 2OH– (reduction)
At the cathode, water molecules are reduced to form hydrogen molecules and hydroxide
ions.
Overall reaction 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)
The sodium hydroxide produced is a very strong base and is used in the production of
soaps, detergents, textiles, paper and bleaches.
Checkpoint 16
1. Chlorine gas is sproduced in industry.
a) Name the process by which chlorine gas is produced in industry. Briefly explain
this process.
b) Give the equation for the half-reaction that occurs at the anode.
c) Does oxidation or reduction occur at the anode?
d) Give the equation for the half-reaction that occurs at the cathode.
e) Does oxidation or reduction occur at the cathode?
f) List 5 uses of chlorine.
g) What other useful product is produced in this process? What is it used for?

Acids and bases in the chemistry of hair

It is possible to subject our hair to a number of different chemical processes. We are able
to curl, relax or colour our hair using different chemical products. We will study the
chemical reactions involved in these processes.
The pH of your scalp and hair is about 5. Ordinary shampoos have a slightly acidic pH, a
little less than 7. Shampoo has to have a lower pH to be able to clear off the scum and
excess oils on the scalp and hair. A neutral shampoo is often used for babies or people
with sensitive scalp and hair, to prevent irritation.
However, processes that involve permanently curling, relaxing or colouring your hair
involve chemicals that have a pH above 7, sometimes well above 7 and this is where
potential problems may arise.
Hair relaxers
Hair relaxers work to straighten the hair (Figure 8.16) using two chemicals, sodium
hydroxide and guanidine hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide is a very strong base.
Guanidine hydroxide is a slightly weaker base than than sodium hydroxide, but
can be just as damaging. The chemicals alter the structure of the protein in the hair,
causing the hair to straighten.
Hair relaxing involves three steps:
• A protective, petroleum-based cream is applied to the hair to prevent the scalp
from burning and to protect the hair from damage, as much as possible.
• The chemicals that straighten the hair, sodium hydroxide and guanidine
hydroxide, are applied and allowed to set for up to a few hours, depending on
the existing strength of the curl in the hair.
• The chemicals are washed off and a deep conditioner is applied to try and keep
the hair from breaking.
Fig 8.16: Hair relaxers A hair relaxer that contains sodium hydroxide and guanidine hydroxide is said to
straighten hair be a lye relaxer. Lye relaxers are known to work quickly on the hair, but as a result
they might also rinse out of your hair easily. No-lye relaxers are made up primarily
of calcium hydroxide. No-lye relaxers are better for people with sensitive scalps, but are
known to dry out the hair even more than lye relaxers. When using no-lye, it is
imperative that you use a “de-calcifying” shampoo to prevent calcium buildup.
Common complaints related to using a hair relaxer include hair brittleness, weakened
hair shaft, hair breakage and some hair loss. It is important after relaxing your hair to
apply deep conditioning treatments on a weekly basis in order to help restore the natural
oils that have been stripped off by the harsh chemicals in the relaxer.
Permanent waves
A permanent wave, commonly called a perm, involves the use of chemicals to break and
reform the bonds of the hair. The waving lotion is commonly made up of thioglycolic acid
plus ammonia. This solution creates a chemical reaction that softens the inner structure of
the hair by breaking some of the cross links within and between the protein chains of the
hair. The hair swells, stretches and softens, then moulds around the shape of the perm rod.

A perm involves the following steps:
• The hair is washed.
• The hair is wrapped around perming rods such as the ones
shown in Figure 8.17 and the waving lotion is applied and
allowed to set for up to a few hours. The stylist must be able to
determine how much time is needed to achieve the type of curl
desired, otherwise hair can be underprocessed, resulting in curls
that relax too soon or overprocessed, resulting in too curly or
frizzy hair.
• Once the hair is processed, the stylist applies a neutralizer while
the hair is still on the rods to end the chemical process. All
chemicals are then washed out of the hair.
Common complaints related to permanent waves include hair
dryness and brittleness.
It is best to apply perm lotion only to those people whose hair Fig 8.17: Permanent waves curl the hair
structure is already healthy and not dry, because the result can be
split or dry ends and other hair damage.
Hair colouring
Ingredients of hair dyes usually include chemicals such as ammonia, hydrogen peroxide
and other harsh chemicals. Ammonia and hydrogen peroxide are the main components
that keep the hair dye bonded to the hair. They are able to seep inside the hair follicles,
taking the dye with them. That is how the dye stays on the hair for longer periods of time.
Temporary dyes coat the outside of the hair and can be washed out easily because of this.
Temporary dyes contain ammonia and no hydrogen peroxide and are considered to be
the least damaging to the hair. Semi-permanent dyes, such as the ones bought over the
counter at supermarkets, also contain ammonia and no hydrogen peroxide, but sit under
the cuticle, the outside layer of the hair. These dyes last six to eight weeks. Permanent
dyes contain hydrogen peroxide, which makes the colour penetrate deep into the cortex.
Permanent dyes remove the natural colour from the hair and deposit the new colour into
the cortex. Permanent dyes do not wash out, so you have to wait for the colour to grow
out to see the natural hair colour again.
Checkpoint 17
1. What is/are the main chemical/s used in:
a) Hair relaxers? b) Permanent waves? c) Hair colouring?
2. What is one problem that results when using a no-lye relaxer? How is this problem
remedied?
3. What are the common complaints associated with hair relaxers?
4. What are the common complaints associated with permanent waves?

Extend yourself
1. Define an acid and a base according to Arrhenius’ theory. (2)

2. Define an acid and a base according to the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)
3. What are conjugate acid-base pairs? (2)
4. Give balanced equations for the reaction between:
a) Hydrochloric acid + Calcium carbonate (3)
b) Nitric acid + Potassium hydroxide (3)
c) Sulphuric acid + Sodium oxide (3)
5. Give balanced equations for the reaction between:
a) Nitric Acid + Calcium Carbonate (3)
b) Sulphuric Acid + Sodium Carbonate (3)
c) Hydrochloric Acid + Magnesium Hydroxide (3)
d) Sulphuric Acid + Magnesium Carbonate (3)
e) Nitric Acid + Calcium Hydroxide (3)
f) Sulphuric Acid + Sodium carbonate (3)
6. A learner prepares a solution of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and finds that
the pH of the solution is not equal to 7. Explain why the pH is not equal to 7. (4)
7. 2,65 g of solid sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is dissolved in just enough
water to make 250 cm3 of a standard solution. In a titration that followed,
25 cm3 of the sodium carbonate solution is neutralised by 20 cm3 of
hydrochloric acid solution.
a) Calculate the concentration of the standard solution. (4)
b) Give a balanced equation for the neutralisation reaction. (2)
c) Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid. (6)
8. 3,5 g of Mg(OH)2 is dissolved to make up 1,5 dm3 of solution. Assuming the
complete dissociation of Mg(OH)2, calculate:
a) The concentration of the solution. (6)
b) The pH of the solution. (6)
9. 20 cm3 of a standard solution of Na2CO3 of concentration 0,12 mol.dm-3 is
titrated with a solution of HCl. It is found that 15 cm3 of the HCl is required.
a) What is a standard solution? (2)
b) Name a suitable indicator for this titration. (1)
c) Predict the approximate pH at the end point of this titration. (1)
The equation for the neutralisation reaction is:
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

d) Calculate the concentration of the HCl solution. (6)
e) Calculate the mass of Na2CO3 required to prepare 200 cm3 of the
standard solution. (6)
10. A learner is asked to make 200 cm3 of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution of
concentration 0,5 mol.dm–3.
a) Determine the mass of sodium hydroxide pellets he needs to use to
do this. (5)
b) Using an accurate balance, the learner accurately measures the correct
mass of the NaOH pellets. To the pellets he now adds 200 cm3 of pure
water. Will his solution have the correct concentration? Explain. (2)
300 cm3 of a 0,1 mol.dm-3 solution of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is added to 200 cm3
of a 0,5 mol.dm-3 solution of NaOH at 25 oC.
c) Write down the balanced equation for the reaction between these two
solutions.(3)
d) Calculate the number of moles of H2SO4 which were added to the
NaOH solution. (3)
e) Is the number of moles of H2SO4 calculated in d) sufficient to fully
neutralise the NaOH solution? Support your answer with a relevant
calculation.(4)
f) Calculate the pH of the mixture. (7)
[101]
Definitions
acid substances that have an excess of H+ or H3O+ ions

alkali a soluble base
auto-ionisation when a substance transfers one proton from on molecule of its own to another
molecule of its own
base substances that have an excess of OH– ions
concentration a ratio of the amount of solute to the volume of solution.
conjugate acid-base pairs compounds that differ by the presence of one proton, or H+
end point the point in a tritation when the number of moles of acid is equal to the number of
moles of base
hydrolysis the ability of ions to react with water molecules, altering the pH.
salt an ionic compound produced by the reaction of an acid with a base
standard solution a solution of known concentration
strong acid an acid that ionises completely in solution to form H3O+ ions.
strong base a base that dissociates completely in solution to form OH– ions.
titration a laboratory technique used to determine the concentration of an acid or a base
weak acid an acid that ionises partially in solution to form H3O+ ions
weak base a base that dissociates partially in solution to form OH– ions.

Summary

Topic
9 Electric circuits
• Internal resistance
Many of our everyday activities depend on electricity. These include entertainment,

communications, transport and industry. The picture shows electrical cables above
the Gautrain. These cables provide necessary electrical power needed to make the
train move. Electricity is so vital to modern life that physicists and engineers need to
understand it fully so that we can enjoy its benefits.
326 • Topic 9: Electric circuits

In Grades 10 and 11 you learnt about the following concepts in electricity:

• Potential difference (V) and current (I)
• Resistance (R) and Ohm’s Law
• Electrical energy (E) and power (P)
The following table summarises the rules for current (I), potential difference (V) and
resistance (R) in series and parallel circuits.
Resistors in series Resistors in parallel
The current (I) is the same anywhere in a I1 = I4

series circuit. Resistors in parallel are current dividers:
I2 + I3 = I1
I1 = I2 = I3 I2 + I3 = I4
Resistors in series are voltage dividers: V1 and V2 will always have the same reading.
Also, if a voltmeter V3 is connected across
V1 + V2 = V3 the whole parallel branch, it will also read
the same as V1 and V2.
V1 = V2 = V3
To calculate the total resistance of any To calculate the total resistance when
number of resistors connected in series, we resistors are connected in parallel, we use
use the equation below: the equation below:
___   1 + ___
  1 = ___   1 + ___
  1 ….
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... RP R1 R2 R3
OR
For 2 resistances in parallel:
product
Rp =  ________
sum 
R × R2
= _______
  1  
R1 + R2
Topic 9: Electric circuits • 327

Do these questions as a revision of the content that you learnt in
k
Chec Grades 10 and 11.
lf
myse
1. a) Define potential difference.
b) Write down an equation which defines potential difference in terms of work
done (W) and charge (Q) moved.
c) Define emf.
d) What is the unit of potential difference and emf?
2. What is the potential difference between two points in a circuit when 80 C of charge
transfers 4000 J of energy as it moves between the two points?
3. a) Define electric current.
b) State the unit of electric current.
c) Write down the equation which defines electric current.
4. The potential difference across a light bulb in an electric circuit is 15 V. How many
joules of electrical energy are changed into light and heat energy when there is a
current of 2 A in the light bulb for 10 s?
5. An electric toaster, operating at a potential difference of 115 V, uses 34 200 J of energy
in 3 minutes. Calculate the current in the heating element of the toaster.
6. Calculate the equivalent (total) resistance between points A and B in each of the
following cases:
a) b)
c)
7. State two ways of increasing the current in an electrical circuit.

8. State Ohm’s law.
9. Explain why the resistance of a metal wire increases when it is heated.
10. a) Describe the difference between current in resistors connected in series and
current in resistors connected in parallel.
b) Describe the difference between voltage across resistors connect in series and
voltage across resistors connected in parallel.

11. Calculate the unknown values in each of the following circuit diagrams:
a) Refer to Figure 9.1 and calculate the unknown values R2, R3, V1 and V3.
b) Refer to Figure 9.2 and calculate the unknown values I1, I2, I3, V1 and V2.
Fig 9.1 Fig 9.2
12. In an experiment to measure the resistance of a heating element, the following

measurements were made:
Current (A) 0,00 0,25 0,38 0,48 0,57 0,66

Potential difference (V) 0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00
a) Plot a graph of potential difference on the y-axis against current on the x-axis.
b) Use the graph to determine the resistance of the resistor at
i) 5,0 V
ii) 10,0 V
c) Explain why the resistance changed as the potential difference was increased.
13. Sketch a graph of voltage versus current for 2 different resistors on the same set of axes.
Indicate which of the two resistors has the greatest resistance and explain your choice.
14. Refer to Figure 9.3. The reading on the voltmeter connected across the 3 Ω
resistor is 9 V.
a) If a voltmeter across the parallel connection of resistors reads 12 V, how many
joules of energy does the battery supply to each coulomb of charge that passes
through it?
b) What is the reading on the ammeter A?
c) Calculate the current in the 6 Ω resistor.
d) How would the reading on the voltmeter
connected across the 3 Ω resistor change if
resistor R2 was removed from the circuit?
Fig 9.3
15. Refer to Figure 9.4.The circuit consists of a network of resistors connected to a
12 V source.
a) Determine the potential difference across XY:
i) with switch S open.
ii) with switch S closed.
b) Calculate the current supplied by the source:
i) with switch S open.
ii) with switch S closed. Fig 9.4
c) In which case does the 12 V source supply maximum power to the circuit? With
switch S open, or S closed? Explain your answer.
16. Refer to Figure 9.5. The emf of the battery is 20 V and the reading on the ammeter is 2 A.
a) Calculate the unknown resistance R.
b) Calculate the voltmeter reading.
c) Calculate the current in the 6 Ω resistor.
d) Calculate the power supplied to the
3 Ω resistor.
e) Calculate the energy dissipated in the 4 Ω
resistor in 2 minutes.
f) How would the ammeter reading change if a
10 Ω resistor was connected in parallel with Fig 9.5
the 4 Ω resistor? Explain your answer.
17. Consider the circuit diagram in Figure 9.6.
a) Calculate the total resistance in the circuit.
b) Calculate the reading on the ammeter.
c) Calculate the reading on the voltmeter V.
d) A voltmeter is connected across points A and
B. Calculate the reading on this voltmeter.
e) Calculate the current in the 15 Ω resistor.
f) Calculate the power dissipated in the Fig 9.6
60 Ω bulb.
g) Switch S2 is now opened. How will this affect:
i) the brightness of the bulb? Explain your answer.
ii) the reading on the voltmeter V.
h) Calculate the new reading on the ammeter when switch S2 is open.

18. A 1,5 V, 0,25 A torch bulb is connected to a 1,5 V battery for exactly 10 minutes.
a) Calculate the charge passing through the bulb in this time.
b) Calculate the power supplied to the bulb.
c) Calculate the electrical energy delivered to the bulb in 10 minutes.
The battery is capable of lighting the bulb for 1 hour.
d) Calculate the charge passing through the bulb in 1 hour.
e) Calculate the total electrical energy that the battery can deliver.
 V  .
2
19. Two equations for power P dissipated in a resistor are P = I2R and P = ___
R
The first equation suggests that the greater the resistance (R) of the resistor, the more
power is dissipated. The second equation suggests the opposite: the greater the
resistance, the less the power dissipated. Explain this apparent inconsistency.

Internal resistance
Internal resistance of a battery

In Grades 10 and 11, all electric circuit problems were
simplified by ignoring the resistance of a battery. The truth is
that a real battery has some resistance between the terminals,
called internal resistance (r). Figure 9.7 shows a diagram of a
battery with internal resistance r.
When a battery is in a circuit, with charge flowing through
the battery, electrical energy is wasted in the battery because Fig 9.7: A battery with internal resistance (r)
of the internal resistance of the battery. The battery gets
warm when there is a current in it because a small
amount of the electrical energy of the moving charges is
converted into heat energy in the internal resistance of
the battery.
A battery of emf ε is now connected to an external
resistance Rext (called the load). Figure 9.8 shows the
battery with a current I in the external circuit.
Recall that voltage is divided among resistors connected
in series. The internal resistance of the battery (r) is
treated as another resistor in series with the external
resistance (Rext). Therefore, the voltage across the
external circuit (Vload) plus the voltage across the
internal resistance (Vinternal resistance) is equal to the
battery’s emf (ε): Fig 9.8: A battery of emf ε and internal resistance r,
with a current I in the load resistor
In symbols: Where:
ε = emf, measured in volts (V)
ε = Vload + Vinternal resistance
Vload = voltage across external circuit, measured
in volts (V)
Vinternal resistance = voltage across the internal
resistance of the cells,
measured in volts (V)
The current is the same at all points in a series circuit. If the current in the circuit is I, then:
In symbols: Where:
ε = emf, measured in volts (V)
ε = IRext + Ir
I = current in the circuit, measured in amperes (A)
Rext = total resistance in the external circuit,
measured in ohms (Ω)
r = internal resistance, measured in ohms (Ω)

Worked example:
A battery of emf 4,5 V and internal resistance 0,5 Ω is connected to a 14,5 Ω resistor, as
Calculate:
a) The total resistance of the circuit.
b) The reading on the ammeter.
c) The reading on the voltmeter.
Solution:
a) RT = Rext + r
= 14,5 + 0,5 = 15Ω
b) The circuit current (I) is found using the battery’s emf and
4,5
ε = ___
Fig 9.9 the total resistance in the circuit: I =  ___    = 0,3A
RT 15
c) The voltmeter V will read the voltage across the external
resistance:
V = IRext= (0,3)(14,5) = 4,35 V
The voltmeter V also reads the potential difference across the terminals of the battery.
Notice how the terminal potential difference (4,35 V) is less than the emf of the battery
(4,5 V). So where is the remaining 0,15 V?
The voltage across the internal resistance (0,5 Ω) will account for the remaining 0,15 V.
Let’s check: Vint ernal resistance= Ir = (0,3)(0,5) = 0,15 V
ε = Vload + Vinternal resistance = 4,35 + 0,15 = 4,5 V
Terminal potential difference (Vload)

Refer back to Figure 9.8. The potential difference across the external resistance (Vload)
is given by:
Vload = ε – Vinternal resistance Vload is called the terminal potential difference.
The terminal potential difference is the potential difference across the terminals of a
battery when there is a current in the circuit. Vload = IRext
The terminal potential difference (Vload) is always less than the battery’s emf (ε). This is
because of the potential difference across the internal resistance.
Lost volts (Vinternal resistance)

The potential difference across the internal resistance is given by:
Vinternal resistance = ε – Vload
The difference between the battery’s emf (ε) and the terminal potential difference (Vload)
is sometimes referred to as “lost volts”, because this voltage is not being used in the
external circuit. Vinternal resistance = Ir.

Emf (ε)
The emf (ε) is the terminal potential difference when the circuit
is open and there is no current in the external circuit.
Figure 9.10 shows an open circuit in which the voltmeter
measures the emf of the battery.
When the switch S is closed, there will be a current in the
circuit, and a potential difference will exist across the internal
resistance. This voltage will be lost to the external circuit. The
voltmeter reading is now less than the emf of the battery.
The internal resistance of a battery depends on the size,
chemical properties, age, temperature and the current of the
Fig 9.10
battery. For most battery types, internal resistance ranges from a
fraction of an ohm to a few ohms. When a battery fails, it is because it has built up
enough internal resistance that it can no longer supply a useful amount of power to an
external load.
Let us summarise what you have learnt. Refer to the Table 9A and Figure 9.10.:
Table 9A
Switch S is open Switch S is closed

Current in external circuit is Current (I) in the battery and
Current
zero. external circuit.
The terminal voltage is less than
The terminal voltage is equal to
the battery’s emf. The voltmeter
the battery’s emf (ε).
Terminal voltage measures the potential difference
The voltmeter measures the
across the external resistance.
battery’s emf (ε).
Vload = IRext
The voltage across the internal
Internal resistance will not be used in the
resistance external circuit (lost volts).
Vinternal resistance = Ir
ε = Vload + Vinternal resistance
Formulae used
ε = IRext + Ir
Worked example:
In Figure 9.11, a voltmeter reads 13 V when it is connected
across the battery’s terminals only. The voltmeter reading drops
when the battery is connected to a lamp and the current in the
circuit is 3 A.
a) State the emf of the battery.
b) Calculate the potential difference across the internal
resistance (lost volts) when the battery is connected
to the lamp.
Fig 9.11

c) Calculate the battery’s internal resistance.

Solution:
a) The voltmeter measures the battery’s emf when the battery is not connected to the
lamp, so ε = 13 V
b) ε = Vload + Vinternal resistance
Vinternal resistance = ε – Vload = 13 – 12 = 1 V
c) Vinternal resistance = Ir
There is a current of 3A in the internal resistance, so:
1V
Vinternal resistance ___
r =  _______________
     =   3A = 0,33 Ω
I
Checkpoint 1
Three cells, each of emf 1,5 V, are connected in series to a 15 Ω light bulb. The current in
the circuit is 0,27 A. Calculate the internal resistance of each cell.
Checkpoint 2
A cell of emf 1,5 V has an internal resistance of 0,5 Ω.
a) Calculate the maximum current it can supply.
b) Under what circumstances will it supply this maximum current?
c) The cell is now connected to a load resistor of 10 Ω. Calculate the power delivered to
the load resistor.
d) Calculate the energy dissipated in the cell in 5 minutes.
Increasing the external resistance

Refer to Figure 9.12. Suppose the resistance in the external
circuit is increased by adding another resistor in series.
This will result in a decrease in the circuit current (I).
If the current (I) decreases, then the potential difference across
the internal resistance (lost volts) will also decrease:
Vinternal resistance = I.r
This will result in an increase in the terminal potential
difference (Vload).
Vload = ε – Vinternal resistance
Fig 9.12 The voltmeter reading increases if the resistance in the external
circuit increases (lost volts decrease).
Decreasing the external resistance

Refer again to Figure 9.12. The resistance in the external circuit is decreased by connecting
another resistor in parallel. This increases the circuit current (I). This increases the
potential difference across the internal resistance (lost volts) (Vinternal resistance = I.r).

This decreases the terminal potential difference (Vload).
Vload = ε – Vresistance
The voltmeter reading decreases if the resistance in the external circuit decreases
(lost volts have increased).
Checkpoint 3
A lamp of resistance 15 Ω is connected to a battery of emf 6 V
and internal resistance of 1 Ω as shown in Figure 9.13.
a) Calculate the terminal potential difference.
b) How will the terminal potential difference change if a
second identical lamp is connected in parallel with the first
lamp? Explain your answer.
c) Calculate the new terminal potential difference when the
two lamps are connected in parallel.
d) How will the terminal potential difference change if the
second identical lamp is connected in series with the first
lamp? Explain your answer. Fig 9.13
e) Calculate the new terminal potential difference when the
two lamps are connected in series.
Worked example:
A learner wants to find the emf ε of a battery and internal
resistance (r). He sets up the circuit shown in Figure 9.14. He
connects an ammeter and 8 Ω resistor in series with the battery
and the ammeter reads 0,5 A. He then replaces the 8 Ω resistor
with a 4 Ω resistor and the ammeter now reads 0,9 A. Calculate
the emf and internal resistance of the battery.
Solution:
Use ε = IRext + Ir
When Rext = 8 Ω then I = 0,5 A:
Fig 9.14
ε = IRext + Ir
ε = (0,5)(8) + (0,5)r
ε = 4 + 0,5 r (1)
When Rext = 4 Ω then I = 0,9 A:
ε = IRext + Ir
ε = (0,9)(4) + (0,9)r
ε = 3,6 + 0,9r (2)
Equations (1) and (2) are a pair of simultaneous equations and can be solved to find
ε and r as follows:
ε = 4 + 0,5r = 3,6 + 0,9r

Therefore: 4 – 3,6 = 0,9r – 0,5r

0,4 = 0,4r
0,4
r = ___
   
0,4
r = 1Ω
The battery has an internal resistance of 1 Ω.
Substitute r = 1 Ω into equation (1): ε = 4 + 0,5(1) = 4,5 V
The emf of the battery is 4,5 V.
Checkpoint 4
A cell of unknown emf and internal resistance is connected in series with a 16 Ω resistor
and a voltmeter connected across the resistor reads 1,2 V. When the 16 Ω resistor is
replaced with an 8 Ω resistor, the voltmeter reads 1 V.
a) Draw a circuit diagram.
b) Explain why the voltmeter reading decreases when the resistance is decreased.
c) Calculate the emf and internal resistance of the cell.
Worked example:
In the circuit shown in Figure 9.15, the switch S is open and the
voltmeter V1 reads 9 V.
When the switch, S, is closed the ammeter reads 600 mA. The
battery’s internal resistance cannot be ignored. The switch, S, is
now closed.
a) Calculate the total resistance in the external circuit.
b) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.
c) Calculate the reading on the voltmeter V1.
d) Explain why the reading on voltmeter V1 changes when
Fig 9.15
the switch is closed.
e) The 4 Ω resistor is replaced with a 4 W light bulb. V2 now reads 2 V.
i) Calculate the new reading on the ammeter.
ii) Explain why the reading on the voltmeter V1 decreases when the 4 Ω resistor is
replaced with the 4 W bulb.
Solution:
a) The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is:
product _____
Rp = _______
  sum  =  6 × 6  =  ___
36 = 3 Ω
6 + 6 12
Since the resistors are connected in series, the total resistance in the external circuit is:
Rext = 3 + 4 = 7 Ω
b) When the switch is open, V1 reads the battery’s emf, so ε = 9 V
A current of 600 mA is found in each branch of the parallel network, since both
branches have equal resistance (6 Ω). Remember to convert mA to A: 600 mA = 0,6 A.

The circuit current is therefore:
I = 0,6 + 0,6 = 1,2 A ε = Rext + Ir
9 = (1,2)(7) + (1,2)r
9 = 8,4 + (1,2)r
0,6 = 1,2r
r = 0,5 Ω
c) V1 is the terminal potential difference and is found using the circuit current and the
external resistance: V1 = IRext= (1,2)(7) = 8,4 V
d) When the switch is closed, a potential difference now exists across the battery’s
internal resistance: Vinternal resistance= Ir = (1,2)(0,5) = 0,6 V
This voltage is lost to the external circuit. Therefore the terminal potential difference
(8,4 V) is 0,6 V less than the battery’s emf (9 V).
e) i) P = V.I
4 = (2)I
The 2 A current will be divided equally among the two 6 Ω
resistors, therefore the ammeter will now read 1 A.
I = 1 A
(2)2
 V   =  ____
2
ii) The 4 W bulb’s resistance is: R = ___  = 1 Ω
P 4
The 4 W bulb’s resistance is less than that of the 4 Ω resistor.
The total resistance in the external circuit has effectively decreased from 7 Ω to 4 Ω.
This will lead to an increase in the circuit current. An increase in current will
result in a greater potential difference across the internal resistance.
Vinternal resistance = Ir
The terminal potential difference therefore decreases
Vload = ε – Vinternal resistance
Science around us a)
Solar charging a 12 V dc car battery
Some African countries are faced with an energy crisis resulting in
frequent power cuts. In addition, access to mains electricity in rural areas
is limited. How do people keep their mobile phones and other electrical
devices charged?
b)
For many rural communities with no access to mains power, car batteries
are the primary means of providing electricity to the home. A car battery
can keep a rural household powered for a while. The batteries power
electrical items such as radios, television and domestic lighting.
The donkey cart in Figure 9.16b) is fitted with a solar panel that charges a
12 V DC (Figure 9.16a)) battery under the driver’s seat, making it an
independent, sustainable source of energy that powers cell phones, front
and rear emergency lights, and a small neon tube at night.
Sourse: http:/wheelandwater.co.za Fig 9.16

Determining internal and equivalent resistance

Part 1:
Aim: To determine a battery’s internal resistance
You will need:
• Battery
• Connecting wires
• Resistor
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Switch
Method: Fig 9.25
1. Connect the resistor in series with the battery, ammeter and switch, as shown in
Figure 9.25. Ensure that the circuit is open.
2. Connect the voltmeter across the battery’s terminals as shown in Figure 9.25.
3. Record the voltmeter reading when the switch S is open.
4. Now close switch S and record the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
5. Disconnect the entire circuit and repeat steps 1 to 4 with the same apparatus.
Record these values. Repeat steps 1–4 until you have three sets of
measurements.
6. Calculate the average value of each of your measurements.
Questions:
1. What is the aim of this experiment?
2. What quantity does the voltmeter measure when the switch is open?)
3. What quantity does the voltmeter measure when the switch is closed?
4. Draw up a table of the measurements that were made in this experiment.
5. Calculate the battery’s internal resistance (r). Show your working.
6. List two sources of error in this experiment.

Part 2:
Aim: To determine the equivalent resistance of a series parallel network
You will need:
• Battery
• Three resistors of different values
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Switch
Method: Fig 9.26
1. Record the value of each resistor R1, R2 and R3.

2. Connect the series parallel network of resistors, as shown in Figure 9.26.
Ensure that the circuit is open.
3. Connect the ammeter in series with the network of resistors, as shown in Figure 9.26.
4. Connect the voltmeter across the battery’s terminals, as shown in Figure 9.26.
5. Close the switch, S, and record the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
6. Disconnect the circuit and repeat steps 1–5 until you have three sets of
measurements.
7. Calculate the average for each measurement.
Questions:
1. What is the aim of this experiment?
2. Draw up a neat table of your measurements that were made in this
experiment.
3. Use the ammeter and voltmeter readings to calculate the resistance of the
series parallel network. Show your working.
4. Calculate the theoretical value of the equivalent resistance of the series
parallel network
5. Compare the experimental value of the equivalent resistance (question 3)
with the theoretical value (question 4).
6. Calculate the percentage accuracy of your experimental value.
7. How is the reading on the ammeter affected when one of the parallel
resistors is removed? Explain your answer.
8. List two sources of error in this experiment.

Exercise 9.1
1. A cell of emf 2 V and internal resitance 0,5 Ω is connected in series with an

ammeter and torch bulb. The ammeter reads 0,25 A.
a) Draw a neat circuit diagram. Include the cell’s internal resistance.
b) Calculate the potential difference across the bulb.
c) Calculate the power delivered to the bulb.
d) Calculate the power supplied by the cell.
e) Explain why more power is supplied by the cell than is delivered to the bulb.
2. Refer to Figure 9.17. A battery of emf 12 V and internal resistance r is connected
in a circuit with three resistors, each having a resistance of
10 Ω. A current of 0,5 A is delivered by the battery.
Calculate:
a) the potential difference between points A and B
in the circuit
b) the internal resistance of the battery
c) the power dissipated between A and B.
Fig 9.17
3. The circuit in Figure 9.18 represents a combination of

resistors in series and in parallel. The battery has an
emf of 12 V and an unknown internal resistance, r.
With switch S open, the reading on ammeter is 1,2 A.
a) Calculate the total resistance in the circuit.
b) Calculate the battery’s internal resistance.
c) Calculate the energy dissipated in the 6 Ω
resistor in 3 minutes..
Fig 9.18 d) Switch S is now closed. How will each of the
following be affected? Explain each answer:
i) the total resistance in the circuit
ii) the reading on ammeter A
iii) the terminal potential difference.
e) A conducting wire of negligible resistance is now connected between points P
and Q. How does this affect the battery’s temperature? Explain your answer.

4. Thulo and Tatenda are required to investigate the relationship between the
potential difference (V) applied across a variable resistor, and the current (I) in
the variable resistor. They are provided with the apparatus and circuit diagram
Fig 9.19 a): Apparatus used in the investigation Fig 9.19 b): Circuit diagram used
Thulo sets the sliding contact of the variable resistor (R) at a certain position and
records the potential difference (V) across the rheostat and the current (I) in it.
Thulo repeats the above step for different positions of the sliding contact.
Tatenda tabulates the readings as follows:
Potential
Reading Current (A)
Difference (V)
1 4,0 0,10
2 3,5 0,50
3 3,0 0,90
4 2,5 1,15
5 2,0 1,30
6 1,5 1,65
7 1,0 1,95
8 0,5 2,20
a) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery by making use of readings

3 and 8.
b) Use the information in the table to plot a graph of potential difference (V)
on the y-axis versus current (I) on the x-axis.
c) Indicate on the graph the values of:
i) the emf (ε) of the battery
ii) the current (I) when the battery is short-circuited.
d) Use the graph to determine the internal resistance (r), of the battery and
compare this value to the value calculated in (a).

5. Figure 9.20 shows a battery, with internal resistance r, connected to three

resistors M, N and Y. The resistance of N is 2 Ω and the
reading on the voltmeter, V, is 14 V. The reading on ammeter
A1 is 2A and the reading on ammeter A2 is 1A.
a) State Ohm’s law in words.
b) How does the resistance of M compare to that of N?
c) The emf of the battery is 17 V. Calculate the internal
resistance of battery.
d) Calculate the potential difference across resistor N.
e) Calculate the resistance of Y.
Fig 9.20
6. In the circuit in Figure 9.21, the current in the battery is 1,5 A. The 12 V battery
has an internal resistance of 1 Ω.
Calculate:
a) the combined resistance of the two resistors
connected in parallel
b) the total resistance in the circuit.
c) the resistance of resistor Y
d) the current in the 6 Ω resistor.
Fig 9.21
7. Refer to Figure 9.22. The headlamps of a car are connected in parallel with the
12 V battery of the car. A starter motor is also connected on parallel with
the 12 V battery. Switch S1 is used to turn the headlamps on. When the
car is started, the ignition switch, S2, is closed. The internal resistance of
the battery cannot be ignored.
a) Give two reasons why the headlamps and starter motor are
connected in parallel.
b) A motorist turns the headlamps of the car on by closing switch S1.
The headlamps shine brightly. She then decides to start the car by
closing the ignition switch S2. Explain why the headlamps dim
when she starts the car.
Fig 9.22

8. The current in the starter motor of a car is 160 A when the engine starts. The emf
of the car’s battery is 13,6 V and its internal resistance is 0,012 Ω.
a) Calculate the potential difference across the battery terminals when the
current in the battery is 160 A.
b) Calculate the rate at which heat energy is produced in the car battery.
c) When the starter motor is used to start the car, 700 C pass through the car
motor. Assume the current is constant at 160 A. Calculate:
i) how long the charge flows for; and
ii) the number of electrons which pass a given point in this time. The
charge on an electron is –1,6 × 10–19 C.
9. A 9 V battery is short-circuited. The potential difference across the battery is 8 V,
and the current in it is 5 A. What is the battery’s internal resistance?
10. Refer to Figure 9.23. The current in the external circuit is 2,5 A. Calculate the
emf of the battery.
Fig 9.23
11. Refer to Figure 9.24. The current in the external circuit is 1,25 A. Calculate the
internal resistance of the battery.
Fig 9.24

A short-circuit
A short-circuit is a path of very low resistance. A battery is short-circuited when a wire of
very low resistance is connected across the battery’s terminals. This is shown in
figures 9.27 and 9.28. In such a case, Rext is almost zero and the current in the wire will be
Warning: When a
a maximum current.
battery is short-
circuited, the
wire and the
battery get very
hot; and the
battery will
quickly run flat
due to the
maximum
current in the
wire. Fig 9.27: The terminals of a Fig 9.28: A maximum current (I) is created in
battery are short-circuited the wire when the battery is short circuited
Recommended practical investigation for informal assessment
Aim: To investigate
short-circuits and open
circuits
You will need:
• Battery
• Three resistors of different
values
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Switch
• Length of low resistance
wire
Fig 9.29

Instruction:
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 9.29. Be sure to open all the switches.
2. Follow the instructions below and answer any questions.
Method and questions:
1. Close all the switches. Record the reading on each ammeter A1, A2 and A3.
2. What is the relationship between the ammeter readings A1, A2 and A3?
3. Record the reading on each voltmeter V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5.
4. What is the relationship between voltmeters V1, V4 and V5?
5. What is the relationship between voltmeters V2, V3 and V4?
6. Open switch S1. Record all your observations.
7. Close all switches and open switch S2. Record all your observations.
8. Close all switches and open switch S3. Record all your observations.
9. Close all switches and join points a and b with the low resistance wire.
Record all your observations.
10. Explain your observations in Question 9.
11. Now join points b and c with the low resistance wire. Record
your observations.
13. Now join points a and c with the low resistance wire. Record
your observations.
Extend yourself
1. Refer to Figure 9.30. Assume the 9 V battery in the circuit has

an internal resistance of 0,5 Ω.
a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the parallel
combination of resistors. (2)
b) Calculate the total resistance in the circuit. (3)
c) Calculate the current in each resistor. (4)
d) Calculate readings on voltmeters V1, V2 and V3.(3)
Fig 9.30

e) Points A and B are joined by a piece of low resistance wire.

How will this affect:
i) the reading on voltmeter V1? Explain your answer. (3)
ii) the current in each of the parallel resistors. Explain your answer.
(2)
2. You want to measure internal resistance (r) of a cell.
a) Draw the circuit diagram and label the equipment you would use. (4)
b) Describe the measurements you would make and explain how to use
these to calculate the internal resistance. (3)
3. A 10 Ω and a 12 Ω resistor are connected in series with a battery of emf 6V
and internal resistance 2 Ω.
a) Draw the circuit diagram. (2)
b) Calculate the total current in the circuit. (3)
c) Calculate the potential difference across the 10 Ω resistor. (3)
d) Calculate the potential difference across the battery terminals. (2)
e) Calculate the power developed in the 12 Ω resistor. (3)
f) Calculate the power dissipated in the battery. (2)
g) How would connecting the resistors in parallel affect the power
dissipated in the battery? Explain your answer. (3)
4. Figure 9.31 shows the main parts of a car’s fuel gauge. The slider completes
the circuit so that the ammeter measures a current. As the
fuel level falls, the float also falls and the slider moves to
the left, keeping contact with the resistance wire.
a) How does the resistance of the circuit change
when the slider moves to the left (anticlockwise)?
b) How does the reading on the ammeter change as
the fuel level falls? Explain your answer. (3)
Fig 9.31
5. A learner carried out an experiment to determine how the resistance of an iron
coil varies with temperature. A constant potential difference of 2 V is
maintained across the coil as the learner measured the current in it at various
temperatures.
a) Draw a circuit diagram to show how such measurements could be
made with a 3,0 V battery and other necessary apparatus. (4)
b) Formulate an investigative question for the experiment. (2)
c) Formulate a possible hypothesis for the experiment. (2)

d) Identify the independent variable, the dependent variable and one
controlled (fixed) variable. (3)
The measurements are shown in the table below:
Temperature Potential difference Current Resistance

(°C) (V) (mA) (Ω)
10 2 790
20 2 740
35 2 680
50 2 620
65 2 590
80 2 550
e) Draw a new table with two columns. The first column should have
temperature values in it. Complete the second column by calculating
each resistance value of the iron coil. (2)
f) Use the data to plot a graph of temperature versus resistance. (6)
g) Use your graph to formulate a conclusion for the investigation and
refer to the correctness of your hypothesis.(3)
6. The battery in Figure 9.32 has an emf of
12 V and an unknown internal
resistance r. Voltmeter V1 is connected
across the battery and voltmeter V2 is
connected across the switch, S. The
resistance of the connecting wires and
the ammeter is negligible.
a) Give the readings on voltmeters V1
and V2 when switch S is open. (2)
Switch S is now closed. The reading on
voltmeter V1 changes to 9 V.
b) What is the new reading on V2? (1)
Fig 9.32
c) Calculate the total external
resistance of the circuit. (4)
d) Calculate the battery’s internal resistance, r.(5)
e) How does removing the 6 Ω resistor affect the reading on voltmeter V1?
[81]

Definitions
emf (ε) the amount of electrical energy supplied by the battery per coulomb of charge moved
between the terminals:
E
ε = __
   
Q
potential difference (V) the amount of work done per coulomb of charge moved between two
points:
 W 
V =___
Q
current (I) the rate of flow of charge.
Ohm’s Law the current (I) in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V)
across the ends of the conductor, provided the temperature of the conductor is kept constant:
V = R.I
resistance (R) the ratio of the potential difference (V) across a conductor to the current (I) in the
conductor:
 V 
R = __
I
power (P) the rate at which electrical energy is converted to other forms of energy in an electric
circuit
terminal potential difference the potential difference between a battery’s terminals when there is a
current in the battery.
short-circuit a path of zero resistance
internal resistance (r) the resistance between the terminals of a battery.
Summary


Topic
10 Electrodynamics
• Revision of electromagnetic induction

• Electrical machines (generators, motors)
• Alternating current
The world’s largest coal-fired power station, Kusile, is being built in Mapumalanga.
South Africa is also currently developing wind farms which make use of renewable
wind energy to generate electric energy from mechanical energy. These generators
will help power South Africa’s growing economy. In this topic you learn how
electricity is generated and transmitted around the country. You also learn how
electric motors work and the advantages of using alternating current.
352 • Electrodymanics
Knowledge area: Electricity and magnetism
The following important concepts were learnt in Grade 11:

• Electromagnetic induction.
• Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction.
It is important that you revise these concepts in order to fully understand the new content
that is covered in this topic ‘Electrodynamics’.
Refer to figure 10.1 A bar magnet is moved towards a coil connected to
k
Chec a galvanometer (a sensitive ammeter).
lf
myse
Fig 10.1: A bar magnet is moved towards a coil which is connected to a

galvanometer
a) What is electromagnetic induction?
b) State Faraday’s law and write down the equation.
c) What is meant by magnetic flux?
d) What is meant by the rate of change of magnetic flux?
e) Explain why a current is induced in the coil shown in Figure 10.1.

You explanation should use the following terms: Magnetic flux;
rate of change of magnetic flux; surface area bounded by coil,
induced emf and induced current.
f) Describe what happens to the needle of the galvanometer when:
i) The magnet is not moving.
ii) The magnet is moved faster towards the coil.
Topic 10: Electrodymanics • 353

iii) The magnet is pulled away from the coil.
iv) The coil is moved towards a stationary magnet.
g) Give a brief explanation for each of your answers in f).
h) What is the significance of the negative sign (–) in the equation for
Faraday’s law?
354 • Topic 10: Electrodymanics

Revision of electromagnetic induction

Magnetic flux and Faraday’s law
In Grade 11 you studied Faraday’s law, which describes the factors affecting the emf
induced in a closed conducting loop when the magnetic flux passing through the loop is
changing.
You will recall that the symbol for magnetic flux is φ and the unit is weber (Wb).
Refer to Fig 10.2 and 10.3 which show the magnetic flux passing through the surface area
of a closed conducting loop.
Fig 10.2: A view of magnetic field lines Fig 10.3: A side view of magnetic field lines directed
directed into a closed conducting loop. into a closed conducting loop.
Magnetic flux (φ) is the product of the magnetic field (B) and the cross-sectional area (A)
the field lines pass through:
In symbols: Where:
φ = magnetic flux, measured in weber (Wb)
φ = BAcosθ
B = the magnetic field strength, measured in tesla (T)
A = the cross sectional area of the loop, measured in
square meters (m2)
θ = the angle between the magnetic field (B) and the normal to
the loop of area A as shown in Figure 10.3
Faraday’s law:
Faraday’s law: the magnitude of the emf induced in a coil is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux.
In symbols: Where:
ε = emf induced in the coil, measured in volts (V)
Δφ
ε = –N ___ 
Δt N = number of turns (loops) in the coil
Δφ
___
  = rate of change of magnetic flux
Δt

Electrical machines: generators and motors
The alternating current (AC) generator

The basic principle on which an AC generator (alternator) works is that a coil is
mechanically rotated in a uniform magnetic field. A uniform magnetic field exists
between the opposite poles of two magnets as shown in Figure 10.4. The direction of the
magnetic field lines is from north to south.
A single coil of wire (wxyz) is placed in the magnetic field. Slip rings are connected to
each end of the coil of wire. Carbon brushes make contact with the slip rings and are
connected to the external circuit (bulb).
When the coil is mechanically rotated, the slip rings move with the coil. The carbon
brushes remain stationary and press against each slip ring, therefore the coil is connected
to the external circuit including the bulb.
The coil is now mechanically rotated through the magnetic field, as shown in Figure 10.5.
As the coil is mechanically rotated through the magnetic field, the magnetic flux passing
through the surface area of the coil is changing. According to Faraday’s Law, an emf (ε) is
induced in the coil which in turn induces a current (I)in the coil.
Fig 10.4: Parts of an alternating current (AC) generator
Fig 10.5: The coil is mechanically rotated clockwise through the magnetic field.
Figure 10.5 also shows the induced current in the coil and in the external circuit.
The bulb lights up.
An electric generator converts mechanical energy (rotation) into electrical energy
(an induced current).
Fleming’s Right Hand Dynamo Rule is used to determine the direction of
the induced current in the conductor.
Fleming’s right hand dynamo rule:
Using your right hand; hold your thumb, first finger and second finger at
right angles to each other as shown in Figure 10.6.
Your thumb must point in the direction of the motion (Force F)
Your first finger shows the direction of the magnet field (Field B).
Your second finger will then show the direction of the induced current
Fig 10.6: Applying Fleming’s right (Current I).
hand dynamo rule

In Figure 10.5, side zy of the coil is moved upwards. According to Fleming’s right hand
dynamo rule, the direction of the induced current is zyxw in the coil. The direction of the
current in the external circuit is from A to B.
Changing magnetic flux

Let’s look at the magnetic flux passing through the coil and how it changes as the coil is
mechanically rotated through 180°. Figure 10.7 is a series of diagrams which shows
various positions of the coil as it is rotated through the magnetic field. The diagrams on
the left show the positions of the coil in the magnetic field. The diagrams on the right
show the corresponding magnetic flux passing through the surface area of the coil. The
crosses (×) represent the number of magnetic field lines passing through the surface area
of the coil.
Fig 10.7a
Fig 10.7b
Fig 10.7c

Fig 10.7d
The purpose of Figure 10.7 a) – d) is to show that the magnetic flux passing through the
surface area of the coil is changing as the coil is mechanically rotated through the
magnetic field. According to Faraday’s Law, the magnitude of the emf induced in the coil
will be proportional to the rate at which the magnetic flux is changing.
How an AC generator works

Let’s look at the induced emf and the
corresponding induced current in the coil as
the coil is rotated through one complete
revolution. Figure 10.5 showed the coil (wxyz)
being rotated clockwise from its horizontal
position. The direction of the induced current
in the coil was found using Fleming’s right
hand dynamo rule.
Figure 10.8 shows a view (along the axis of
rotation) of the coil moving through the
magnetic field lines. A cross (×) indicates an
induced current directed into the page and a
dot (•) indicates an induced current directed
out of the page. Fig 10.8 The coil is rotated from the
horizontal position through to the
As the coil is rotated through the horizontal
vertical position.
position, the coil is moving through the
maximum number of magnetic field lines per second. Therefore the rate of change of
( )
magnetic flux ___
Δφ
    is at its highest when the coil moves
Δt
through the horizontal position. According to Faraday’s Law the induced emf and induced
current in the coil will be a maximum value.
As the coil approaches the vertical position, the rate of change of magnetic flux is
decreasing. According to Faraday’s Law the induced emf and induced current in the coil
will also decrease.

When the coil is rotated through
the vertical position, there is no change
in the magnetic flux passing through
the coil. For a short time, the coil is
moving parallel to the magnetic field
lines. The rate of change of magnetic
flux is zero as the coil is rotated
through the vertical position.
According to Faraday’s Law there is
no induced emf and therefore no
induced current in the coil in the
vertical position.
The graph in Figure 10.9 shows how
the induced current in the coil varies
with the position of the coil. The
magnitude and direction of the
induced current is plotted on the
vertical axis. The horizontal axis shows
the position of the coil as it moves
through one complete revolution
(cycle). The coil has rotated through a
quarter of a cycle. Fig 10.9: Graph of induced current in the coil versus the position of coil
Figure 10.10 shows the coil rotating through the vertical position. Side zy is moved
downwards and the direction of the induced current is now wxyz (Fleming’s right hand
dynamo rule). The direction of the induced current is reversed as the coil rotated through
the vertical position. The current in the external circuit therefore has also reversed. The
direction of the induced current in the external circuit is now from B to A.
Fig 10.10: The direction of the induced current is reversed as the coil is rotated through
the vertical position

The coil is rotated towards the horizontal position again, as shown in

Figure 10.11. The coil is moving through an increasing number of
magnetic field lines per second. Therefore the
( )
Δφ
rate of change of magnetic flux ___
    is increasing as the
Δt
coil is rotated towards the horizontal position.
According to Faraday’s Law the induced emf and induced current in
the coil will also increase.
The graph in Figure 10.12 shows how the induced current varies over
one full revolution (cycle) of the coil.
Notice that the direction of the induced current is reversed whenever
the coil passes the vertical position. The induced current reaches its
Fig 10.11: The coil is rotated from the maximum value whenever the coil rotates through the horizontal
vertical position towards the horizontal position. This graph represents an alternating current (the magnitude
position. and the direction of the current are changing as the coil is rotated).
Fig 10.12: A graph of induced current in the coil versus the position of coil for one
complete revolution of the coil

Figure 10.13 shows how the induced emf varies
with the position of the coil for one complete
revolution of the coil.
This changing emf induces an alternating
current in the coil. The alternating current is
directed through the external circuit by means
of carbon brushes.
An electric generator that produces alternating
current is called an alternator.
In an AC generator:
• n alternating current is induced in the
A
coil.
• here is an alternating current in the
T
external circuit.
The purpose of the slip rings is to ensure that
the direction of the current in the external circuit
is the same as the direction of the current in
the coil.
Fig 10.13: A graph of induced emf in the coil versus the position
Uses of AC generators of coil for one complete revolution of the coil
AC generators are used:

• i n electrical power plants, and diesel generators, to convert kinetic energy into
electric energy
• in cars to recharge the battery while the car is being driven
• i n moving coil microphones. Sound waves make a coil move. As the coil moves in a
magnetic field, a current is induced and this varying current can be amplified and fed
to a loudspeaker.
Science around us
Wave energy
The Pelamis Wave Energy
Converter shown in Figure 10.14
uses the motion of waves on the
surface of the ocean to create
electricity. The machine is made up
of connections which flex and
Fig 10.14: Pelamis machines off the
bend as waves pass. This motion
coast of Scotland
drives electric generators to
produce electric energy. This
electric energy is fed to the main-land via seabed cables.

Checkpoint 1
State and explain five ways to increase the emf induced in an AC generator.
Checkpoint 2
Figure 10.15 shows the induced current produced by an AC generator over time.
(ms = millisecond = 10–3 s)
Fig 10.15: Induced current
Figure 10.16 shows the orientation of the coil within the magnetic field at different points
in its rotation.
A B C
Fig 10.16
a) Refer to the graph in Figure 10.15. Give one time that corresponds to each position: A, B
and C, in Figure 10.16. List the letters and write a corresponding time next to each one.
b) How long does it take for the coil to complete one full revolution?
c) Redraw the graph in Figure 10.15. On this graph draw a new line showing how the
induced current varies with time when the coil is rotated at half its original speed.
d) Explain why the new line differs from the original line.

Project
Aim: To build a simple electrical generator.

You will need:
• Enamel coated copper wire
• 4 large ceramic block magnets
• Cardboard (packaging)
• Large nail
• 1,5 V; 25 mA light bulb
Your teacher will give you guidance in building a simple generator. However, if you
have access to the internet, search for the YouTube video: AC electric generator for
science fair. This video will show you how to build a simple electric generator.
Questions:
1. Identify the various parts of your electric generator.
2. Describe how the electric generator works
3. Describe the energy conversions that take place in the generator.
4. Why does the bulb flash?
Exercise 10.1
1. Figure 10.17 shows diagram of an AC generator.

a) Name the basic principle on which
generators work.
b) State the energy conversions that take place
in an electric generator.
c) Give the name of each part of the AC
generator and give its function.
d) The coil is rotated anti-clockwise. State the
direction of the induced current in the coil.
e) Which rule would you use to determine the
direction of the induced current?
f) The coil shown in the diagram is at the
start of a cycle.
Fig 10.17

For each of the following positions of the coil, state whether the induced current
in the coil is zero or a maximum, and give its direction. In each case give a
reason for your answer.
1
__
i)  
4
cycle ii)  __12 cycle
3
__
iii)  
4
cycle iv) 1 cycle
g) Draw a graph of emf versus position of the coil, starting with the coil in the
horizontal position. Mark the positions of the coil under your graph.
h) Draw the corresponding graph of induced current versus position of the coil.
2. State three ways to increase the emf induced in an electric generator. Explain
why each factor increases the induced emf.
3. State three uses of AC generators in everyday life.
4. Figure 10.18 shows a section of a very simple generator. Generators are used at
electrical power stations to produce the electricity to be distributed across the
national grid.
a) Name the parts labelled X.
b) Give the function of the parts labelled X.
c) Name the law that relates the induced emf to
the rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil.
d) Name the rule that can be used to determine
the direction of the induced current in the coil.
e) The coil is rotated in a clockwise direction.
What is the direction of the induced current in
the coil when it is in the position shown in the
diagram? State either ABCD or DCBA.
f) It takes 0,01 ms to rotate the coil through 90˚.
The maximum induced emf is 50 V. Draw a
Fig 10.17
neat sketch graph of induced emf versus time
for 0,04 ms of this generator’s operation, beginning
with the position given in the diagram at time = 0.
5. Discuss, in point form, the impacts of the use of household generators in South
Africa. Your answer must contain both advantages and disadvantages of the use
of generators, as well as mentioning social, economic and environmental issues
related to their use.

The direct current (DC) generator
Figure 10.19 shows a
direct current (DC)
generator. A DC generator
is designed to produce
direct current in the
external circuit. Firstly
you should notice that in
a DC generator has the
slip rings are replaced by
a commutator.
A commutator is a metal
ring that has been split
into two halves. There is a
gap between the two
halves as can be seen in
Figure 10.19.
An alternating current is
produced in the coil.
However, the
commutator ensures that
the direction of the
current in the external
circuit is always the same.
Fig 10.19
The commutator
If the coil is rotated clockwise, as shown in Figure 10.20, the direction of the induced
current in the coil is zyxw (according to Fleming’s right hand dynamo rule).
Fig 10.20: The direction of the current in the external circuit is from A to B

The direction of the induced current in the coil is zyxw. The direction of the current is
from A to B in the external circuit.
When the coil passes the vertical position, there is no induced current in the coil.
The other half of the commutator is about to make contact with carbon brush A,
Fig 10.21: No current is induced in the coil

when it passes through the vertical position
In Figure 10.22, the coil now moves past the vertical position and, as explained earlier, the
induced current reverses its direction in the coil (wxyz).
The induced current has reversed its direction in the coil (wxyz). However, the direction
of the current is towards the yellow half of the commutator which makes contact with
carbon brush A.
The direction of the current in the external circuit is still from
A to B. The function of the commutator in a DC generator is to ensure that the direction of
the current in the external circuit remains the same. This is known as direct current.
Fig 10.22: The direction of the current in the external circuit is still from A to B

Figure 10.23 shows how the current
in the external circuit of a DC
generator varies with the position of
the coil for one full revolution. Notice
that the current in the external circuit
of a DC generator:
• Never changes direction.
• Varies in magnitude as the coil
rotates. This is because as the coil
rotates, the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the coil
changes, inducing a changing
emf in the coil.
In a DC generator:
• alternating current is induced in
the coil
• direct current is established in
the external circuit. Fig 10.23: The graph of current in the external circuit versus position of the
coil for a DC generator
Uses of a DC generator
Uses of DC generators include:
• bicycle dynamos, used to power the bicycle’s lights
(Figure 10.24a).
• t orches, such as the one in Figure 10.24b) use a DC
generator to produce light by winding or shaking the
torch on a regular basis.
• battery chargers.
a) A bicycle light b) A dynamo torch
Fig 10.24: Uses of DC generators
Summary of AC and DC generators
The following table summarizes AC and DC generators:
Table 10A
Induced Current in
Type of Important
current in the external
generator component
the coil circuit
Alternating Alternating
AC generator Slip-rings
current current
Alternating
DC generator Commutator Direct current
current

Exercise 10.2
1. State three uses of a DC generator.

2. Give two reasons why an electric generator is not 100% efficient at converting
mechanical energy to electric energy.
3. Figure 10.25 shows a simple DC generator.
a) Explain how a simple DC generator works. Use no more than four brief
points.
b) What is the function of the commutator?
c) When should the carbon brush contact change from one commutator
segment to the next?
d) Sketch a graph of the current in the external circuit versus position of the
coil for a DC generator for one full
revolution of the coil. Start with the
coil in the horizontal position.
e) What design change would need to
be made to the given generator in
order to produce alternating
current in the external circuit?
4. What design change could be made to
an electrical generator to ensure no
energy is lost through friction?
5. Give one advantage and one
disadvantage of each of the following
alternative electricity generation
methods: Hydroelectric power, wind
power and solar power.
6. ESKOM has recently had difficulty
supplying South Africa with electricity.
Name two factors that can cause an Fig 10.25
electricity generation shortage.
7. How could South African citizens reduce their electrical energy consumption?
8. Explain how a geophone works. You will need to do some research.
9. A geophone is an example of Science being useful to society. Discuss the
benefits of knowing the voltage output from a geophone.

Electric motors
The motor effect

In the previous unit you learnt that the mechanical
rotation of a coil through a magnetic field induced a
current in the coil. In this unit you will study the
opposite effect, a current in a coil placed in a magnetic
field will rotate. This is known as the motor effect. You
will use the motor effect to explain how electric
motors work.
In Figure 10.26, a conductor, AB, is connected to a DC
source. Charge is moving through the conductor. Notice
that the direction of the current is shown from the Fig 10.26: DC current in a
positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell. This conductor
is known as conventional current. Conventional current
is the rate of flow of positive charge from the positive
terminal of the cell to the negative terminal.
In Figure 10.27, the current-carrying conductor, AB, has been
placed in a magnetic field. The charges, moving through the
conductor, experience a magnetic force. This magnetic force is
greatest when the conductor is placed at right angles to the
magnetic field. The direction of the force is at right angles to
both the direction of the current and the direction of the
magnetic field.
The force on the conductor will be zero when the direction of
the current is parallel to the magnetic field lines. The direction
of the force on the current-carrying conductor in the magnetic
field is found using Fleming’s left hand motor rule.
Fig 10.27: A current-
carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field
Fleming’s left hand motor rule
Fleming’s left hand motor rule is used to find the direction of the force on a current-
carrying conductor in a magnetic field:
Using your left hand, position you thumb, first finger and second finger mutually at right
angles to each other, as shown in Figure 10.28.
• he first finger must point in the direction of
T
the magnetic field (B) (from north to south).
• he second finger must point in the direction of
T
conventional current (I) (from + to –).
• The thumb will then point in the direction of
the force (F).
Fig 10.28: Applying Fleming’s left

hand motor rule
Checkpoint 3
Use Fleming’s left hand motor rule to find the direction of the force acting on each
current-carrying conductor below.
a) b)
c) d)
A DC motor
Figure 10.29 shows a simple DC motor. A coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field. The
ends of the coil are connected to a commutator. . Carbon brushes make contact with the
commutator. A DC source is connected to the carbon brushes.
The direction of conventional current in the coil is from w to z (wxyz) in Figure 10.29.
Fig 10.29: Parts of a DC motor

Sides wx and yz carry currents at right angles to the magnetic field. They will both
experience magnetic forces. According to Fleming’s left hand motor rule, side wx will
experience a force downwards and side yz will experience a force upwards as shown in
Figure 10.30.
The two sides wx and yz experience forces in
opposite directions. This causes the opposite ends
of the coil to experience a torque. The coil will
rotate clockwise. The coil begins to rotate and
reaches the vertical position in Figure 10.30. As
the coil rotates through the vertical position, the
carbon brushes no longer make contact with the
commutator and there is no current in the coil. Fig 10.30: The opposite sides of the coil experience forces in
The coil begins to rotate and reaches the vertical opposite directions
position in Figure 10.31. As the coil rotates
torque – a
through the vertical position, the carbon brushes turning force
no longer make contact with the commutator and exerted on a
there is no current in the coil. coil. Magnetic
forces exerted in
opposite
directions on the
opposite sides of
the coil cause
the coil to
rotate.
Fig 10.31: There is no current in the coil whenever the coil is in the
vertical position
An electric motor converts electrical energy (DC source) to mechanical energy (its spins
on its axis). It has the opposite function to a generator, which converts mechanical energy
to electrical energy.
The momentum of the rotating coil takes it past the vertical position as shown in
Figure 10.32. You should take note that the current in the coil has reversed its direction.
The direction of the current is now zyxw.

Fig 10.32: The direction of the current in the coil has reversed after passing through the vertical position
The commutator ensures that the current is

reversed in the coil as the coil rotates through
the vertical position. Side wx now experiences
a force upwards (according to Fleming’s left
hand motor rule) and side yz experiences a
force downwards. This ensures that the coil
continues to spin in the same direction
(clockwise) as shown in Figure 10.33.
Fig 10.33: The direction of the force on
each end of the coil is reversed when the
coil passes through the vertical position
Factors which affect the power of an electric motor

An electric motor can be made more powerful by increasing the magnetic force that turns
the coil of the motor. The magnetic force that turns the coil of the motor can be increased
in the following ways:
• I ncreasing the strength of the magnetic field. Instead of using permanent magnets,
we can use electromagnets.
• I ncreasing the current in the coil, by increasing the emf of the DC power source, or
decreasing the coil’s resistance (e.g. by using a thicker wire).
• I ncreasing the number of windings in the coil. Each coil will experience the same
force, increasing the total force on each end of the armature.
• Wrapping the coil around an iron core.
• Using several coils wound at slightly different angles on the armature.

Checkpoint 4
Figure 10.34 shows a simple DC motor.
a) List the parts of a DC motor.
b) State the direction of conventional
current in the coil.
c) Explain how a simple DC motor works.
Use no more than four brief points.
d) State and explain the position of the
coil when it experiences the minimum Fig 10.34: A simple DC motor
force causing rotation.
e) Which way will the coil in Figure 10.34 turn?
f) What energy conversion takes place in an electric motor?
g) Identify two sources of energy wastage in an electric motor. For each, specify the
location and the nature of the energy transformations that occur.
h) Suppose that the motor is in operation and the armature rotates through 180°. What
is the direction of the current in the coil?
i) Why is it necessary to change the direction of the current in the coil?
j) What is the function of the commutator?
k) What is the function of the carbon brushes?
l) List four ways of making a DC motor more powerful.
m) What is the reason for using curved magnets?
An AC motor
An AC motor is driven by an alternating current.
An AC source provides an alternating current in
the coil as shown in Figure 10.35.
In an AC motor, as in the DC motor, a current is
passed through the coil, generating a torque on
the coil. The current in the coil must reverse its
direction when the coil passes through the vertical
position. Alternating current changes direction
periodically. The coil will therefore rotate in the
same direction and its speed of rotation will
depend on the frequency of the alternating
current. The frequency of the alternating current
refers to how many times it changes direction per
second.
Since the current in the coil is alternating, the Fig 10.35: The parts of an AC motor
motor will run smoothly in the same direction.
The AC motor uses two slip rings. The two slip rings rotate with the coil.

Science around us
Uses of an electric motor
Electric motors are used in devices such as food mixers, electric drills and electric
screwdrivers, vacuum cleaners, fans, toys, the starter motor in cars, CD players,
computers, hairdryers, washing machines and dryers.
Electric cars
The GreenGT (Figure 10.36) was
designed by students and is one
of the most powerful electric cars
ever built. The car is powered by
two 30 kW lithium ion batteries
charged by photovoltaic solar
panels. The car’s twin 100 kW
water-cooled electric motors
allow it to reach a maximum
speed of 274 km.h–1.
Fig 10.36: The GreenGT electric car
Electric ships
The 150 000 ton Queen Mary 2 is
driven by four 250 ton Rolls
Royce electric motors and is the
world’s largest electric ship
(Figure 10.37). Electric power is
generated by four on board diesel
generators and two gas turbines,
which together generate a power
plant capacity of 118 MW.
Fig 10.37: The Queen Mary 2, the world’s
largest electric ship

Project
Aim: To build a simple DC electric motor.

You will need:
• Two pieces of this aluminium
strips (3 cm × 6 cm)
• 1,5 m of enamel coated
copper wire
• 2 lengths of copper wire
• A ring magnet (from an old
speaker)
• A 6 cm × 15 cm block of wood
• Sandpaper and thumb tacks
• A 1,5 V cell
• Elastic band
Build a simple DC electric motor as
Questions:
1. Describe how the electric motor
works
Fig 10.38: A simple DC motor
2. Describe the energy
conversions that take place in the electric motor.
3. In what position will the coil experience the greatest magnetic force?
Exercise 10.3
1. Use Fleming’s left hand motor rule to find the direction of the force acting on
each current-carrying conductor in Figure 10.39:
a) b)
c) d)
Fig 10.39

2. Figure 10.40a shows a wire carrying a large electric current, within a

magnetic field.
Fig 10.40a
a) Which of the diagrams in Figure 10.40b gives the best representation of the
magnetic field pattern in the region between the poles of the magnet?
Fig 10.40b
b) In which direction does the current carrying wire experience a force?
c) Explain why the current carrying wire experiences a force in the direction
given in b). Consider the resultant magnetic field.
3. State the energy conversions that take place in an electric motor.
4. How does a DC motor differ from a DC generator?
5. Draw a simple DC motor and label its parts.

6. Consider the diagram in Figure 10.41, which shows a simple DC motor, and
answer the questions that follow.
a) Does the coil in Figure 10.41 turn
clockwise or anti-clockwise?
b) What is the function of the commutator?
c) Explain why the coil experiences the
greatest torque when in the horizontal
position.
Ryan and Ntulo want to conduct an investigation
to determine the effect that changing the current
in the coil has on the speed of rotation of the
motor in Figure 10.41.
d) State their independent variable. Fig 10.41
e) State their dependent variable.

f) State two variables that they need to control.
g) Suggest a possible hypothesis for their investigation.
h) Suggest two ways in which Ryan and Ntulo can vary the current in the coil.
i) Why is it important to take more than one reading for each current?
7. Suggest a reason why each of the following changes would make a simple
electric motor more powerful:
a) Using more than one coil
b) Using several coils wound at slightly different angles on the armature.
8. The turning force or torque (t) exerted on the coil in an electric motor is given
by the formula:
t = NIAB sinq
Where N = number of turns
I = current
A = area of coil
B = magnetic field strength

q = angle between the magnetic field and the normal to
the plane of the coil
a) Evaluate the formula and hence state 5 ways of producing
the maximum torque on the coil.
A simplified circuit diagram for the motor is given in
Figure 10.42.
The motor is connected to a 200 V DC battery.
b) Calculate the current in the circuit.
Fig 10.42

c) What two dangerous safety issues do you think would arise from a current
of this magnitude?
This electric motor is used to raise an 18 000 kg object through a vertical height of
8 m in 90 seconds.
d) Calculate the gain in gravitational potential energy of the object.
e) What power does the motor expend in lifting this object?
f) The motor’s stated power rating is 20 kW. Suggest why this may be
different to the power you calculated in e).
9. A large horseshoe magnet produces a
uniform magnetic field (B) between its poles.
Outside the region of the poles, the magnetic
field density is zero. The magnet is placed on
a top-pan balance and a stiff wire XY is
situated between its poles, as shown in the
Figure 10.43. The wire is fixed in place and it
not allowed to move.
The wire XY is horizontal and perpendicular
to the magnetic field. A direct current is
passed through the wire in the direction from
X to Y. The reading on the top-pan balance
increases.
Fig 10.43 a) Is P a north or a south pole? Explain
your answer.
A learner decided to investigate the relationship between the increase in mass and
the magnitude of the current in the wire. She collected the following data:
Current (A) Increase in mass (g)

0,5 0,46
1,0 0,86
1,5 1,32
2,0 1,74
2,5 2,23
3,0 2,61
b) State the independent variable in this experiment.

c) Plot a graph of increase in mass (y-axis) vs. current (x-axis).
d) Calculate the gradient of the graph.
Where ℓ is the length of wire between the poles of the magnet and is
measured to be 4,4 cm. The other symbols have their usual meanings.
The learner’s textbook states that the relationship is: F=IℓB
e) Use the gradient you calculated in d), and the equation, to determine the
magnetic field strength of the magnet. Show all working.

Alternating current (AC)
Voltage and current in an AC circuit

The current produced by a cell (or battery) is direct current (DC). In
DC, electrons flow at a steadily rate in one direction in the circuit.
The magnitude (size) of the direct current is unchanging (constant).
This is shown in Figure 10.44.
Electric generators at power plants produce alternating current (AC).
This alternating current is transported to our homes along the
national power grid. The AC voltage is continually changing from
zero up to a positive peak voltage (Vmax), through zero to a negative
peak voltage and back to zero again as shown in
Figure 10.45. The cycle repeats itself every 0,02 s. The frequency of
the AC voltage in a South African household is 50 Hz. The
alternating current is also changing periodically, from zero to a
positive peak current (Imax), through zero to a negative peak current
and back to zero again as shown in Figure 10.46. Fig 10.44: The magnitude of direct current
does not change
Fig 10.45: Graph of AC voltage versus time Fig 10.46: Graph of alternating current (AC) versus time
When you connect an appliance to the mains electricity supply at home, the appliance is
supplied with alternating current via two wires, the live wire and the neutral wire. The
current in the appliance reverses direction periodically. This means that the moving
electrons keep switching direction periodically in the circuit.
The electricity supplied to our homes in South Africa has a peak output voltage of
approximately 311 V. This means that the output voltage from the live wire alternates
repeatedly between a positive maximum value (+311 V) and a negative maximum value
(– 311 V). This changing voltage produces an alternating current. The frequency of the
alternating current is 50 Hz. This means that the direction of the current changes 50 times
every second.
Average power in an AC circuit

In an electric circuit, power is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is transferred.
The unit of power is the watt (W). 1 W = 1 J.s-1. In a circuit which only contains resistors,
energy is dissipated in the resistors.
Calculating the average power delivered by an AC source

In Grade 10 you learnt that the power
delivered by a DC source (e.g. battery) is:
P = VI. In a DC circuit, the terminal
voltage (V) of the battery and the current (I)
in the circuit are not changing. Therefore,
the power (P) delivered by the DC source is
not changing over time either.
However, when dealing with an AC source,
the magnitudes of both the voltage (V) and
current (I) vary between zero and a
maximum value, as shown in figures 10.45
and 10.46.
Fig 10.47: Power delivered by an AC source versus time It follows then that the power (P = VI)
delivered by the AC source will also vary
between zero and a maximum value. This is shown in Figure 10.47.
The average AC voltage and average alternating current are both zero. The sum of the
positive and negative voltages in Fig 10.44 is zero. Therefore, these average values are
useless for calculating the power that an AC source delivers. Instead, the root mean
square values of voltage and current must be used to calculate the average power
delivered by an AC source:
The root mean square voltage (Vrms) is defined as:
The root mean square voltage (Vrms) is equivalent to the direct current (DC) voltage that
will produce the same heating effect.
V
= _____
Vrms   max
__ 
2 
√
The root mean square current (Irms) is defined as:

The root meant current (Irms) is equivalent to the direct current (DC) which will produce
the same heating effect.
I
Irms = ____
  max
__ 
2 
√
The average power (Pav) delivered by an AC source is found using:
Pav
= Vrms
Irms

Suppose an AC voltage peaks at 100 V. Let’s calculate the rms voltage:
The peak AC voltage is: Vmax = 100 V
V ______
Then the rms voltage is: Vrms = _____ __  =   100__V
  max  = 70,7 V
2 
√ 2 
√
Root mean square values for AC voltage and current are a means of comparing AC to DC.
The rms value of AC is equivalent to the value of DC necessary to deliver the same
power. For example, an AC voltage which peaks at 100 V has a rms value of 70,7 V and
delivers exactly the same power as a DC voltage of 70,7 V.
Worked example:
The South African mains supply is 220 V AC. Calculate the peak voltage (Vmax) of the
mains supply.
Solution:
‘220 V AC’ is the rms voltage. The peak voltage is therefore found using:
V
Vrms = _____
  max
__ 
2 
√
V __
220 = _____
  max__  Vmax = √2 .(220) = 311,13 V
2 
√
Checkpoint 5
a) A voltage supply is stated as 6 V AC. Calculate the peak voltage output of this
supply.
b) If the peak AC voltage from a generator is 15 V, calculate the rms voltage.
c) A certain AC generator (alternator) produces a peak current (Imax) of 6,2 A when
connected to an electric heater. Calculate the rms current (Irms) produced by the
generator.
The average power delivered by an AC source can also be expressed in terms of the peak
voltage (Vmax) and peak current (Imax):
Average power: Pav = Vrms
Irms
V Imax
= _____
Pav   m__ax  . ____
  __ 
2  √
√ 2 
Vmax I max
Pav=  _________
 
2
  12 VmaxImax
Average power: Pav = __ (Shown in Figure 10.47)
The average power dissipated in a resistor (R) in an AC circuit can also be calculated
using:
2
Pav = I  rmsR
2
V 
Pav = _____
  rms
R

Worked example:
A certain AC generator (alternator) produces a peak current (Imax) of 6,43 A when
connected to an electric heater of resistance 48,4 Ω.
a) Calculate the rms current (Irms) produced by the generator.
b) Calculate the peak voltage (Vmax) output of the generator.
c) Calculate the average power (Pav
) delivered to the electric heater.
Solution:
I
a)
Irms   max
= _____ __ 
2 
√
6,43
= ____
Irms   __  = 4,55 A
2 
√
b) Use Ohm’s law:   V 

R = __
I

Vmax = Imax R = (6,43)(48,4) = 311,21 V
c) The average power delivered in an AC circuit is found using:

= _  12 Vmax
Pav
Imax
=  _12 (311,21)(6,43) = 1 000,54 W
Pav
Checkpoint 6
In Figure 10.48, the AC source
delivers alternating voltage at
audio frequency to the speaker.
Assume that only resistance
influences the performance of
the speaker.
a) Calculate the peak voltage Fig 10.48
that the source can deliver.
b) Calculate the rms current in this circuit.
c) Calculate the average power delivered to the speaker.
d) Draw a graph of AC voltage versus time. Label the peak AC voltage.
Exercise 10.4
1. What is the difference between direct current and alternating current?

2. Write the equations used to calculate Vrms and Irms.
3. Write two different equations which can be used to calculate the average power
delivered to an AC circuit.
4. Refer to Figure 10.49. An AC source provides a rms voltage of 36 V to a 4 Ω
speaker and an 8 Ω speaker connected in series.

a) Calculate the following:
i) The rms current in the
4 Ω speaker.
ii) Peak current in each
speaker.
iii) Average power
dissipated by the 4 Ω Fig 10.49
speaker.
b) Without using a calculation, state how the average power dissipated by the
4 Ω speaker compares with the power dissipated by the 8 Ω speaker. Give a
reason for the answer.
5. AC generators at coal-fired power stations supply most of the electrical energy
needed in our country.
a) State one structural difference between an AC and a DC generator.
A certain AC generator (alternator) produces a peak current (Imax) of 5,8 A when
connected to an electrical heater of resistance 53,7 Ω.
b) Calculate the rms current (Irms) produced by the generator.
c) Calculate the peak voltage (Vmax) output of the generator.
d) Draw a sketch graph of potential difference versus time for this AC
generator. Label the axes clearly and indicate Vmax on the potential
difference axis.
6. When a certain AC supply is connected to a lamp, it lights up with the same
brightness as it does when connected to a 9 V battery.
a) What is the rms voltage of the AC supply?
b) What is the peak voltage of the AC supply?
c) The average power delivered to the lamp is 36 W. Calculate:
i) the rms current delivered by this AC source.
ii) the peak current delivered by this AC source.
d) Calculate the resistance of the lamp using:
i) the rms values for current and voltage.
ii) the peak values for current and voltage.
7. A 60 Ω resistor which is connected to the output terminals of an AC generator.
There is a current of 3A in the 60 Ω resistor.
a) Calculate the potential difference across the resistor.
b) If the voltage calculated in a) is a rms value, then calculate the peak voltage
of the AC generator.
c) Calculate the average power delivered to the 60 Ω resistor.

8. a) A 50 V DC power source is connected to a 10 Ω load. How much power

does this load dissipate?
b) Now suppose the same 10 Ω load is
connected to an AC power source with
a peak voltage of 50 V. Calculate the
average power dissipated in the load?
9. Figure 10.50 shows the AC voltage plotted as
a function of time.
a) What is the peak voltage?
b) What is the rms voltage?
c) Estimate the period of the
oscillating voltage.
d) Determine the frequency of the
AC voltage.
e) A light bulb (20 Ω) is connected to this
Fig 10.50 AC voltage.
i) Calculate the peak current in the bulb.
ii) Calculate the rms current in the bulb.
iii) Calculate the average power delivered to the bulb.
10. The graph in Figure 10.51 shows the
electric current produced by an AC
generator, plotted as a function of
time. The AC source is connected to
a 30 Ω resistor.
a) Determine the maximum current
delivered by the AC source.
b) Calculate the root mean
square current.
c) Calculate the average power
delivered to the 30 Ω resistor.
Fig 10.51

Advantages of using alternating current
Transformers are an integral part of the transmission of electrical power around our
country. A transformer is a device which is used to increase or decrease the amplitude of
the AC input. Direct current (DC) cannot be used in transformers. Transformers only
work with AC because they rely on electromagnetic induction.
The main advantage of AC is that the voltage can be changed using transformers. This
means the voltage can be stepped up at power stations to a very high voltage so that
electrical energy can be transmitted along power lines at low current.
Why do we want to ensure that the current in power lines is low?
Power lines stretch for very long distances. The longer the power line the greater its
resistance (R).
When current is in a resistor, it has a heating affect. The power loss when electrical energy
is converted to heat energy in a resistor depends on the square of the current (I2) in it and
its resistance (R). P = I 2R.
The power loss is directly proportional to the square of the current (I2). If the current is
high then the power loss will also be high. It is therefore important to ensure that the
current in power lines is low to minimize the power loss due to heating.
Another advantage of using AC is that AC can very easily be converted to DC. The DC
can then be used by many devices such as computers. It is much more difficult (and more
expensive) to convert DC to AC.
Another advantage of using AC is that we can generate much more power from AC than
DC. DC normally comes from batteries which use chemical reactions to produce
electricity. Producing huge batteries would be expensive and impractical.
Electric motors are used in manufacturing facilities that drive our economy. The
advantage of AC motors is that they can produce a higher power output than DC motors.
Also transformers allow AC to be stepped up or down where it is needed to drive
different sized motors.
Summary of the advantages of using AC

• AC voltages can be stepped up or down using transformers.
• AC voltages can be stepped up and electrical power can be transmitted over long
distances in power lines at low current to minimize the power loss due to heating.
• It is easier and cheaper to convert AC to DC.
• AC motors can produce a higher power output than DC motors.

Electrical power in South Africa

Eskom (Electricity supply
commission of South Africa)
supplies 95% of our country’s
electricity. This equates to more
than half of the electricity
generated on the African
continent. Eskom’s capacity is
primarily coal-fired (34 532 MW),
which includes one nuclear
power station at Koeberg (1 930
MW) shown in Figure 10.52, six
conventional hydro-electric
plants (600 MW), and two hydro- Fig 10.52: The Koeberg nuclear power
electric pumped-storage stations station (30 km north west of Cape town)
(1 400 MW). boasts the largest turbine generators in the
Southern Hemisphere
The Kusile power station, which
is expected to become the world’s largest coal fired power plant upon completion
in 2018, is being constructed in Mpumalanga, South Africa. It will generate 4 800
MW of power once fully operational. It is the first South African power facility to
incorporate technology which will extract suphur oxides produced by the boilers.
Uses of transformers
Many household devices use step-
down transformers which also
convert AC to DC (Figure 10.53).
Examples of devices which need
such transformers include printers,
scanners, speakers, cordless
phones, cell phones, cameras and
cordless screwdrivers.
Fig 10.53: This AC-DC adaptor steps down

the input voltage and also converts AC in
the input coil to DC in the output coil

Exercise 10.5
1. Why is AC used for the transmission of electrical power rather than DC?
2. Carefully explain how a step-up transformer works. You will need to do some
research.
3. To meet energy demands in the country, the government plans to build nuclear
power stations. State one environmental advantage of the generation of
electricity by nuclear power stations rather than coal-fired power stations.
4. A step-down transformer in an electrical substation provides a factory with
380 V, 60 A, AC. The transmission wires to and from the factory shown in
Figure 10.54 each have a resistance of 2 Ω.
Fig 10.54
a) Calculate the potential difference across the wires.

b) What is the output voltage of the transformer?
c) Calculate the average power that should be delivered by the transformer?
d) Calculate the average power loss in the transmission lines.
e) What percentage of the power is delivered to the factory?
Suppose the power can be transmitted at a low current of 1,2 A.
f) Calculate the voltage drop across the wires.
g) Calculate the average power loss in the wires.
h) What is the advantage of transmitting power by means of a low current?
5. A transformer is connected to a 240V (rms) AC source to supply a 12 V portable
electronic device. The load resistance in the secondary coil is 5 Ω.
a) What is the average power delivered to the load?
b) What resistance, connected directly across the 240V AC source, would draw
the same power as the transformer?

Extend yourself
1. A bar magnet was dropped through the centre of a solenoid connected to a data
logger, as shown in Figure 10.55a). The graph in Figure 10.55b shows that the
induced emf in the solenoid varies with time during which the bar magnet falls
through the solenoid.
Fig 10.55a Fig 10.55b

a) Explain why is the magnitude of the emf at Y greater than at X. (3)
b) The magnet is dropped again with two changes being made: It is dropped
from a greater height and the south pole of the magnet is pointing
downward. Sketch a graph that represents the most likely outcome of this
new experiment. (4)
2. Study the Figure 10.56, where a flexible wire hangs between the poles of a
powerful magnet.
The wire is connected to a cell and a switch.
a) Draw a view from above of only the magnetic field
around the current-carrying conductor when you press the
switch down briefly. (2)
b) What happens when you press the switch down briefly? (2)
c) What happens if the direction of the current is reversed and
the switch is then pressed down briefly? (2)
d) Use a diagram to explain why there is a force on the
wire. (3)
This movement is put to practical use in electric motors.
e) Name three everyday uses of electric motors. (3)
Fig 10.56 A motor draws a current of 2 A at 10 V and lifts a load of 10 N

through a distance of 3 m in 2 s.
f) Calculate the work done in lifting the load. (2)

g) At what rate is work done on the load? (2)
h) Calculate the percentage efficiency of the motor. (2)
i) Explain why motors are never 100% efficient. (2)
3. Early electric generators were often
very simple. A hand-operated
version is shown in Figure 10.57.
Brush X touches the metal axle and
brush Y touches the rim of the disc.
The metal disc is rotated uniformly,
as shown. The globe lights up.
a) Explain why there is a current
in the globe. (3)
b) State the direction of the
current in the external circuit. (2)
4. An electricity substation delivers a
current of 10 A at a voltage of 6 kV, Fig 10.57
to an office complex. The office
complex uses a transformer to provide a current
of 230 A at a voltage of 240 V, as shown in Figure 10.58.
a) Explain why AC is chosen instead of DC as an
input current for transformers. (3)
b) Why is the electric power transmitted as high
voltage and low current? (2)
c) Calculate the average power delivered to the
office complex. (3) Fig 10.58
5. Electric motors are used in pumps, fans and

compressors. Electric motors can use either AC or
DC. The diagram in Figure 10.59 illustrates one of
these types of electric motors.
a) What type of electric motor (AC or DC) is
illustrated in the diagram? Give a reason for
your answer. (2)
b) In which direction will the coil rotate? (2)
The motor in the diagram is now used as a generator by
removing the battery and spinning the loop between
the magnets.
c) On what law or principle does the
generator operate? (1)
d) Draw a sketch graph of induced emf versus Fig 10.59
time for one complete revolution of the coil. (3)

e) On the same graph, sketch a second line to show how the induced emf
varies with time if the coil is rotated at half the original speed. (3)
f) Explain how an emf is induced in the coil. (3)
6. Figure 10.60 shows a simplified sketch of a generator.
a) Is the output voltage AC or DC?
Give a reason for your answer. (2)
The peak output of ESKOM voltage in
household plugs is 310 V.
b) State the position of the coil when a
peak voltage is produced in the coil. (1)
c) Calculate the rms voltage produced
in the coil. (2)
In South Africa, the major source of
electricity is coal-driven generators. Recently
society has become concerned about fossil
Fig 10.60 fuels (like coal) as the primary source of
electrical energy.
d) What is the cause of this concern about burning too many fossil fuels? (3)
e) If you were Minister of Energy Affairs, what two types of energy sources
would you promote in order to address this concern? Give reasons for your
answers.(4)
7. An AC generator produces 25 A (rms) at 3 600 V. The energy is transmitted
through a long distance power line which has a total resistance of 100 ohms.
What percentage of the power delivered by the generator is dissipated as heat
in the long distance line if a step-up transformer is not used? (4)
8. What is the resistance of a light bulb that uses an average power of 75 W
when connected to an AC source with a peak voltage of 170 V? (3)
9. A 220 V AC source is connected to two load resistors and an electric motor, as
shown in Figure 10.61. The resistance of each component is shown.
a) Calculate the rms current in each
branch of the circuit. (4)
b) Calculate the peak voltage
supplied by the AC source. (3)
c) Calculate the average power
delivered to the circuit.
(3)
Fig 10.61
[81]

Summary

Definitions
alternating current (AC) moving charges which keep switching direction repeatedly in the circuit.
The magnitude of the alternating current also changes repeatedly
AC voltage voltage that alternates repeatedly between a positive maximum value and a negative
maximum value
commutator a device which ensures that the direction of the current in a coil is reversed every half
revolution (180° of revolution)
conventional current the rate of flow of positive charge from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal of the cell
current the rate of flow of charge. The symbol for current is I and its unit is the Ampere (A)
direct current (DC) electrons flow in one direction in the circuit
DC voltage: A voltage which produces direct current
Electromagnetic induction occurs when a current is induced in a closed conducting loop when
there is a change in the magnetic flux passing through the surface area of the conducting loop
emf a source of energy which causes charge to flow in an electrical circuit. It is the electrical
energy supplied per unit charge delivered to the circuit. The symbol is ε and the unit is the
volt (V).
frequency the number of complete cycles per second. Unit = hertz (Hz).
Faraday’s Law states that the magnitude of the emf induced in a coil is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux:
Δφ
ε = – N ___
Δt
Fleming’s left hand motor rule place you thumb, first finger and second finger mutually at right
angles to each other. The first finger must point in the direction of the magnetic field (B)
(from north to south). The second finger must point in the direction of conventional current (I)
(from + to –). The thumb will then point in the direction of the force (F).

magnetic flux (φ) the product of the magnetic field (B) and the cross-sectional area (A) the field
lines pass through:
φ = BA cosθ
Where φ is the angle between the magnetic field (B) and the normal to the loop of area A
magnetic field: produced by magnets or by moving electric charges. Magnetic fields lines are
drawn to represent the direction of the magnetic field at a point. The symbol for the strength of
the magnetic field is B and the unit is the tesla (T).
maximum voltage (Vmax) the peak voltage produced in an AC circuit
maximum current (Imax) the peak current in an AC circuit
Right Hand Rule hold the conductor in your right hand with your thumb pointing in the direction
of conventional current, and then your fingers will curl in the direction of the magnetic field.
Root mean square current (Irms) is the current used to determine the average power delivered by
an AC source:
I max
I rms =   _______ 
√2 
The rms value of alternating current is equivalent to the direct current necessary to deliver the
same power.
Root mean square voltage (Vrms) is the voltage used to determine the average power delivered
by an AC source:
max
V
=   ______
Vrms __ .
2 
√
The rms value of AC voltage is equivalent to the DC voltage necessary to deliver the same power.

Topic
11 Optical phenomena and
properties of materials
• The photoelectric effect

• Atomic emission and absorption spectra
In Grades 10 and 11 you learnt about the properties of waves. You also learnt that
light exhibits these properties, and so is considered to be a wave. In this topic we
study phenomena, which during the last century have completely revolutionised
physics. A number of experiments around the 1900s showed that light also behaves
like a stream of particles. The photoelectric effect, the phenomenon that
demonstrated that light has a particle nature, was first explained by Einstein in 1905
for which he received the 1921 Nobel Prize.
Later atomic emission and absorption spectra were discovered and analysed to
provide evidence of the existence of electron energy levels within atoms. Today
astronomers analyse the light from distant stars using telescopes to further
understand the evolution of the universe. The Southern African Large Telescope
(situated in the Karoo in South Africa) is one such telescope which is used to analyse
the light from distant galaxies.
Topic 11: Optical phenomena and properties of materials • 395

Transverse waves
Frequency (f) of a wave is defined as the number of complete waves that pass a point per
second. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
Wavelength (λ) is defined as the distance between two consecutive points on a wave that
are in phase. Wavelength is measured in metres (m).
Wave speed (v) is defined as the product of the frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) of a wave.
The wave equation: v = f λ
Electromagnetic spectrum
In Grade 10 you learnt about the different types of electromagnetic radiation, shown
in Figure 11.1.
Fig 11.1: The electromagnetic spectrum
Radio waves have the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency.
Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and highest frequency.
All electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of 3 × 108 m.s–1 through a vacuum.
(c = 3 × 108 m.s–1)
Diffraction and interference
In Grade 11 you learnt that light can be
diffracted, as shown in Figure 11.2.
Diffraction is defined as the ability of a
wave to spread out as it passes through
a small aperture (hole) or around a
sharp edge.
Fig 11.2: Diffraction of a wave as it passes

through an opening (single slit)
396 • Topic 11: Optical phenomena and properties of materials

Figure 11.3 shows an interference pattern

produced when light undergoes
diffraction and interference when passed
through a single slit.
Constructive interference of light waves
produces the bright lines in an
interference pattern. Constructive
interference occurs when the crests of
waves meet at the same point (or the
troughs of waves meet at the same point).
Destructive interference of light waves
Fig 11.3: Interference pattern with
produces the dark lines (no light) in an
interference pattern. Destructive interference fringes
interference occurs when the crest of a wave meets the trough of another wave.
Interference and diffraction of light demonstrate the wave nature of light.
Infra-red, visible and ultraviolet light are three forms of electromagnetic
k
Chec radiation.
lf
myse a) Which of these three forms of radiation has the:
i) lowest frequency
ii) highest frequency
iii) shortest wavelength
iv) longest wavelength?
b) Write down the wave equation and explain the meaning of each term.
c) What is the speed of all electromagnetic waves in a vacuum?
d) What is the relationship between the frequency of an electromagnetic

wave and its wavelength?

The photoelectric effect
Demonstrating the photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect is the process that occurs when electromagnetic radiation (light)
shines on a metal surface and it ejects electrons from the metal.
The photo electric effect was first observed in 1887 by a German physicist, Heinrich Hertz
and later explained by Albert Einstein in 1905. In order to understand the photoelectric
effect, you need to recall how atoms are arranged within a metal.
Metals
Some of the electrons in a metal are free to move around in it. We call these electrons,
delocalised electrons. They are the electrons that are found in the outermost energy
levels of the metal atoms. It is these free electrons that move within the metal when an
emf is applied across the ends of a metal wire. This gives rise to an electric current in the
metal wire.
Suppose you wanted to remove some of the free electrons from the surface of a metal.
The electrons are negatively charged and are held in the metal by the electrostatic force of
attraction of the positively charged nuclei of the atoms. Figure 11.4 shows the free
electrons amongst the positive ions within a metal.
If an electron is to escape from the surface
of a metal, the electron must be given
enough energy to escape. When this energy
is provided in the form of light energy, the
phenomenon is called photoelectric
emission. Photoelectric emission is the
release of electrons from the surface of a
metal when electromagnetic radiation is
incident (shone) onto its surface.
Fig 11.4: Free electrons are held within the metal by the electrostatic
The gold-leaf force of attraction of the positively charged nuclei
electroscope
Before we can demonstrate the photoelectric effect,
we must remind ourselves of how a gold-leaf
electroscope works. A gold-leaf electroscope is a
device that is used to detect charge. Figure 11.5 shows
the parts of a gold-leaf electroscope.
Fig 11.5:The parts of a gold-leaf electroscope

When the leaf of the electroscope hangs vertically, the electroscope is neutral. In other
words it does not carry an overall charge since there are equal numbers of protons and
electrons distributed throughout the metal parts of the electroscope. Figure 11.6 shows a
neutral electroscope.
If electrons are allowed to move on to the electroscope, the electroscope now carries
excess electrons throughout its metal parts. A gold-leaf electroscope now carries an
overall negative charge.
Figure 11.7 shows a negatively charged electroscope in which the gold leaf is repelled from
the metal rod. Like charges on the metal rod and the leaf repel causing the leaf to rise.
A negatively charged gold-leaf electroscope can be used to demonstrate the photoelectric effect.
Fig 11.6: A neutral electroscope in Fig 11.7: A negatively charged electroscope in

which the leaf hangs vertically which the leaf is being repelled (rises)
The photoelectric effect

A clean zinc plate is now placed on to the metal disc of a gold-leaf electroscope. The
electroscope is then charged negatively. Since the zinc plate is in contact with the
negatively charged electroscope, the zinc plate also carries a negative charge. This is
• If visible light of any colour is shone on to the zinc plate, the leaf does not move.
• I f the intensity (the brightness) of the visible light is increased, the leaf still does not
move. It remains in its original deflected position.
• owever, when ultra-violet radiation is shone on to the negatively charged zinc
H
plate, the leaf falls, showing that the zinc plate is losing negative charge. This is
• his means that electrons are being ejected (emitted) from the zinc plate. These
T
ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.
• I f the intensity of the ultra-violet radiation is increased, the leaf falls more quickly.
This shows that the rate, at which electrons are being ejected, has increased.

Fig 11.8: Zinc plate and electroscope Fig 11.9: Leaf falls when ultra-violet
are negatively charged. radiation is shone onto the zinc plate.
Why can UV radiation eject electrons from zinc plate but visible light cannot? What is the
difference between the two types of radiation?
Ultra-violet radiation has a higher frequency (f) than visible light. This suggests that
electromagnetic radiation only causes photoelectric emission if it has a frequency higher
than a certain value. This frequency is known as the cut-off frequency.
Cut-off frequency (fo) (threshold frequency) is defined as the a minimum frequency of
radiation at which electrons will be ejected from the surface of a metal. The cut-off
frequency of a metal is also referred to as the threshold frequency. The cut-off frequency
depends on the type of metal used. Figure 11.10 shows parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum in which the cut-off frequency (fo) of three different metals is shown.
Fig 11.10: Part of the electromagnetic spectrum showing the position of the cut-off
frequencies of three different metals
Notice how the cut-off frequency of zinc lies outside the range of frequencies of visible
light. This confirms that none of the frequencies of visible light will eject electrons from
the surface of zinc. Even if we increase the intensity of the visible light, electrons are not
ejected from the surface of zinc.

Another demonstration of the photoelectric effect can be carried out using a

photosensitive vacuum tube (photocell) as shown in Figure 11.11.
Fig 11.11: Electromagnetic radiation is shone onto the cathode of a photo-sensitive

vacuum tube
The electrodes in the vacuum tube are two metal plates. One electrode consists of a metal
(the cathode) that will emit electrons when exposed to light. The other electrode (the
anode) is given a positive electric charge compared to the cathode. When light shines on
the cathode, electrons are emitted from the cathode and then attracted to the anode.
Electrons move in the vacuum tube from cathode to anode. The microammeter measures
a very small electric current.
The wave theory of light

At the time that the photoelectric effect was first being studied, it was accepted that light
is a wave. Phenomenon such as interference and diffraction provided evidence that light
is a wave, shown in Figures 11.12 and 11.13.
Fig 11.12: Light waves are diffracted Fig 11.13: Light waves form
(spread out) when passed through a interference fringes when they pass
diffraction grating through apertures (slits)

Experiments on photoelectric effect produced doubt as to whether light is a continuous
wave. The wave theory of light, for example, could not explain why there was a cut-off
frequency for each metal.
• The wave theory predicts that if we shine light on a metal, the light interacts with an
electron and the electron will absorb energy from it. If the light is shone on the metal
for long enough, eventually electrons would absorb enough energy and be ejected
from the surface of the metal. (This was not observed during the photoelectric effect.)
• According to the wave theory of light, electrons should be ejected at any frequency of
radiation. (This did not explain why there was a cut-off frequency for each metal.)
• According to the wave theory of light, increasing the intensity of the light would
boost the energy of the wave. Light of greater intensity should cause electrons to be
ejected. (This was not observed during the photoelectric effect.)
These predictions, based on the wave theory of light, did not match the observations
made during experiments on the photoelectric effect. A new approach, based on an
entirely new concept, the quantum theory, was used to explain these observations.
Practical demonstration
Aim: To demonstrate the photoelectric effect using a photosensitive

vacuum tube (photocell).
You will need:
• Mercury discharge lamp
• Power supply for mercury discharge lamp
• Photosensitive vacuum tube (photocell)
• Set of light filters (red and blue)
• Variable DC power supply
• Sensitive ammeter
Method:
1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure
11.14. Ensure that the negative
terminal of the variable DC power
supply is connected to the cathode
(emitting electrode).
2. Connect the mercury discharge lamp
to its power supply. Do not look
directly at this source of UV
radiation; it can damage your eyes.
3. Adjust the variable DC power
supply to produce a small voltage
(e.g. 5 V) across the photocell.
Fig 11.14

4. Place a red filter in front of the mercury discharge lamp and shine red light onto
the cathode (emitting electrode) as shown in Figure 11.15.
Fig 11.15: Light from the mercury discharge lamp is passed

through a red light filter
5. Record the reading on the ammeter.

6. Increase the intensity of the red light by moving the mercury discharge lamp
and red filter closer to the photocell. Record any change in the ammeter reading.
7. Repeat steps 4, 5 and 6 using the blue filter.
8. Record any changes in the ammeter reading.
9. Remove the blue filter and shine the UV light onto the cathode. Repeat steps
5 and 6.
10. Record the ammeter readings.
Questions:
1. State the phenomenon which is being demonstrated in this investigation.
2. In step 4 you shone red light onto the photocell. Try to explain why the ammeter
reading was zero.
3. In step 6, you increased the intensity of the red light. Try to explain why there
was no change in the ammeter reading.
4. In step 7 you shone blue light onto the photocell. Try to explain why there was a
reading on the ammeter.
5. You also increased the intensity of the blue light in step 7. Try to explain why
the ammeter reading increased.
6. In step 9 you shone UV light onto the photocell. Try to explain why the
ammeter reading has increased.

Explaining the photoelectric effect
In 1901, German physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by
electromagnetic radiation might exist as “packets of energy” called quanta. The energy
(E) carried by each quantum is given by:
In symbols: Where:
E = hf E = the amount of energy in one quantum of that particular

radiation, measured in joules (J)
f = the radiation’s frequency, measured in hertz (Hz)
h = the Planck constant = 6,63 × 10–34 J.s.
The particle theory of light

In 1905, Albert Einstein developed the quantum theory of light which explained all the
observations made during photoelectric effect. A description of Einstein’s explanation of
the photoelectric effect is given below:
Photons
Electromagnetic radiation consists of
a stream of energy packets called
photons. A photon is the name given
to a quantum of energy when the
energy is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Figure 11.16 shows a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (light)
directed at the surface of a metal.
The energy of a photon (E)

The energy of each photon of
electromagnetic radiation is given by:
E = hf
Fig 11.16: Electromagnetic radiation consists of a stream of “packets of
Take note that the energy of a photon energy” called photons
(E) is directly proportional to the
frequency (f ) of the electromagnetic radiation (E ∝ f ). If light of greater frequency is
used, then the energy of its photons will be greater.
The unit for the energy of a photon is the joule (J).
Worked example:
Fig 11.17: A representation
Calculate the energy of a photon of red light. The of a photon
wavelength of the red light is 680 nm.
Solution:
Firstly, convert nm to m: 1 nm = 10–9 m
The wavelength (λ) of the red light is: λ = 680 nm = 680 × 10–9 m

The speed of all electromagnetic waves is 3 × 108 m.s–1 in a vacuum.

The wave equation gives the relationship between the speed of an electromagnetic wave
(c), its frequency (f ) and its wavelength (λ): c = f λ
Calculate the frequency of the red light:
c=fλ
  3 × 10 −9  = 4,4 × 1014Hz
8
c  = _________
f =  __
λ 680 × 10
Finally, calculate the energy of a photon of red light:
E = hf
E = (6,63 × 10−34
)(4,4 × 1014)
E = 2,9 × 10−19
J
In this worked example you used two equations to find the energy of a photon of light.
  hc 
  c   )= ___
It is often more useful to combine both equations: E = hf = h(__
λ λ
To calculate the energy (E) of a photon of electromagnetic radiation:
hc if the
Use E = hf if the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation is known, or use E =  ___
λ
wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation is known.
Checkpoint 1
a) Calculate the energy of a photon of
i) infrared light of frequency 2 × 1013 Hz
ii) visible light of wavelength 600 nm
iii) ultraviolet light of frequency 1,6 ×1016 Hz.
b) Which of these three forms of electromagnetic radiation in (a) consists of photons
with the greatest energy?
c) i) Calculate the energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation of frequency
7,0 × 1014 Hz.
ii) Calculate the wavelength of this light.
The energy of a photon is transferred to the electron

When a photon of light interacts with an electron, it transfers all of its energy (E) to
the electron.
A single photon will interact with a single electron; the photon cannot share its energy
between several electrons. This transfer of energy happens immediately.
If the frequency of the incident radiation is less than the cut-off frequency (f ) for the
°
metal, then the energy of a photon is insufficient for an electron to escape.
The work function (W°) of a metal

If the frequency of the incident radiation is equal to the cut-off frequency (f ), then
°
the energy of the photon is just sufficient for the electron to be set free from the surface
of the metal.

The minimum energy needed
for an electron to be set free
from the surface of a metal is
called the work function (W ).
°
The work function of a metal is
given by:
Fig 11.18: The energy of the photon is transferred to the electron

In symbols: Where:
W = work function of metal, measured in joules (J)
W = hf °
° ° f = cut-off frequency of the metal, measured in hertz (Hz).
°
h = the Planck constant = 6,63 × 10–34 J.s
Figure 11.18 shows the energy of a photon of light being transferred to an electron at the
surface of the metal.
The cut-off frequency (f ) will determine the minimum energy required by an electron to
°
be set free from the surface of zinc i.e. the work function (W ) for zinc.
°
Worked example:
Calculate the work function of zinc which has a cut-off frequency of 1,0 × 1015 Hz.
Solution:
W = hf
° °
−34
W = (6,63 × 10 )(1,0 × 1015)
°
−19
W = 6,6 × 10 J
°
This means an electron at the surface of the metal will need 6,6 × 10–19 J of energy to be set
free from the surface of the metal.
According to the wave equation (c = f.λ) , the wavelength (λ) of the electromagnetic
  1 .
radiation is inversely proportional to the frequency (f) of the radiation: λ α __
f
It follows then that the cut-off frequency (minimum frequency required)
must correspond to the maximum wavelength of radiation required to produce
photoelectric emission.
Checkpoint 2
a) What is meant by the work function of a metal?
b) Calculate the work function of potassium which has a cut-off frequency of 5,6 × 1014 Hz.
c) Suppose light of a longer wavelength was shone on to potassium.
Would photoelectric emission take place? Explain your answer.
You will notice that the calculated values for the work functions of metals are very small
numbers. Scientists use another unit for energy, namely the electron volt (eV) to represent
the work function of a metal. 1 eV = 1,6 × 10–19 J
Worked example:
a) The work function of zinc was calculated as is 6,9 × 10–19 J.
Convert this to an energy value in eV.
Solution:
6,9 × 10–19 J
W = __________
   = 4,3 eV
° 1,6 × 10–19 J

b) The work function for sodium is 2,28 eV. Convert this to an energy value in joules (J).
Solution:
–19 –19
W = 2,28 eV × (1,6 × 10 ) = 3,6 × 10 J
°
Checkpoint 3
The work function of gold is 5,1 eV. Calculate the cut-off frequency for the emission of
photoelectrons from the surface of gold.
Maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons (KEmax)

If the frequency of the incident radiation is
greater than the cut-off frequency (fo), then the
energy of each photon will be greater than the
work function of the metal. This means that
electrons at the surface of the metal will be
ejected with extra energy in the form of kinetic
energy (KE). Figure 11.19 shows photons with
energy greater than the work function of the
metal.
Electrons on the surface of the metal will
escape with maximum kinetic energy
(KEmax).
Einstein used the principle of conservation of
Fig 11.19: When the incident photon has an energy greater than the
energy to derive the photoelectric equation:
work function of the metal, then the electron is ejected with kinetic
energy. Photon energy = Work function energy +
maximum kinetic energy of electron
The photoelectric equation:
In symbols: Where:
E = hf
E = W + KEmax
° W = hf
° °
KEmax = _  12 mv2  max
Therefore the photoelectric equation becomes:
In symbols: Where:
m is the mass of an electron in kg (me = 9,11 × 10–31 kg)
 1  mv max
hf = hf + __
2
° 2 vmax = the maximum speed of the ejected electron (in m.s–1)
If a photon interacts with an electron below the surface of the metal, some energy will be
used to take the electron to the surface. This electron will be ejected with less than the
maximum kinetic energy. It follows then that electrons will be ejected with a range of
kinetic energies, but only electrons on the surface will be ejected with maximum kinetic
energy (KEmax).
If the frequency of the incident radiation is equal to the cut-off frequency (f ) then the
°
energy of the photon (E) is equal to the work function (W ) for the metal and the electron
°
will be set free from the surface of the metal with zero kinetic energy (it will be lifted off
the surface of the metal).
E = W + KEmax
°
E=W +0
°
E=W
°
Worked example:
The work function of platinum is 9,0 × 10–19 J.
a) Calculate the cut-off frequency for the emission of photoelectrons from platinum,
b) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron when radiation of
frequency 2,0 × 1015 Hz is incident on a platinum surface.
Solution:
a) W = hf
° °
W
9,0 × 10−19
f =  ___° =  __________   = 1,4 × 1015Hz
° h 6,63 × 10−34
b) Calculate the energy of a photon of this radiation: E = hf
E = (6,63 × 10−34
)(2 × 1015)
E = 1,3 × 10−18
J
Use the photoelectric equation: E = W + KEmax
°
KEmax = E – W
°
KEmax= 1,3 × 10−18
− 9,0 × 10−19

KEmax = 4,0 × 10−19
J
Checkpoint 4
a) The work function of silver is 7,5 × 10–19 J. Show that the cut-off frequency for silver is
about 1,1 × 1015 Hz.
b) Electromagnetic radiation of frequency 3,0 × 1015 Hz is incident on the surface of
sodium metal. The emitted photoelectrons have a maximum kinetic energy of
1,6 × 10–18 J. Calculate the cut-off frequency for photoelectric emission from sodium.
Intensity of the electromagnetic radiation

Increasing the intensity (brightness) of the radiation means that more photons are
arriving on the metal surface per second. This means that more electrons will be ejected
per second. This is represented in Figures 11.20 and 11.21.
Fig 11.20: Low intensity light Fig 11.21: High intensity light means
means fewer electrons are ejected many more electrons are ejected per
per second second

Figure 11.21 shows high intensity radiation, in which many more photons are arriving at
the surface of the metal per second. This results in more electrons being ejected per
second. If the frequency of the incident radiation is below the cut-off frequency of the
metal, then increasing the intensity of the radiation will not cause electrons to be ejected.
Science around us
The photocell
When light shines on the cathode of a
photocell, electrons are emitted and then
attracted to the anode. The current can be used
to turn a motor, open a door, or ring a bell in
an alarm system. The system can be made to
respond to light, as described above, or it can
be sensitive to the removal of light.
Photocells are commonly used in factories. Fig 11.22: Photocells are used as
Items on a conveyer belt pass between a beam motion sensors to detect changes
of light and a photocell. As each item passes in light intensity
the beam, it blocks the light, the current
produced by the photocell stops, and a counter is turned on. The exact number of
items leaving a factory can be counted. Photocells are installed on light poles to turn
street lights on and off at dusk and dawn (Figure 11.22). In addition, photocells are
used as exposure meters in cameras. They measure the exact amount of light entering a
camera, allowing a photographer to adjust the camera lens to the correct setting.
Measuring the maximum kinetic energy of the

ejected electrons
The circuit which can be used to measure the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is
shown in Figure 11.23. The phototube is now used in reverse. A potential difference is
now applied between A and B so that terminal B is now negative with respect to A.
Fig 11.23: Circuit used to measure the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons

If blue light for example is shone on to the cathode, electrons are ejected from the
cathode. Any ejected electron moving from A to B will slow down as they are being
repelled by terminal B. Only electrons with enough kinetic energy will be able to reach
terminal B. Electrons with too little energy are pushed back towards terminal A. When an
electron moves towards terminal B, the electron is moving against the electric field
between the electrodes. The kinetic energy of the electron will therefore decrease.
If the voltage between A and B is gradually increased, the current measured by the
microammeter decreases and eventually becomes zero. This means that no electrons
arrive at terminal B. The minimum voltage necessary to stop the electrons is known as the
stopping voltage.
The fact that the current in the microammeter decreases when the voltage is increased
proves that electrons are ejected with a range of kinetic energies. Fewer and fewer
electrons are arriving at B as the voltage is increased. The stopping voltage is therefore a
measure of the maximum kinetic energy (KEmax) of the photoelectrons.
If ultra-violet radiation is used, then the stopping voltage increases. This means that the
electrons are ejected with a greater maximum kinetic energy. The frequency of UV
radiation is greater than that of blue light.
If the experiment is repeated with radiation of greater intensity but the same frequency,
the current in the microammeter increases but the value of the stopping voltage is
unchanged. This means that the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons does not
depend on the intensity of the radiation
The following conclusions can be drawn from this demonstration:
• The ejected electrons have a range of kinetic energies, from zero to some maximum
value (KEmax).
• If the frequency of the incident radiation is increased, the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons also increases.
• If the frequency of the incident radiation is constant, then the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons is unaffected by intensity of this radiation.
Practical demonstration
Aim: To use a photocell to demonstrate the stopping voltage required for various
frequencies of light.
You will need:
• Mercury discharge lamp
• Power supply for mercury discharge lamp
• Photosensitive vacuum tube (photocell)
• Blue light filter
• Variable DC power supply
• Sensitive ammeter

Method:
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure
11.24. The photocell is used in
reverse. Ensure that the negative
terminal of the variable DC power
supply is connected to anode
(collecting terminal) of the
photocell. The oscilloscope is used
as a voltmeter and connected in
parallel with the variable DC power
source.
2. Set the variable DC voltage to zero.
3. Place the blue light filter in front of
the mercury discharge lamp and
shine the blue light onto the
Fig 11.24: Circuit used to find the stopping voltage photocell.
4. Gradually increase the variable DC voltage until the ammeter reading drops
to zero.
5. Adjust the oscilloscope to measure the stopping voltage. Record this stopping
voltage.
6. Remove the blue filter and shine the UV light onto the photocell. Repeat steps 4 and 5.
7. Move the UV lamp closer to the photocell to increase the intensity of the UV
light incident on the emitting electrode. Repeat steps 4 and 5. Record this
stopping voltage.
Questions:
1. Explain why the photocell is used in reverse.
2. Explain what is meant by a stopping voltage.
3. Which type of electromagnetic radiation (blue light or UV light) produced the
greater stopping voltage? Explain your answer.
4. In step 7 you increased the intensity of the UV light. How did this affect the
stopping voltage? Explain your answer.
Significance of the photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect is important because it suggested that light consists of particles.
The wave theory of light could not explain all the observations made in the photoelectric
effect. The photoelectric effect caused scientists to re-evaluate their understanding of light
and to develop the quantum theory of light which proposes that light consists of particles
(packets of energy called quanta). Today scientists understand light to have a dual nature.

Wave-particle duality
The photoelectric effect suggests that light waves can
behave like particles (photons). If light waves can
behave like particles, then perhaps particles can behave
like waves?
If a beam of X-rays of a single wavelength is directed at
a thin metal foil, a diffraction pattern is produced as
shown in Figure 11.25. This is a similar effect to the
diffraction pattern produced when light is passed
through a diffraction grating.
If a beam of electrons is directed at a thin metal foil, a
similar diffraction pattern is produced as shown in
Figure 11.26. The electrons, which we normally consider Fig 11.25: X-ray diffraction pattern of a metal foil
to be particles, are exhibiting a property we would
normally associate with waves. Today, physicists accept
the dual nature of light which states that light can behave
both as a wave and as a particle. This is known as the
wave-particle duality.
Fig 11.26: Electron diffraction pattern of graphite

Exercise 11.1
1. Write down the equation that is used to calculate the energy of a photon of
electromagnetic radiation. Write down the meaning of each term in the equation
and its SI unit of measurement.
2. Calculate the energy of a photon of
red light with a wavelength of
7,5 × 10–7m.
3. Two zinc plates are placed on top
of negatively charged gold-leaf
electroscopes, as shown in
Figure 11.27. High intensity green
light is shone onto the zinc plate in
experiment (i) and low intensity
ultra-violet radiation is shone on
to the zinc plate in experiment (ii).
The leaf of the electroscope
collapses in experiment (ii) while
nothing happened to the
electroscope in experiment (i).
Fig 11.27

a) Why does the leaf collapse in experiment (ii)?

b) Why are no changes observed in experiment (i)?
c) The wavelengths of the light used are 200 nm and 520 nm. Calculate the
frequency of each form of light.
d) Which of the frequencies calculated in (c) corresponds to the UV light?
e) Calculate the energy of a photon of:
i) the green light
ii) the UV light.
f) What is meant by the cut-off frequency of a metal?
g) What is meant by the work function of a metal?
h) The cut-off frequency for zinc is 8,8 × 1014 Hz, calculate the work function of zinc.
i) What will happen if the photons falling on the zinc have:
i) less energy than the work function?
ii) more energy than the work function?
j) What observations would be made if:
i) the intensity of the UV light is increased? Explain your answer.
ii) UV light of shorter wavelength was used? Explain your answer.
4. a) State two observations associated with the photoelectric effect which cannot
be explained in terms of the wave theory of light.
b) Explain these two observations in terms of the particle theory of light.
5. The work function of a certain metal is 4,0 × 10–19 J.
a) Calculate the longest wavelength of light for which photoelectric emission
will occur.
b) This metal is irradiated with ultra-violet radiation of wavelength 250 nm.
i) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.
ii) Calculate the maximum speed of the ejected electrons. The mass of an
electron is 9,11 × 10–31 kg.

6. Figure 11.28 shows a metal plate
(cathode) that emits electrons when a
certain frequency of electromagnetic
radiation is incident on it. The plate is
connected to a source of potential
difference and an ammeter as shown
in the circuit.
a) Name the phenomenon described
above.
When radiation of wavelength 555 nm is
incident on the metal plate, electrons are
released with zero kinetic energy.
b) Define the work function of a
metal. Fig 11.28
c) Calculate the work function of this metal.

d) How will the reading on the ammeter change if the intensity of the
electromagnetic radiation is increased? Explain your answer.
e) Incident radiation with a longer wavelength is now used. How will the
reading on the ammeter change? Explain your answer.
7. A metal plate is illuminated with ultra-violet radiation of frequency
1,67 × 1015 Hz. The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is
3,0 × 10–19 J.
a) Calculate the energy of one photon.
b) Calculate the work function of the metal.
c) The radiation is maintained at the same frequency, but the intensity is doubled.
State and explain what changes, if any, occur to the number of electrons released
per second and the maximum kinetic energy of these electrons.
8. During an experiment to determine the work function of sodium metal,
electromagnetic radiation of different frequencies was shone onto a sodium
surface and the corresponding maximum kinetic energies of the photoelectrons
were recorded as shown in the table below.
Frequency (Hz) KEmax (J)

7,0 × 10 14
0,8 × 10–19
8,0 × 1014 1,5 × 10–19
9,0 × 1014 2,1 × 10–19
10,0 × 1014 2,8 × 10–19
11,0 × 1014 3,5 × 10–19
a) State the dependant variable in this experiment.

b) Plot a graph of the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons (KEmax)
versus the frequency (f) of the incident radiation. Both axes must start at zero.

c) Extrapolate the graph back to cut the x-axis. What is the value of the
frequency when the graph intercepts the x-axis?
d) What is the minimum frequency of the radiation that would just be able to
lift an electron from the surface of sodium metal with zero kinetic energy?
e) What name is given to this frequency?
f) Use your graph to calculate the work function of sodium metal.
In a new experiment electromagnetic radiation with a frequency of 9,8 × 1014 Hz
is shone onto a piece of sodium metal and the intensity of the radiation is
gradually increased.
g) How will increasing the intensity of the radiation effect:
i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted from the
sodium metal? Explain your answer.
ii) The number of photoelectrons emitted from the sodium metal? Explain
your answer.
9. In 1905 Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize for his explanation of the
photoelectric effect. He was able to explain the unexpected result whereby the
frequency of light, rather than its intensity, is the key determining factor in
photoelectric experiments.
a) State the main impact that the photoelectric effect had on scientific
knowledge and beliefs.
A solar calculator uses the photoelectric effect in order to produce an electric
current. The metal used in the solar cells of a particular calculator has a work
function of 3,97 × 10–19 J.
b) Calculate the wavelength of the light that will be just sufficient to make this
calculator work.
c) Explain what will happen if light of a longer wavelength than calculated in
b) is used.
10. A learner carries a photoelectric effect experiment using a photocell. The work
function of the metal of the photocell is 3,68 × 10–19 J.
a) Explain how a photocell works.
b) Explain what is meant by the work function of a metal.
c) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted when
the metal is illuminated with light of frequency 6,38 × 1014 Hz.
The intensity of the light is increased. Describe the effect that this would
have on:
d) The kinetic energy of the electrons
e) The number of photoelectrons emitted.

Atomic emission and absorption spectra
Atomic emission spectra
A continuous emission spectrum

When white light from a tungsten filament lamp is passed through a prism, the light is
dispersed (split) into its component colours as shown in Figure 11.29. The band of colours
produced is called a continuous emission spectrum, shown in Figure 11.30.
Fig 11.29: Dispersion of white light as it Fig 11.30: The continuous spectrum of visible light. The range of
passes through a prism wavelengths for each colour are shown in nm. (1 nm = 10-9m)
The continuous spectrum of white light shows all the colours (and wavelengths).The
colours and wavelengths range from violet (about 400 nm) to red (about 700 nm). Since
this spectrum has been produced by the emission of light from the tungsten filament, it is
referred to as an emission spectrum.
The continuous emission spectrum shows all the possible wavelengths of light in the
visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
A gas discharge tube

A gas discharge tube such as
the one shown in Figure 11.31
is a transparent tube containing
gas at low pressure. When a
high voltage is applied across
its two electrodes, light is
emitted from the gas inside
the tube.
Fig 11.31: Diagram of a gas discharge tube

When a high voltage is applied across the electrodes,

some electrons are stripped from the atoms of the gas
and the gas ionises. The atoms now become positive
ions. Electrons are accelerated towards the anode. They
collide with ions moving in the opposite direction.
When the positive and negative charges recombine
photons of light are emitted. Figure 11.32 shows a
hydrogen gas discharge tube emitting light when a
high voltage is applied across its electrodes.
Each gas discharge tube contains atoms or molecules of
a particular element. Figure 11.33 shows discharge
tubes containing an element emitting light when a high
voltage is applied across their electrodes. The light
Fig 11.32: A hydrogen gas discharge tube emitting light emitted by an element in a gas discharge tube can now
be examined.
Fig 11.33: Gas discharge tube emitting light
Atomic line emission spectra

If the light emitted by a gas discharge tube containing hydrogen gas is passed through a
prism (or a diffraction grating), the spectrum produced is no longer continuous as shown
in Figure 11.34. Such a spectrum is known as a line emission spectrum. It consists of a
number of separate lines of colour.
Fig 11.34: Light from a hydrogen gas discharge tube passes through a prism,
producing a spectrum of distinct lines

Figure 11.35 shows the visible part of the line emission spectrum for hydrogen and helium.
a) The line emission spectrum of hydrogen (H2) from a discharge tube
b) The line emission spectrum of helium (He) from a discharge tube

Fig 11.35: Line emmision spectra
If we compare the line emission spectra of hydrogen and helium, we notice that each
element emits different wavelengths of light. In fact every single element emits its own
unique line emission spectrum.
Electron energy levels in atoms

To explain how a line emission spectrum is produced,
you need to understand how electrons behave within
atoms. Electrons in an atom can only have certain
specific energies. These are called the electron energy
levels of the atom.
Let’s consider the smallest atom, the hydrogen atom.
The energy levels within a hydrogen atom may be
represented by a series of parallel lines against a
vertical scale of energy as shown in Figure 11.36.
Electrons in energy level 1 (n = 1) are closest to the
nucleus of the atom. The vertical axis represents the
potential energy of an electron. For example, the
potential energy of an electron in energy level 3
is – 0,24 × 10–18 J.
Why are the potential energy values in Figure 11.36
shown as negative values?
If an electron is free from an atom it is considered to
have zero electric potential energy. As the electron
moves closer to the nucleus, its electric potential
energy will decrease, hence the negative values. Fig 11.36: The possible energy levels that an electron
can occupy within the hydrogen atom

Normally electrons occupy the lowest energy levels available. Under these conditions the
atom is said to be in the ground state. Figure 11.36 also represents a hydrogen atom in
which its single electron is in the lowest energy level. Remember, electrons in an atom can
only have certain specific energies. If this electron absorbs energy from a photon of light,
it may be promoted to a higher energy level. This is shown in Figure 11.37a).
a) An electron has absorbed b) An electron has jumped to a c) Electron makes a transition to a
energy higher energy level lower energy level and emits a
Fig 11.37 photon of light
The energy absorbed by the electron is exactly equal to the difference in energy between
the two energy levels. Under these conditions, the hydrogen atom is said to be in the
excited state. This is shown in Figure 11.37b). An excited atom is unstable. After a short
while, the excited electron will fall to a lower energy level. In order to do this, the electron
must lose energy. It does this by emitting a photon of light. Figure 11.37c) shows an
electron making a transition to a lower energy level and emitting a photon of violet light.
The movement of an electron between energy levels is known as an electron transition.
The electron transition between energy levels 6 and 2 results in the emission of a photon
of violet light. This explains why there is a violet line in the line emission spectrum of
hydrogen (Figure 11.35a).

The other three lines in the line emission spectrum for hydrogen
correspond to three other possible electron transitions within the
hydrogen atom. Figure 11.38 shows the four possible electron
transitions that can take place within the hydrogen atom.
Of the four possible electron transitions:
• Electron transition A represents the greatest change in energy of
the electron. A photon of high energy will be emitted. This
corresponds to the violet line in the line emission spectrum for
hydrogen in Figure 11.35a).
• Electron transition B will result in a photon of blue light being
emitted. The energy difference between the two levels is less than
in the transition that took place in A. This corresponds to the blue
line in the line emission spectrum for hydrogen in Figure 11.35a).
• Electron transition C will result in a photon of lighter blue light
being emitted. This corresponds to the light blue line in the line
emission spectrum for hydrogen in Figure 11.35a).
Fig 11.38: Four possible electron
• Electron transition D represents the smallest change in energy of
transitions within a hydrogen atom
the electron. A photon of lowest energy will be emitted.
This corresponds to the red line in the line emission spectrum for
hydrogen in Figure 11.35a).
Remember these are just four possible electron transitions which emit photons of light that
fall in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Bear in mind that there are many
other possible electron transitions that produce light which fall in the infrared and ultra-
violet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. This light is not visible to the human eye.
Energy of the emitted photons

When an excited electron falls to a lower energy level it emits a photon. The energy of the
emitted photon (E = hf ) depends on the difference in energy between the two levels:
hf = E2– E1
Worked example:
Refer to Figure 11.36. Consider an electron transition from energy level 6 to energy level 2.
a) Calculate the energy of the photon that is emitted.
b) Calculate the wavelength of light that is emitted (in nm).
c) Which colour of light is emitted when the electron makes this transition?
Solution:
a) The energy of the emitted photon is equal to the difference in energy between the
two levels:
hf = E – E
6 2
hf = ( − 0,061 × 10−18) − ( − 0,54 × 10−18) (Using energy values from Figure 11.36)
hf = − 0,061 × 10−18+ 0,54 × 10−18
= 4,8 × 10−19
J

b) The corresponding wavelength (λ) of the light that is emitted is found using:
E = ___  hc 
λ
(6,63 × 10−34
)(3 × 108)
  hc =    
λ = ___ ___________________
    
E 4,8 × 10−19
= 410 × 10– 9 = 410 nm
c) A wavelength of 410 nm corresponds to the violet line in the line emission spectrum
of hydrogen as shown in Figure 11.35a.
Significance of line emission spectra

Line emission spectra give evidence of the existence of energy levels within atoms. Line
emission spectra prove that the electron energy levels in a hydrogen atom are different to
the electron energy levels in a helium atom. In fact, every element has a different set of
electron energy levels. No two elements have the same line emission spectrum; the line
emission spectrum of an element is like a finger print for that element. Astronomers are
therefore able to analyse the light coming for distant stars and identify the different
elements that are found in these stars. The study of spectra is called spectroscopy, and the
instruments used to measure the wavelengths of spectra are called spectrometers.
Checkpoint 5
1. The atomic line emission spectra for lithium (Li) and calcium (Ca) are shown in
Figure 11.39.
a) lithium (Li)
b) calcium (Ca)
Fig 11.39: Atomic line emission spectra
a) Explain, in terms of the movement of electrons within an atom, how a line

emission spectrum is formed.
b) Explain why the line emission spectrum for calcium is different to that of lithium.
2. Refer to Figure 11.39. Calculate the wavelength of the radiation emitted when
the electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from the energy level at
– 0,061 × 10–18 J (n = 6) to the energy level at – 0,086 × 10–18 J (n = 5).

Exercise 11.2
1. Describe the difference between the continuous emission spectrum of a dense

hot glowing object and the atomic line emission spectrum of an element.
2. Many street lamps and light tubes in advertising displays contain hot gaseous
elements, such as sodium, mercury, argon or neon. Sodium street lamps are
yellow, while neon signs are red.
a) What type of spectrum is produced by a hot gaseous element?
b) Describe how this type of spectrum is produced.
c) Explain why sodium lamps produce a different colour of light than neon
signs.
d) If yellow light has a frequency of 5,2 × 1014 Hz, determine the energy of a
photon of yellow light.
3. Figure 11.40 shows the wavelengths of some of the principal lines in the visible
line emission spectrum of helium.
Fig 11.40: The visible line emission spectrum of helium
a) Calculate the frequency of the red spectral line which has a wavelength of
668 nm.
b) Calculate the energy of the photon of red light which corresponds to this
wavelength.
c) These spectral lines are produced by the transition of electrons from higher
energy levels to lower energy levels within the helium atoms. Which of
these three labelled spectral lines represents the greatest energy change of
an electron within a helium atom? Explain your answer.
4. Refer to Figure 11.36, which shows the possible energy levels that an electron
can occupy within the hydrogen atom.
a) Calculate the energy change for the n = 2 to n = 1 electron transition in a
hydrogen atom.
b) Calculate the wavelength of light that a hydrogen atom would emit if an
electron transition occurred from n = 2 to n = 1.
c) Why can we not see the light emitted by hydrogen atoms when the
electrons move from any upper energy level to the n = 1 energy level?

5. Figure 11.41 shows some

electron transitions
which take place as
excited electrons return
to lower energy levels
within a particular
atom.
Calculate the
wavelengths of the
light emitted in each
transition. Fig 11.41: Three possible electron transitions
(A, B and C) within an atom
Atomic absorption spectra
Atomic absorption spectrum of hydrogen

Figure 11.42 shows white light passing through hydrogen gas at low pressure. The light is
passed through a prism and the spectrum of white light is then analysed.
Fig 11.42: White light is passed through hydrogen gas at low pressure
Figure 11.43 shows the spectrum of white light that is produced. It is found that certain
wavelengths of light are missing. These missing wavelengths of light are shown as dark lines.
Fig 11.43: Absorption spectrum for hydrogen. Certain wavelengths of light are missing from
visible spectrum

This type of spectrum is called an absorption spectrum. As the white
light is passed through the hydrogen gas, the electron within some of the
hydrogen atoms absorbs the energy of a photon of light. If the electron in a
hydrogen atom absorbs an exact amount of energy it will make a transition to a
higher energy level. This is shown in Figure 11.44.
Comparing line emission and absorption

spectra
The energy of the incoming photon must be exactly equal to the energy
difference between the two levels. The result is that only photons with specific
energies will be absorbed by the electrons in the hydrogen atoms. Let’s
compare the line absorption spectrum and line emission spectrum for
hydrogen as shown in Figure 11.45: Fig 11.44: Electrons absorb
photons of energy equal to the
exact difference in energy
between the two levels
Fig 11.45: Atomic absorption and line emission spectra for hydrogen
You will notice that the wavelengths of light that are absorbed by cold the hydrogen gas
correspond exactly to the wavelengths of light that are emitted by hot hydrogen gas. Line
absorption spectra are produced when specific photons of light are absorbed by electrons,
which then make transitions to higher energy levels within the atom. Figure 11.46 shows
the absorption and line emission spectra for helium.
The wavelengths missing in an absorption spectrum are those present in the line emission
spectrum of the same element.
Fig 11.46: A comparison between the absorption and line emission spectra for helium

Checkpoint 6
Consider the different spectra for neon (Ne) shown in Figure 11.47:
B
Fig 11.47
a) Which diagram shows the absorption spectrum for neon? Explain your choice.
b) Explain, in terms of the movement of electrons, how an absorption spectrum is
produced?
c) Which of the above spectra would you observe from a neon gas discharge tube with
a high voltage applied across its terminals? Explain your choice.
d) Explain why the missing wavelengths of light in the absorption spectrum of neon
correlate exactly with the wavelengths emitted in the line emission spectrum.
e) Why are these types of spectra significant? What do they provide evidence of?
Exercise 11.3
1. a) Describe how the appearance of an atomic absorption spectrum differs

from an atomic line emission spectrum.
b) Explain how each of the spectra mentioned in (a) are formed.
2. In a helium-neon laser, the electrons in the neon atoms drop down from their
excited state at – 6,44 × 10–19 J to –9,58 × 10–19 J. What is the frequency of the light
emitted?
3. Explain briefly how astronomers can use line emission and absorption spectra.

4. A fluorescent tube is filled with mercury
vapour at low pressure. In order to
emit electromagnetic radiation, the
mercury atoms must first be excited.
The diagram is not to scale.
a) What is meant by a mercury atom
in an excited state?
b) The lowest energy levels of a
mercury atom are shown
Fig 11.48: An electron transition within a mercury atom
in Figure 11.48.
i) Calculate the frequency of light emitted due to an electron transition
from energy level n = 4 to energy level n = 2.
ii) Between which two lines will an electron transition emit light of a
longer wavelength than that in i)? Explain your answer.
5. Figure 11.49 shows the line emission spectra of five common elements followed
by the spectrum recorded by a telescope, for a distant star. Examine the spectra
and answer the questions that follow.
Fig 11.49
a) How does the light that astronomers see from distant stars and galaxies tell
them that the same atoms with the same properties exist throughout the
universe?
b) Which element is not found in the star which produced the “unknown
spectrum”? How can you tell?
c) Why are spectral lines often referred to as “element finger prints”?

Science around us
Square Kilometre Array (SKA)
The SKA (Figure 11.50) will be the
world’s largest radio telescope when
complete. The Southern African
portion of SKA (70 % of the Fig 11.50: The Square Kilometre Array
instrument) will be centred in the
Karoo while the remainder will be built in Australia. The SKA will investigate
galaxy evolution, cosmology and dark energy.
Extend yourself
1. The apparatus shown in Figure 1l.51 was used to investigate the photoelectric
effect. The apparatus allows for the investigation of
several variables. The frequency and intensity of the
incident radiation can be changed; the type of metal
used and the emf supplied across the electrodes can
be adjusted.
a) Early investigators of this effect found that a
zinc plate, when negatively charged, would
lose its charge when exposed to ultraviolet
light, while a positively charged zinc plate
showed no such effect. What could the
investigators conclude from these
observations?(2)
A source of bright red light and a source of faint blue
light are shone in turn onto the metal surface for the
Fig 11.51 same length of time. In both cases, electrons are ejected
from the metal surface.
b) The wavelength of blue light is 440 nm. Calculate the energy of a photon
from this source. Convert your answer to a value in eV. (4)
c) Define cut-off frequency. (2)
d) The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons ejected by the faint blue
light is greater than the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons ejected
by the bright red light. With reference to one or more suitable formulae
explain why this happens? (3)
e) The faint blue light is replaced by a bright blue light. What effect will this
have on the number of photoelectrons emitted from the metal surface?
2. The photoelectric effect has many practical applications. A photocell, such as the
one in Figure 11.52 was used in burglar alarm systems, is one such application.
Ultraviolet light of wavelength 100 nm is used to illuminate the photocell.
When a person interrupts the ultraviolet beam, the sudden drop in current
activates a switch, which sets off the alarm.

a) How will an increase in intensity of the ultraviolet light influence the
ammeter reading? Explain your answer. (3)
Fig 11.52
The work function of the metal used as a cathode in the photocell is 8,7 × 10–19 J.
b) Calculate the energy of a photon of ultraviolet light. (3)
c) Calculate the maximum velocity of the emitted photoelectrons. (4)
d) Will photoelectrons be emitted from the surface of this metal if it is
irradiated with X-rays? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
3. A light ray, with a wavelength of 200 nm, is directed at a piece of silver. The
beam of light causes the photoelectric effect to be observed in the metal.
a) Explain briefly what is meant by the term photoelectric effect. (3)
b) Calculate the energy of the incident photons of light, in joules. (3)
c) The work function of silver is 6,88 × 10–19 J. Calculate the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. (3)
d) Calculate the speed of the ejected photoelectrons. (3)
e) Calculate the cut-off frequency of silver. (3)
f) The work function of nickel is 7,2 × 10–19 J. Which of the two metals,
(nickel or silver) will be best to use as a photoelectric material?
4. When the visible spectrum emitted by the Sun is observed closely, it is noted
that light of certain wavelengths are missing and in their place are dark lines.
The absorption spectrum from the Sun is shown in Figure 11.53.
a) Explain how the
cool outer gaseous
atmosphere of the
Sun is responsible
for the absence of
these wavelengths
of light. (3)
Fig 11.53
b) Suggest how an
analysis of this spectrum could be used to determine which gases are
present in the Sun’s atmosphere. (3)

Fig 11.54
c) Explain how the line emission spectrum for hydrogen shown in Figure
11.54 is formed. (3)
d) The wavelengths of these four spectral lines correspond exactly to four of
the missing wavelengths in the absorption spectrum of the Sun. What does
this prove? (2)
e) Calculate the energy of a photon of violet light, which corresponds to the
spectral line of wavelength 438 nm. (3)
f) How do you account for the other missing wavelengths of light in the
visible spectrum of the Sun? Which other element is responsible for these
missing wavelengths? (2)
5. Light from a white hot filament of a lamp is focussed on a tube containing
sodium vapour. When the spectrum produced is analysed, two black lines
appear in the yellow part of the spectrum as shown in Figure 11.55.
Fig 11.55
a) Which type of spectrum is shown in Figure 11.55? (1)

b) Explain why these two wavelengths of light are missing from the
spectrum.(3)
c) Which colour will be emitted by sodium vapour when it is heated? (1)
Figure 11.56 shows the spectrum obtained when sodium vapour is heated.
Fig 11.56
d) Which type of spectrum is shown in Figure 11.56? (1)

e) Explain how these two spectral lines are formed? (2)

The wavelengths of the two bright yellow lines in the spectrum of sodium are
589,0 nm and 589,6 nm.
f) Which of these two spectral lines has the higher frequency? (1)
g) Which spectral line corresponds to a photon of highest energy being
emitted?(1)
h) Calculate the energy of a photon of light emitted in g). (3)
[73]
Definitions
continuous emission spectrum shows all the possible wavelengths of light in the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
cut-off frequency (f o) the a minimum frequency of radiation at which electrons will be ejected
from the surface of a metal
diffraction the ability of a wave to spread out in wavefronts as they pass through a small aperture
or around a sharp edge
electron transition the movement of an electron between energy levels
frequency (f ) the number of complete waves that pass a point per second. Frequency is measured
in hertz (Hz)
line emission spectrum shows a number of separate lines of colour in a pattern unique to each
specific element
photoelectric effect the process that occurs when electromagnetic radiation (light) shines on a
metal surface and it ejects electrons from the metal.
photon the name given to a quantum of energy when the energy is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
wavelength (λ) the distance between two consecutive points on a wave that are in phase.
Wavelength is measured in metres (m).
wave speed (v) the product of the frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) of a wave.
work function of a metal (Wo) is the minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the
surface of a metal.

Summary
Type of
Continuous spectrum Line emission spectrum Absorption spectrum
spectrum
Example
Produced by white hot dense Hot gases under low pressure. Produced when white light
Source substances. e.g. the Sun, the e.g. gas discharge tube. passes through a cold gas at
tungsten filament of a lamp. low pressure.
Many transitions between Electrons make transitions Electrons make transitions
Transition of energy levels are possible; from higher energy levels to from lower energy levels to
electrons all wavelengths of light are lower energy levels. higher energy levels.
emitted.
Photons Photons of all energies are Photons of specific energies Photons of specific energies
emitted/ emitted. are emitted. are absorbed.
absorbed

Topic
12 Electrochemical reactions
• Galvanic and electrolytic cells

• Understanding the processes of redox reactions taking place in cells
• Standard electrode potentials
• Relation of current and potential to rate and equilibrium
• Writing of equations representing oxidation and reduction half-reactions
and redox reactions
• Oxidation numbers and application of electrolytic processes
Many chemical systems involve reactions in which reduction and oxidation occurs.
The chemistry involving redox reactions helps us to understand such diverse
processes as rusting, the manufacture of chlorine, and the production of electricity
from batteries, as well as enabling us to monitor the progress of chemical reactions
using electrical measurements.
In this topic we will look more closely at electrochemistry - the chemistry that all
these electrochemical processes share.
432 • Topic 12: Electrochemical reactions

In Grade 11 you learnt about different types of reactions, one of them being redox
reactions. Redox reactions are reactions in which electron transfer takes place from one
chemical substance to another.
• The chemical substance losing the electrons is the substance being oxidised. Since it
reduces the other chemical substance, we consider it to be the reducing agent.
• The chemical substance gaining the electrons is the substance being reduced. Since it
oxidises the other chemical substance, we consider it to be the oxidising agent.
Oxidation and reduction

In a redox reaction:
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
• Reduction is the gain of electrons.
• An oxidising agent is a compound that gains electrons in a redox chemical reaction.
An oxidising agent is itself reduced.
• A reducing agent is a compound that loses electrons in a redox chemical reaction. A
reducing agent is itself oxidised.
Zinc powder is added to an aqueous solution of iron(III) sulphate. The

k
Chec mixture is stirred. After a while, a dark metallic precipitate forms. During
lf
myse
the reaction the mixture heated up.
a) Write out the equation for the oxidation half-reaction.
b) Write out the equation for the reduction half-reaction.
c) Write the overall equation.
d) Which is the spectator ion?
Topic 12: Electrochemical reactions • 433

Galvanic and electrolytic cells
Understanding redox chemistry
Let’s look at whether different metals are able to oxidise in the presence of other metals in
solution. The ability of metals to oxidise will depend on their strength as a reducing agent
in the presence of these aqueous metal ions. Should a metal be a stronger reducing agent,
then the metal ions in solution must then act as oxidising agents and undergo reduction.
In the following experiment you will look at the ability of these metal ions to reduce in
the presence of various metals.
Investigating the reduction of metal ions and halogens

Safety first:
Chemical Hazard symbol Hazcard number
Zinc (II) sulphate 24
Lead (II) nitrate 18
Copper (II) sulphate 16
Sodium sulphate Low hazard 11

Sodium chloride Low hazard 11
Sodium bromide Low hazard 11
Sodium iodide Low hazard 11
Chlorine water Low hazard 29
Bromine water Low hazard 30
Iodine water Low hazard 31
Xylene 37
Dichloro methane 36

Part 1:
Aim: To investigate the reduction of metal ions.
You will need:
• Four beakers
• Four metal electrodes: Zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), aluminium (Al) and copper (Cu)
• Sandpaper and tissue paper.
• The following four solutions: Zinc(II)sulphate (ZnSO4); lead(II)nitrate
(Pb(NO3)2); copper(II)sulphate (CuSO4); sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)
Method:
1. Place the four beakers
containing the
solutions in the same
order as shown in
Figure 12.1.
2. Copy the following Fig 12.1: Various solutions containing metal ions
table:
Na+ Zn2+ Pb2+ Cu2+

Al
Zn
Pb
Cu
3. Use the sandpaper to clean the surface of the aluminium (Al) electrode. Dip the
aluminium electrode into the first solution (Na2SO4). Observe if any reaction is
taking place on the surface of the aluminium electrode. Refer to the table you
have drawn. Insert a cross (×) if there was no reaction or a tick (P) if a reaction
did take place.
4. Remove the Al electrode and rinse it with water, dry it with the tissue paper and
clean the surface with sandpaper. Now dip the clean Al electrode into the
second solution (ZnSO4).
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 by cleaning and dipping the Al electrode in the remaining
two solutions.
6. Repeat the investigation with Zn, Pb and Cu electrodes.

Observations:
Record all observations by completing the table as indicated in step 2 of the method.
If a positive result (P) was recorded, it tells you that the electrode used was
oxidised in the presence of the metal ions. That is, it is a stronger reducing
agent and thus will undergo oxidation. The metal ions therefore must be acting
as oxidising agents, hence will undergo reduction.
Questions:
1. What metal ions are present in each solution? Write their chemical formulae.
2. Which metal ion has a blue colour?
3. List which metal ions are reduced during these reactions.
4. Which of the metal ions most easily reduced?
5. Which of the metal ions is the most difficult to reduce?
6. Which of the metal ions is thus most reactive and which of the metal ions is the
least reactive?
7. Rank the metal ions from least reactive to most reactive.
Part 2:
Aim: To investigate the reduction of the halogens.
You will need:
• Three test tube racks
• 9 large test tubes
• Solutions of the three halogens, namely chlorine water (Cl2), bromine water
(Br2) and iodine water (I2)
• 0,2 mol.dm–3 solutions of the halides NaCl(aq), NaBr(aq) and NaI(aq).
• Non-polar solvent such as Xylene or dichloromethane
• Three droppers
• Glass stirring rod
Method:
1. Place three test tubes in each of three test tube racks. Label the three test tube
racks Cl2, Br2 and I2 respectively.
2. Add approximately 5cm3 of halides NaCl(aq), NaBr(aq) and NaI(aq) into each
respective test tube in each test tube rack.

3. Now add 5cm3 of

dichloromethane to all the
test tubes. This is shown If Xylene is used, it is less dense and will remain
in Figure 12.2. on top of aqueous solutions.
The dichloromethane
layer is more dense and will sink below the halide solutions.
4. Now add 5cm3 of chlorine water to each of the three test tubes in rack 1, 5cm3 of
bromine water in each of the three test tubes in rack 2 and 5cm3 of iodine water
in each of the three test tubes in rack 3. Observe.
Fig 12.2: Test tube rack containing halide solutions with dichloromethane
5. Stir the two layers in each test tube gently with the glass stirring rod. Ensure
that you wipe the rod clean with tissue paper before you stir the next test tube.
Observe
6 Copy the table. Record any colour observed in the dichloromethane layer
after stirring.
Cl2 (Rack 1) Br2 (Rack 2) I2 (Rack 3)

NaCl
NaBr
NaI
Questions:
1. Write down the name and formula of each halogen used in this investigation.
2. Write down the name and formula of each halide ion used in this investigation.
3. Consider test tube rack 1.
a) In which test tubes 1, 2 and 3 did a reaction appear to take place? How did
you know this ?
b) Name the chemical substances that are causing the colour.
c) Is Cl2 acting as an oxidising or reducing agent in these reactions? Explain
your answer.
e) Write down the individual redox reactions taking place in each test tube.

4. Consider test tube rack 2.
a) In which test tubes 1, 2 and 3 did a reaction appear to take place? How do
you know this?
b) Name the chemical substances that are causing the colour.
c) Is Br2 acting as an oxidising or reducing agent in these reactions? Explain
your answer.
e) Write down the individual redox reactions taking place in each test tube.
5. Consider test tube rack 3. Did any reactions take place in test tube rack 3?
6. Write a suitable conclusion for this investigation.
Galvanic cells
Structure of galvanic cells

Now that we have looked at redox chemistry in action, we will study how we can apply
our understanding of this chemistry in a more practical way. In our daily existence we
constantly work with devices that use redox chemistry to convert energy from one form
to another. The two conversions that we are going to study in this topic are the
conversions between chemical energy and electrical energy. We will now look at the
content of electrochemical cells, in particular the galvanic and electrolytic cells, to
understand these conversions.
A galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell
that converts chemical energy to
electrical energy as a result of a self-
sustaining spontaneous reaction. This cell
is made up of a two half cells – each of
which contains a metal electrode in
contact with a solution which contains
that particular metals’ ions in solution.
An electrode is a solid electric conductor
through which an electric current enters
or leaves an electrochemical cell or other
medium The solution is known as the
electrolyte. As a result of a redox
electrochemical reaction between the
metal electrode and that particular
metals’ ions in solution in each half cell,
electrons are transferred at each electrode Fig 12.3: Structure of a galvanic cell
which allows an electric current to flow
in the circuit. A galvanic cell is also sometimes referred to as a voltaic electrochemical cell.

All galvanic cells, such as the one shown in Figure 12.3 are similar in their design and
consist out of the same basic components. The two electrodes are connected to each other
via the external circuit which in turn is connected to a voltmeter or galvanometer. The
electrode at which oxidation takes place is called the anode and the electrode at which
reduction takes place is called the cathode.
This means that the anode becomes the negative electrode (–) in a galvanic cell as it is the
electrode where electrons are deposited due to the oxidation process while the cathode
becomes the positive electrode (+) as it is the electrode to where the electrons flow.
Current flow in a galvanic cell is always from anode to cathode (negative electrode to
positive electrode).
The two half cells are connected to each other with a device called the salt bridge.
The salt bridge, shown in Figure 12.3 consists of a tube filled with a saturated solution of
either potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium nitrate (KNO3) or
sodium sulphate (Na2SO4). These electrolytes are commonly used because they are
generally unreactive towards the chemical substances in the individual beakers. To
prevent the electrolyte in the salt bridge from draining into the individual beakers the
tube ends are fitted with porous plugs such as cotton wool. The full function of the salt
bridge will be discussed in more detail later on in the topic.
It is important to note that galvanic cells use indirect redox reactions because the chemical
contents in each cell do not mix directly.
Checkpoint 1
1. What is a galvanic cell?
2. What energy conversion takes place in a galvanic cell?
3. Give another name for a galvanic cell.
4. Give the definition for:
a) Half-cell
b) Electrode
c) Electrolyte
5. How are the two electrodes in the external circuit of a galvanic cell connected?
6. How are the electrolytes in the internal circuit of a galvanic connected?
7. What is the name given to the half-cell in which oxidation takes place?
8. What is the name given to the half-cell in which reduction takes place?
The zinc–copper cell

Let us consider the zinc-copper galvanic cell shown in Figure 12.4. The zinc-copper cell
will consist of a zinc half cell and a copper half cell. The zinc half cell consists of a zinc
electrode and a zinc salt solution as the electrolyte such as zinc(II) sulphate (ZnSO4)
whilst the copper half cell consists of a copper electrode and a copper salt solution as the
electrolyte such as copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4) . The sulphate ion in each salt acts as a

spectator ion in the galvanic cell. A spectator ion is an ion which does not chemically
participate in the reaction, so can be ignored when considering the electrochemistry
taking place in the cell.
Fig 12.4: A zinc–copper galvanic cell
Electrons always move through the external circuit in a galvanic cell from anode (–) to
cathode (+). At this stage, we will consider the zinc electrode to be the anode and the
copper electrode to be the cathode.
At the anode :
Zn metal in the anode will undergo oxidation according to the following equation:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
Zn2+ ions are introduced into the electrolyte from the Zn electrode and thus the Zn
electrode decreases in mass. The process is known as corrosion.
At the cathode :
Cu2+ ions in the electrolyte will undergo reduction at the cathode according to the
following equation:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
Cu metal atoms form and coat the Cu electrode. Cu2+ ions are removed from the solution
and thus the Cu electrode increases in mass. This process is known as plating.
In the zinc-copper cell:
• Zinc is a stronger reducing agent than copper and will tend to undergo oxidation
much easier that copper.
• The copper ion (Cu2+) is a stronger oxidising agent than zinc ion (Zn2+) and therefore
the Cu2+ ion will tend to undergo reduction much easier than the Zn2+ ion.
We can conclude that zinc will undergo oxidation whilst copper ions will undergo
reduction. This means that the zinc half-cell contains the anode and the copper half-cell

contains the cathode, thus we can refer to each half cell reaction as the anode and cathode
half cell reaction
Anode half-reaction: Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e- (oxidation)
Cathode half-reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) (reduction)
Nett ionic reaction: Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
The nett ionic or nett cell reaction can now be written as long as the balance of electrons
being transferred is maintained. In this cell, two electrons are lost as a result of oxidation
and two electrons are gained as a result of reduction. We now have electron balance and
thus the electrons can be cancelled (as seen above) and the nett ionic reaction can now be
written. Also note that the spectator ion (SO 2–
4  ) is not included in the nett ionic reaction as
it plays no part in the electrochemistry of the cell.
You will notice that the half-reactions on the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials
(page 549) contain double arrows which represent the reversibility of the half-reactions.
That is, they can be written to represent either an oxidation or reduction reaction.
If the half-reaction is written from left to right, it represent a reduction reaction. If the
half-reaction is written from right to left, it represents an oxidation reaction.
We must, however, always use single arrows in the redox chemical reactions. This is
because we have stated definite redox processes at each electrode - oxidation at the anode
and reduction at the cathode. It must be remembered that all chemical reactions,
including redox reactions, are by nature reversible reactions and can reach a state of
equilibrium.
These redox processes are specific for each electrode, that is – oxidation will always occur
at the anode and reduction will always occur at the cathode. An easy way to remember
this is:
ANOX – ANode = OXidation
REDCAT – REDuction = CAThode
Checkpoint 2
Consider a magnesium – silver galvanic cell with the nett ionic reaction given below
Mg + 2Ag+ → Mg2+ + 2Ag
a) Which substance is undergoing oxidation ? Write a half-reaction for the reaction.

b) Which substance is undergoing reduction ? Write a half-reaction for the reaction.
c) Which half cell will contain the anode?
d) Which half cell will contain the cathode ?
e) Which electrode will increase in mass
f) Which electrode will decrease in mass

Electrolytic cells
Structure of electrolytic cells

In the previous lesson on galvanic cells you learnt about the
mechanism and process by which chemical energy can be
converted to electrical energy by means of indirect redox
reactions in galvanic cells. In this lesson we will discuss how an
electrochemical reaction can be used to transform electrical
energy into chemical energy. This process is known as
electrolysis. Electrolysis describes a chemical change produced
in an electrolyte by an electric current. An electrolytic cell is a
device that transforms electrical energy into chemical energy by
means of a non-spontaneous redox reaction using a supply of
electrical energy. A constant power supply is connected to these
electrodes which will provide the energy to sustain the non-
spontaneous redox reaction taking place in the electrolytic cell
Electrolytic cells rely on exactly the same electrochemical
principles as in galvanic cells whereby reduction takes place at Fig 12.5: The structure of an electrolytic cell
the cathode and oxidation takes place at the anode. However,
there are critical differences in not only the structure of the electrolytic cell but also how
the redox reaction takes place in the cell.
An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy into chemical
energy through electrode reactions that are sustained by a supply of electrical energy.
The electrolytic cell, such as the one shown in Figure 12.5, consists of an anode electrode
and cathode electrode as in a galvanic cell. These electrodes are generally made of carbon
(graphite). However, instead of having these two electrodes in their own individual
electrolytes these electrodes are placed in one common electrolyte. This electrolyte can be
either an aqueous salt solution or a molten salt. Molten salts, often known as “melts” are
generally used if the salts are not soluble in water. Cations are attracted to the negative
electrode while anions are attracted to the positive electrode.
The electrode reactions in an electrolytic cell are sustained by a supply of electrical
energy. This allows for a conversion of electrical energy to chemical energy. This is
different to the galvanic cell which has self-sustaining electrode reactions converting
chemical energy to electrical energy.
In the electrolytic cell the process of oxidation and reduction proceeds in the same way as
in the galvanic cell. The electrode where oxidation takes place is called the anode while
the electrode where reduction takes place is called the cathode. The significant difference
is that the anode is now the positive electrode and the cathode is the negative electrode
due to the fact that this is how the electrodes are connected to the external power supply
that supplies the electrical energy to sustain the electrochemical reaction.
Checkpoint 3
1. What energy conversions take place in an electrolytic cell?
2. What major difference is there in the structure of an electrolytic and galvanic cell?
3. Why does there have to be an energy source to enable an electrolytic cell to work?

Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide (PbBr2)

Figure 12.6 shows an electrolytic cell with two graphite
electrodes placed into lead(II) bromide salt (PbBr2). Heat is
added and the PbBr2 melts and dissociates according to the
following reaction:
PbBr2(s) → Pb2+(l) + 2Br–(l)
The Pb2+ and Br – ions are now free to move about in the melt.
The two graphite rods are connected to the power supply and
immersed into the molten lead(II) bromide. An electrical
current is now supplied to the molten salt through the carbon
electrodes.
Fig 12.6: Electrolysis of PbBr2
The bromide anions (Br–) will be attracted to the positive electrode where they will donate
(lose) electrons and be oxidised to neutral bromine atoms which combine into bromine
molecules according to the following half-reaction:
Oxidation: 2Br– → Br2 + 2e–
The lead cations (Pb2+) will be attracted to the negative electrode where they will accept
(gain) electrons and are reduced to neutral lead atoms. Lead (Pb) is now seen to coat the
negative electrode as it forms. The reaction at the cathode will be as follows:
Reduction: Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb
In this electrolytic cell, the nett ionic reaction will be as follows:
Nett ionic reaction: 2Br– + Pb2+ → Br2 + Pb
The electrons that are deposited at the anode are attracted by the positive terminal of the
cell or battery in the external circuit, where they are pushed to the cathode.
Therefore electrons will, just like with the galvanic cell, travel from anode to cathode in
the external circuit. The flow of electrons in the external circuit and the flow of ions in the
electrolyte thus completes the circuit.
Checkpoint 4
A current supply is connected to two carbon electrodes and immersed in molten
copper(II) chloride.
a) Draw a diagram to show the set up of the electrolytic cell. Show which electrode is
the anode and the cathode.
b) Give an equation for the dissociation of copper(II) chloride upon melting.
c) Give half-reactions and a nett ionic reaction for this electrolytic cell. Indicate the
oxidation and reduction half-reactions.
d) What energy conversion takes place in this cell?
e) What observations would be made at the anode? Explain.

Understanding of the processes and
redox reactions taking place in cells
Understanding the processes in a galvanic cell
We have now studied the basic principles of both galvanic and electrolytic cells. What we
now need to do is look carefully at the movement of the ions through the solutions in
both cells, the electron flow in the external circuit of the cell, the redox reactions taking
place at each electrode and the function of the salt bridge in the galvanic cell.
The galvanic cell consists of two half cells that are linked together by a salt bridge. Each
half cell consists of a metal electrode place in a solution containing the metal ions of that
electrode. The example most commonly used is the zinc–copper cell as described on
page 439. The electrolyte used in the half cells is zinc
sulphate (ZnSO4 (aq)) and copper sulphate (CuSO4 (aq)).
When the cell is functioning, oxidation will always occur
at the anode while reduction will always occur at the
cathode. This means that at the anode, Zn metal will be
oxidised to Zn2+ and Cu2+ ion will be reduced to Cu
metal at the cathode. It is important to note that only the
metal and metal ions are involved in the electron
transfer process. The anion of the electrolyte, in this case
the sulphate anion (SO42– (aq) ), does not become
involved in the electrochemical reaction at any stage –
hence it is referred to as a spectator ion.
These electrochemical processes are represented by half-
reactions as seen below. The two half-reactions are
combined once electron balance has been established Fig 12.7: The zinc–copper galvanic cell
into the nett cell or nett ionic reaction:
Anode (oxidation) Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Cathode (reduction) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Nett ionic reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
The electrons that are deposited on the anode move through the external circuit to the
cathode where the reduction process takes place. This means that the anode is designated
the negative electrode while the cathode is designated the positive electrode. Thus
electrons flow through the external circuit from anode to cathode or negative to positive.
This is known as direct flow of electric current.
The function of the salt bridge

The salt bridge performs two major functions in the galvanic cell
• To connect the two half cells together to complete the circuit.
• To maintain ionic neutrality in each of the half cells.

Completing the circuit: electrons that are transferred at the anode half cell due to
oxidation will travel through the external circuit to the cathode half-cell where reduction
takes place. Electrons are unable to pass through the electrolyte making up the half-cells
or the salt bridge. However, the ions present in the electrolyte, including those in the salt
bridge, are free to move through the electrolytic solution. The movement of these ions in
each half cell and through the salt bridge ensure the flow of charge between each half cell
and hence maintaining an electrical circuit.
Ionic neutrality: As the zinc metal undergoes oxidation at the anode, more and more zinc
ions (Zn2+) will be formed and thus dissolve in the electrolyte. This in turn will increase
the number of Zn2+ ions into the electrolyte. As a result, there will be more positive ions
than negative ions in the electrolyte. At the cathode (Figure 12.8), copper ions (Cu2+) in
the solution will be reduced to copper metal (Cu). This in turn will decrease the number
of Cu2+ ions in electrolyte. As a result, there will be more negative ions than positive ions
in the electrolyte.
In the Cu half cell: In the Zn half cell:

Na ions are
+ SO42– ions are
pumped into the pumped into the
half-cell from the half-cell from the
salt bridge to salt bridge to
increase cation increase anion
concentrations concentrations
while while
simultaneously simultaneously
SO42- ions are Zn2+ ions are
pumped out hence pumped out hence
maintaining half maintaining half
cell neutrality cell neutrality
Fig 12.8: The Zn–Cu galvanic cell showing movement of ions through the salt bridge
We can now see that there will be an imbalance of positive and negative ions in each half
cell. If the excess of positive and negative ions in each respective half cell is not balanced,
the electron flow in the external circuit will stop. The salt bridge now functions to
stabilise and maintain the half cell neutrality by acting as an ionic pump by allowing for
the free flow of cations and anions from, and through, the salt bridge into the respective
half cells to maintain the ionic balance and hence the neutrality. Anions (SO 2–4  ) from the
salt bridge will flow into the anode half cell to increase the numbers of anions present
and thus balance out the number of cations present. Cations (Na+) will flow from the salt
bridge into the cathode half-cell to increase the numbers of cations present and balance
out the numbers of anions present. In other words, the ions in salt bridge maintain half
cell electrical neutrality.

Checkpoint 5
1. What is meant by the term “spectator ion”?
2. Name two chemical substance that would be suitable to use in a salt bridge. Briefly
explain your choice.
3. State two functions of the salt bridge and briefly explain the importance of these
functions.
4. What is meant by the term “ionic pump”?
The cell notation

The galvanic cell can be represented in a number of ways to illustrate the chemistry taking
place within it. It can become tedious to continuously have to keep on drawing the entire
cell to show the various processes occurring, hence the introduction of the cell notation as
a short-hand way of representing the cell. The cell notation is the simplest and most
convenient way and is an abbreviated representation of the reactions taking place in a
galvanic cell.
When writing cell notation, we follow the following conventions:
• Cell notations are always written from anode to cathode.
• The anode is always placed on the left side, and the cathode is placed on the right
side of the cell notation.
• Each half cell reaction is represented by a diagonal line to show an electrochemical
reaction for example Zn/Zn2+
• The salt bridge is represented by two vertical parallel lines ||
Cell notations can be easily written by simply studying the nett ionic reactions of galvanic
cells. If we take the nett ionic reaction for the zinc-copper cell, we can write the cell
notation as follows.
Nett reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
• Zn is being oxidised to Zn2+ hence is the anode reaction
• Cu2+ is being reduced to Cu hence is the cathode reaction
Cell notation : Zn(s) / Zn2+(aq) || Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s)
(anode) (cathode)
Checkpoint 6
1. Write cell notations to represent the following nett ionic reactions for different
galvanic cells:
a) Mg(s) + Fe2+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + Fe(s)
b) Ag+(aq) + Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + Ag(s)
c) Ni2+(aq) + Cu (s) → Cu2+(aq) + Ni (s)

Exercise 12.1
1. An electrode made of zinc metal is placed in a zinc(II) sulphate solution while a

magnesium electrode is placed in a solution of magnesium sulphate. The two
half-cells are connected by a salt bridge and the electrodes are both connected to
a voltmeter, as shown in Figure 12.9. The magnesium electrode is the anode and
the zinc electrode is the cathode.
a) Copy the
diagram in
Figure 12.9.
b) Name an
electrolyte
that could
be found
inside the
salt bridge.
c) What are
the two
functions of
the salt
bridge? Fig 12.9 Zn–Mg galvanic cell
d) i) Write out the two half-reactions and use them to obtain a nett ionic
reaction for the electrochemical cell.
ii) Indicate the oxidation and reduction half-reactions.
e) Which electrode will disintegrate if the cell is allowed to deliver current for
a period of time?
f) Fill in the direction of flow of electrons and ions on your diagram.
g) Write the cell notation for this cell.
Science around us
Cells and batteries
Batteries are electrochemical cells that convert chemical energy into electrical
energy and most often play a daily role in our everyday lives. Have you ever
thought about the light that your torch is able to produce, how a car is able to start
in the morning or why you are able to talk on a cell phone? All of these have to do
with energy from tiny batteries that allow your watch to work to the large
batteries that are able to start a car.
What is a battery? A battery is a group of galvanic cells that are connected
together. We find two main types of batteries, namely primary batteries and
secondary batteries.

Primary batteries are batteries
which are discarded once the initial
supply of chemical reactants is
exhausted. Common types of
disposable batteries include zinc–
carbon batteries and alkaline
batteries which can be used in
torches. Secondary batteries are
batteries that can be recharged; that
is, they can have their chemical
reactions reversed by supplying
electrical energy to the cell, thus
restoring their original chemical
composition. Common forms of
secondary batteries are cell phone
and laptop computer batteries as
well as lead–acid battery. A
common form of the lead–acid
battery is the modern car battery.
Fig 12.10: Examples of different batteries
used in everyday life
Understanding the processes in the electrolytic cell
Electrolysis in aqueous solutions

There is some interesting electrochemistry that takes place
during electrolytic reactions.
Water itself is able to undergo an electrochemical reaction
by being either oxidised or reduced. Water is a polar
molecule thus attracted to both the cathode and the anode
in the electrolytic cell.
Water is thus able to compete for electrons with the other
ions in the electrolyte based on its comparative strength as
an oxidising or reducing agent.
Fig 12.11: Water molecules showing δ+ and δ –

polar ends attracted to anode and cathode

Investigating electrolysis
Part 1:
Aim: To investigate the electrolysis of water
You will need:
• Water bowl (or beaker)
• Two carbon (graphite) electrodes. (Two iron nails would work just as well.)
• Two test tubes
• Water
• Two conducting wires
• A 9 V battery (or a variable DC power supply)
• Rubber stoppers
Safety first:
Chemical Hazard symbol Hazard number

Sodium iodide Low hazard 11
Method:
1. Half fill the water bowl (or beaker) with water.
2. Take two test tubes labelled A and B and fill them with water as well.
3. Place the two test tubes filled with water into the bowl of water. Invert so that
they remain full of water as shown in Figure 12.12. Ensure that no air is trapped
in the test tubes.
4. Connect a conducting wire to each of the carbon electrodes and slide the
electrodes into the neck of each test tube
5. Secure the test tubes
vertically. Connect the
electrode in test tube A to the
positive terminal of the
battery. The electrode in test
tube B is connected to the
negative terminal of the
battery.
Fig 12.12: The electrolysis of water

6. Carry out the electrolysis only long enough to make the necessary observations.
Write down your observations.
7. Disconnect the battery once you have made your observations and collected
enough gas in each test tube. Place a rubber stopper in the mouth of each test
tube to trap the gas and remove from the water bath.
8. Test each gas one at the time by removing the stopper and by placing a burning
match at the mouth of each test tube
Questions
1. Which electrode, A or B, is the anode?
2. Which electrode, A or B, is the cathode?
3 Write down what you observe taking place at the electrodes in each of test
tubes A and B.
4. What did you observe happening when the burning match was placed at the
mouth of each of the test tubes ?
5. Based on these observations, what gas was collected at the anode?
6. Based on these observations, what gas was collected at the cathode?
Part 2:
Aim: To investigate the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium iodide
You will need:
• Water bowl (or beaker)
• Two carbon (graphite) electrodes. (Two iron nails would work just as well.)
• Two test tubes
• 0,2 mol.dm-3 sodium iodide solution
• Two conducting wires
• A 9 V battery (or a variable DC power supply)
• Rubber stoppers
Method:
Using a solution of sodium iodide instead of water as electrolyte and exactly the
same apparatus, repeat the exact same method steps 1 – 6 in the previous
investigation, then follow the remaining steps below:
7. Using rubber stoppers, seal the test tubes and remove from sodium iodide
solution. Observe both test tubes.
8. Using the test tube that is filled with gas, remove the rubber stopper and place a
burning match at the mouth of the test tube. Observe what happens.

Questions:
1. What do you observe taking place in each test tube when the current is flowing
through the circuit?
2. At which electrode, anode or cathode, did the gas form?
3. What did you observe when the burning match was placed near the mouth of
the test tube containing the gas.
4. Name the gas that is produced based on your observations.
5. Name the substance that is discolouring the electrolyte in the other test tube.
Electrolysis of sodium iodide

At the cathode:
In the experiment in which the electrolysis of sodium iodide was investigated it is
observed that gas bubbled at the cathode. The gas was tested and shown that hydrogen
gas was produced at the cathode instead of sodium metal (Na) which was expected due
to the presence of Na+(aq) ions in solution. This meant that water (H2O) was reduced in
preference to the Na+(aq) ions in solution. H2O is thus a stronger oxidising agent
compared to Na+(aq) ions.
Reduction: 2H2O(l) + 2e– → H2 (g) + 2OH–(aq)
In other words, H2O was able to compete more strongly for the available electrons and
thus was preferentially reduced to H2 gas leaving Na+ (aq) in solution.
At the anode:
It was observed that the water became discoloured forming a darkish orange-pink
discolouration. This is due to the formation of I2. This meant that iodide ions I–(aq) in the
electrolyte were oxidised to I2 in preference to H2O. I–(aq), are thus stronger reducing
agents compared to H2O.
Oxidation: 2I– (aq) → I2 (aq) + 2e–
Nett ionic reaction: 2I– (aq) + 2H2O → I2 (aq) + H2 (g) + 2OH– (aq)
Electrolysis of water
Refer to the experiment in which the electrolysis of water was investigated. With the
understanding that water can act as both an oxidising and reducing agent, the production
of the two gases – oxygen at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode can be explained by
the oxidation and reduction of water at the respective electrodes.
At the anode:
Oxidation: 2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e–
At the cathode:
Reduction: 2H2O + 2e– → H2 + 2OH– (× 2 for chemical balance)
Nett ionic reaction: 6H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4OH–(aq)
(4H2O)
Adjust the H2O on both sides, thus nett cell reaction becomes :
2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2
Checkpoint 7
1. Consider the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of potassium bromide (KBr).
a) Write out the dissociation equation for KBr.
b) Which ions will be attracted to the anode and which ions will be attracted to
the cathode?
c) If the anions present are stronger reducing agents than water, write the
half-reaction that will occur at that electrode.
d) If the cations present are weaker oxidising agents than water, write the half-
reactions that will occur at that electrode.
e) What will you observe happening at each electrode?
f) Write the nett ionic reaction for the reaction.
Science around us
Electroplating
Electroplating is an extremely useful
process. It is widely used in industry for
coating metal objects with a thin layer of a
different metal, especially to restore
metallic objects back to their former glory
as well as to decorate metallic objects
making them more attractive. For example
chromium plating is done on many objects
such as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas
burners, wheel rims (Figure 12.13) and Fig 12.13: Examples of an object
many others. Electroplating is performed that is chrome electroplated
using an electrolytic cell.

Standard electrode potentials

Using standard electrode potentials in a galvanic cell
All galvanic cells will deliver an electric current based on the size of the potential
difference that exists between the two half cells. The greater the potential difference
(cell EMF), the larger the current that will be delivered.
The following experiment will now investigate the potential difference that exists in
different galvanic cells by looking at different combinations of half cells to find the galvanic
cell with the greatest potential difference based on their standard electrode potentials.
Aim: To determine which galvanic cell has the highest potential difference (cell emf).
Chemical Hazard symbol Hazcard number
Zinc (VI) sulphate 24
Copper (II) sulphate 16
Lead nitrate 18
Aluminium sulphate Low hazard 20

You will need:
• Zinc plate, copper plate, aluminium plate
and lead plate (All of equal surface area)
• Zinc(II) sulphate solution (1 mol.dm−3),
copper(II) sulphate solution (1 mol.dm−3),
lead(II) nitrate solution (1 mol.dm−3),
aluminium sulphate solution (1 mol.dm−3)
• 4 x 250 ml beakers
• U-tube with potassium nitrate solution to
act as the salt bridge
• Cotton wool
• Voltmeter
Fig 12.14: Arrangement of the
• Connecting wires galvanic cell
Method:
1. Prepare half-cells by placing the metal electrodes zinc, copper, aluminium and
lead into the solutions of its own salt for example, Zn into ZnSO4 (aq)
2. Set up the galvanic cells listed in the table below, whilst referring to Figure 12.14.
3. Record the voltmeter reading in each case.

Results:
Half-cell at A Half-cell at B Metal acting Metal acting Voltmeter

as anode as cathode reading (V)
zinc copper
zinc aluminium
zinc lead
copper aluminium
copper lead
aluminium lead
Questions
1. What energy conversions take place in each cell?
2. Which cell gave the highest voltmeter reading?
3. What happened to the voltmeter reading when the salt bridge was removed?
4. Give the oxidation, reduction and ionic cell reactions used in the investigation.
Also identify the oxidising and reducing agents in each case.
Standard electrode potentials and the standard

hydrogen electrode
Standard electrode potentials

In the experiment just completed on page 453, you investigated different galvanic cells to
find out which had the greatest potential difference. It can be seen that different voltmeter
readings were obtained, depending on what metals were used as electrodes in the two
half-cells. This means that there is a potential difference which exists between the two
half-cells. It is the potential difference between the two electrodes that causes the
electrons, and therefore current, to flow from the anode to the cathode.
This means that each half cell must have its own characteristic standard electrode
potential which allows for this potential difference to exist. The standard electrode
potential for a half-cell is the voltage measured under standard conditions when the half-
cell is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode to form a galvanic cell.
It is not possible to determine the electrode potential of a substance on its own – it is only
possible to determine the potential difference between two half-cells. Thus one of the half
cells must have a known electrode potential and therefore must act as the reference electrode
in order to determine the electrode potential of the unknown half cell. The standard
reference electrode against which all metals are measured is the standard hydrogen
electrode, which is assigned an electrode potential of 0,00 V as the reference potential.

In order to ensure standardisation of electrode potential readings, the measurement of

standard electrode potentials must occur under standard conditions. The standard
conditions are as follows:
• Temperature of 298 K (25 oC)
• Concentration of solutions must be 1 mol.dm–3
• Pressure of 101,3 kPa (atmospheric pressure) if a gaseous half cell is used.
The standard hydrogen electrode

The standard hydrogen electrode is used to determine the electrode
potential of all half cells and is thus known as the reference
electrode. If the hydrogen electrode is allocated a reference potential
of 0,00 V, then every half cell will have a cell potential either higher
or lower than that of hydrogen and this reading will be reflected on
the voltmeter.
The standard hydrogen electrode is made from a porous platinum
electrode placed in an electrolyte of 1 mol.dm-3 hydrogen ion (H+)
concentration. In order to obtain an electrolyte with a 1 mol.dm–3
(H+) concentration, one must use a strong acid solution with that
concentration, such as HCl or HNO3, as these acids tend towards
complete ionisation in solution to give a H+ ion concentration equal
to that of the acid.
Fig 12.15: The standard hydrogen electrode Hydrogen gas is pumped into the hydrogen half cell and as the
hydrogen flows over the porous platinum electrode, an equilibrium
reaction is set up between the hydrogen gas molecules and the hydrogen ions in solution.
2H+(aq) + 2e– ⇋ H2(g)
The above equilibrium equation tells us that, the hydrogen gas can be oxidised to
hydrogen ions or the hydrogen ions can be reduced to hydrogen gas.
If, for example, a copper half-cell is now connected to the standard hydrogen electrode,
under standard conditions the reading on the voltmeter is
+0,34 V. This means that the electrode potential for copper
is +0,34 V. The fact that copper’s electrode potential is more
positive than that of hydrogen (0,00V) means that copper is
less likely to give up its electrons than hydrogen and that
oxidation will take place in the hydrogen half-cell and
reduction will take place in the copper half-cell.
The half-cell and nett ionic equation for the hydrogen-
copper cell will be:
Oxidation: H2(g) → 2H+ (aq) + 2e– (anode)
Reduction: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– → Cu (cathode)
Fig 12.16 The standard hydrogen electrode

Nett ionic reaction: H2(g) + Cu2+ (aq) → 2H+ (aq) + Cu (aq)
connected to a copper half cell

Thus the half-reaction equation for Cu can be written as:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– ⇋ Cu(s) Eo = +0,34V
The E° value known as the electrode potential, is now indicated on the right hand side of
the half reaction. Many different types of half cells can now be attached to the standard
hydrogen electrode and their electrode potentials measured with reference to the 0,00V
value assigned as the reference potential of the standard hydrogen electrode. These half
cell reactions can now be listed on a table in order of their increasing reducing and
oxidising ability.
The more negative cell potentials will represent the stronger reducing agents and thus
most likely to undergo oxidation while the more positive cell potentials will represent the
stronger oxidising agents and thus more likely to undergo reduction. If you have a look
at the table of standard electrode potentials, you will see that the element with the lowest
electrode potential is lithium (–3,05 V). This means that lithium is a very strong reducing
agent and that lithium will most likely to undergo oxidation in a galvanic cell and will
therefore be the anode. If you look at fluorine, it has the highest electrode potential
(+2,87 V). This means that fluorine is a very strong oxidising agent and that fluorine will
most likely undergo reduction in a galvanic cell and will therefore be the cathode. A
general rule that can be used is that the more negative or less positive the E° value, the
stronger the ability of that substance to act as a reducing agent.
Checkpoint 8
1. Explain what is meant by the phrase
“electrode potential of a substance”?
2. What standard conditions must be
obeyed when setting up a cell to
measure cell potentials?
3. A learner sets up the apparatus in
Figure 12.17 under standard conditions in
order to determine the cell potential of
zinc. The reading on the voltmeter
is –0,76 V.
a) Which substance is the anode?
b) Which substance is the cathode?
Fig 12.17: The standard hydrogen electrode connected to
c) What can you determine from the fact a zinc half cell
that the reading on the voltmeter
is 0,76 V?
Calculating the cell potential (Eocell) of a standard

galvanic cell
You will recall that the galvanic cell makes use of spontaneous redox reactions to convert
chemical energy to electrical energy. This electrical energy can be determined by
calculating the cell potential of the cell. The cell potential is also known as the
electromotive force or “emf” of the cell and is represented by the symbol Eocell.
Electrochemists often refer to the emf as the “Eocell value” of the cell. For galvanic cells

performing under standard conditions, the emf can be calculated by using the standard
electrode potentials (Eo values) as explained on page 454 and found on the Table of
Standard Reduction (Electrode) Potentials.
The overall cell emf is calculated by using the following equation:
In symbols:
E  o = E  o − E  o Units of cell emf = volts (V)

cell cathode anode
Where:
E  o = potential difference of the galvanic cell (V)
cell
E  o = the Eo value of the cathode half-reaction (V)
cathode
E  o = the Eo value of the anode half-reaction (V)
anode
Worked example:
Calculate the potential difference of the zinc-copper cell, if operated under standard
conditions.
Solution:
In the zinc-copper cell:
• Oxidation takes place in the zinc half-cell making zinc the anode.
• Reduction takes place in the copper half-cell making copper the cathode.
The electrode potential of zinc is –0,76 V, so E  o = − 0,76 V
anode
The electrode potential of copper is +0,35 V, so E  o = + 0,34 V
cathode
E  o = E  o − E  o
cell cathode anode
E  o = (+ 0,34) − (− 0,76)
cell
E  o = + 1,10 V
cell
Checkpoint 9
1. Calculate the cell potential difference (emf) for the following galvanic cells:
a) a iron-silver cell
b) a magnesium-copper cell
c) an aluminium-mercury cell.
2 Determine the emf of the following galvanic cells, when operating under standard
conditions:
a) Ca(s) / Ca2+(aq) || Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s)
b) Mn(s) / Mn2+(aq) || Pb2+(aq) / Pb(s)
c) Fe(s) / Fe2+(aq) || Pt2+(aq) / Pt(s)

Relation of current and potential to
rate and equilibrium
Explaining how a cell loses its charge and goes “flat”
It is important to realise that the current measured in an electrochemical circuit, as well as
the potential difference of the cell (Eocell) is directly related to the rate of reaction as well as
degree of chemical equilibrium that has been reached in the cell.
If we once again consider the zinc – copper galvanic cell, we know that the follow
reactions take place:
At the anode: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e- (oxidation)
At the cathode: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu (reduction)
Nett ionic reaction Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Under standard conditions, the emf of the cell (Eocell) is measured at 1,10V. The question
that now arises is whether the cell maintains that potential difference throughout its
period of operation. The potential difference of an electrochemical cell will decrease with
continuous use and in so doing, the amount of current flowing through the circuit will
also decrease. You will remember Ohm’s Law from your studies in Topic 9 Electric
Circuits which stated that the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the temperature of
the conductor remains constant.
V α I at constant temperature
Thus the current flowing through the cell will be a maximum when the
potential difference in the cell is a maximum. How then does a cell start to “lose”
potential difference and go flat?
The answer to this is provided in the fact that the overall or nett cell reaction is reversible.
In other words, as the forward reaction which represents the Zn atoms being oxidised
and the Cu2+ ions being reduced takes place, so the reverse reactions of the Zn2+ ions
being reduced and the Cu atoms being oxidised now starts to become significant. This
means that the rate of the reverse reaction will increase and the rate of the forward
reaction will decrease.
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) ↽ Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
As the rate of the forward reaction decreases, so the rate of transfer of electrons will also
decrease which then reduces the standard electrode potential (Eo). This in turn will
decrease the overall cell potential, hence the Eo cell value decreases. As the cell potential
decreases, it stands to reason that the current flowing in the circuit will also decrease.
Eventually both the rates of the forward and back reactions will be equal and a state of
dynamic chemical equilibrium will exist in the cell.
Zn ⇋ Zn2+ + 2e–
Cu2+ + 2e– ⇋ Cu
This means that no electrons will be able to be transferred through the cell due to the fact
that as electrons are released in the oxidation forward reaction, so they will be
immediately gained in the reduction back reaction and vice versa.

No current will flow through the cell as the cell will have a potential difference (Eo.cell)
of 0,00V.
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) ⇋ Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
Using Le Chatelier’s principle to explain cell equilibrium

If we look the reactants used up and products formed in the nett ionic reaction of the
zinc-copper cell, it can be seen that we need to take only the aqueous ions that are present
in the nett ionic reaction into consideration, namely the Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions. Thus, Cu2+
will represent the reactant ions while Zn2+ will represent the product ions in the reaction.
As the reaction proceeds, it is clear that reactant ions (Cu2+) will decrease due to reduction
to Cu while product ions (Zn2+) will increase due to oxidation of Zn. This will now create
a stress in the system which must now, according to Le Chatelier’s principle, cause the
equilibrium to favour the reaction which will reduce or minimise the stress. This means
that the reverse reaction rate must increase while decreasing the forward reaction rate in
order to establish the equilibrium within the system
Thus, Zn2+ ions will be reduced to Zn while Cu will be oxidised to Cu2+ in the back or
reverse reaction to lower the concentration of Zn2+ ions and increase the concentration of
Cu2+ ions. This will continue to happen until dynamic equilibrium is reached and at that
point the cell Eocell will be zero
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) ⇋ Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s) Eo cell = 0,00V
Checkpoint 10
1. State Le Chatelier’s principle.
2. A zinc-silver cell has a cell potential difference of 1,56V under standard conditions.
The cell is allowed to run for 3 hours and the cell potential drops to 1,45V. Explain,
using Le Chatelier’s principle why this will happen.
3. Explain what will happen to the current flowing through the circuit as a result of
allowing the cell to run for that length of time.
4. After several days, the cell potential reads 0,00V. Explain using Le Chatelier’s
principle why the reading is obtained.

Writing of equations representing
oxidation and reduction half-reactions
and redox reactions
Predicting half-reactions
Using the Table of Standard Reduction (Electrode)
Potentials to predict half-reactions
In electrochemistry, it is important to be able to predict the anode and cathode in an
electrochemical cell and thus be able to write down the correct oxidation and reduction
half-reactions. In the galvanic cell, the anode and cathode can be easily predicted by
looking at the standard electrode potentials of each half-reaction corresponding to the
electrodes in the cell. These electrode potentials are supplied in the Table of Standard
Reduction Potentials (Redox Table) and are known as Eo values for each half-reaction
(Refer page 549). There are three important points to note with regards to the Table of
Standard Electrode Potentials:
• The Table of Standard Reduction Potentials is written is a very specific order from the
most negative electrode potential at the top of the table to the most positive electrode
potential table at the bottom of the table.
• As the standard electrode potential (Eo value) for an electrode decreases in value, that
is, it becomes more negative or less positive, so the reducing ability of the substance
which makes up the electrode increases. In other words, the ability of the substance
making up the electrode to be oxidised, will increase.
• As the standard electrode potential (Eo value) for an electrode increases in value, that
is it becomes less negative or more positive so the oxidising ability of the substance
increases. In other words, the ability of the substance making up the electrode to be
reduced, will increase.
Lets us consider our zinc- copper electrochemical cell once more. According to the Redox
Table, the following half-reaction information is provided for the zinc and copper electrodes:
Zn2+ + 2e- ⇋ Zn Eo = –0,76V
Cu2+ + 2e- ⇋ Cu Eo = +0,34V
Predicting the anode

It can be clearly seen that the zinc half-reaction has a lower standard electrode potential
(Eo value) in comparison to the copper half-reaction. This means that zinc metal electrode
will have a better reducing ability compared to the copper electrode and thus zinc will be
oxidised. Thus oxidation will take place in the zinc half cell when connected to a copper
half cell making the zinc electrode the anode.
Predicting the cathode

It can also be seen that the copper half-reaction has a higher standard electrode potential
(Eo value) in comparison to the zinc half-reaction. This means that the copper ions (Cu2+)
in solution have a better oxidising ability compared to the zinc ions (Zn2+) in solution. In
other words, Cu2+ will be more easily reduced in comparison to Zn2+ ions. Thus reduction

will take place in the copper half cell when connected to a zinc half cell making the
copper electrode the cathode.
NOTE: a single arrow Oxidation: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e- (anode)
replaces the double
arrow as the directions
of the electrochemical Reduction: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu (cathode)
half-reactions has been
determined
Nett ionic reaction: Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Checkpoint 11
1. Consider a silver-magnesium galvanic cell.
a) Predict the oxidation half-reaction for the cell.
b) Predict the reduction half-reaction for the cell.
c) Identify which electrode will be the anode.
d) Identify which electrode will be the cathode.
e) Write down the cell notation for the cell.
2. Calculate the emf of the following cells:
a) Zinc-copper
b) Copper-aluminium
c) Aluminium-lead.
3. Write down the cell notation for the cells in question 2 above.
Electroplating
Electroplating is an application of electrolysis which uses electrical current to deposit a
thin layer of metal onto a metal object to improve the object’s appearance or resistance to
corrosion, within an electrolytic cell.
Decomposition of aqueous copper chloride

(CuCl2 (aq))
The decomposition of aqueous copper chloride is a
simple example of electroplating. Aqueous copper
chloride can be decomposed by electrolysis into its
individual elements. CuCl2 (aq) is placed into a beaker
with two carbon electrodes so that the electrodes are
directly in contact with the solution. Each electrode is
connected to the terminals of a power source thus
becoming the anode (+) and the cathode (–) as seen in
Figure 12.18
The chloride anions (Cl–) in solution are attracted
towards the anode (+) while the copper cations (Cu2+) in
Fig 12.18: Electrolytic cell for the electrolysis of copper solution are attracted to the cathode (–)
chloride
In the electrolytic cell the following will be observed:
At the anode
A strong smelling gas will be seen bubbling off at the anode which can be identified as
chlorine gas. Oxidation will take place at the anode according to the following half
reaction :
Oxidation: 2Cl– → Cl2 (g) + 2e-
At the cathode
An orange/brown deposit will be see to coat the electrode which can be identified as
copper metal.
Reduction will take place at the cathode according to the following half reaction :
Reduction: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
Nett cell reaction Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) → Cu(s) + Cl2 (g)
Electroplating of a silver spoon

A very popular electroplating technique in society is in the restoration silver
objects whereby silver metal (Ag) is deposited onto the object, in this case a
spoon, as seen in Figure 12.19 +
To construct the electrolytic cell, the spoon that is going to be electroplated with a
thin layer of Ag is made the cathode electrode (–) while the anode electrode (+) of
the cell consists of a strip of metal which is the same metal as what you need to
use in the electroplating process, namely Ag. The electrolyte must be a
concentrated aqueous solution which contain ions of the metal that is going to be
electroplated for example AgNO3 which releases Ag+ ions into solution.
At the cathode
Reduction will occur where Ag+ ions are attracted to the cathode (the spoon) and
are reduced to Ag metal which now coats the spoon with a thin layer of pure
silver according to the following half reaction: Fig 12.19: Electroplating of a
silver spoon by electrolysis
Reduction: Ag+ (aq) + e– → Ag (s)
At the anode
Oxidation will occur whereby Ag metal atoms that made up the metal electrode will be
oxidised to Ag+ according to the following half reaction :
Oxidation: Ag (s) → Ag+(aq) + e–
Nett ionic reaction: Ag (s) + Ag+ (aq) → Ag (s) + Ag+ (aq)
It is interesting to note as to why the anode must be made of the same metal that is being
electroplated on the object. The answer to that is simply that as Ag+ ions are being
removed from solution through reduction at the cathode, these same Ag+ ions must be
replaced into the electrolyte to keep a high concentration of Ag+ ions in solution.

If this was not happening, then the solution would lose concentration as well as
conductivity and the electroplating process will slow down and eventually cease. This is
known as auto replenishment of ions in the electrolyte.
Checkpoint 12
1. he diagram below represents a cell that can be used to
T
electroplate a tin medal with a thin layer of silver to
improve its appearance.
a)
Which one of P or the MEDAL is the anode in
this cell?
b) Write down the following:
i) ame and symbol of the element of which
N
electrode P is composed
ii) N
ame or symbol of the electrolyte that has to be
used to achieve the desired results
c) witch S is now closed. Write down the visible
S
changes that will occur at the following:
i) Electrode P
Fig 12.20: Electroplating of a tin medal ii) The medal.
by electrolysis
d) W
rite down the half-reactions that occur at both
electrode P and the medal.
e) How will the concentration of the electrolyte change during the electroplating
process? Write down only INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.
f) You want to coat the medal with copper instead of silver. State TWO changes
that you will make to the above cell to obtain a medal coated with copper.
Exercise 12.2
1. Lovemore wants to set up a zinc-silver (Zn-Ag) electrochemical cell using a salt

bridge and connected to a galvanometer. Zinc is the anode and silver is the cathode.
a) Draw a labelled diagram of the experimental setup that Lovemore will
need to use for this experiment.
b) Using the Table of Standard Electrode Potentials, give the half-reaction that
occurs at the:
i) anode
ii) cathode.
c) Write an equation for the nett ionic reaction of the electrochemical cell.

d) Which electrode will experience a loss of mass while the cell functions?
e) The salt bridge in an electrochemical cell is often referred to as an “ionic
pump”. Explain why this particular reference is used in terms of the
function of the salt bridge.
2. The diagram in Figure 12.21 represents a copper-nickel galvanic cell. A
voltmeter connected in the external circuit registers a reading. Oxidation occurs
at the nickel electrode.
a) What energy conversion takes place in this cell?
b) Which electrode is the anode and which one is
the cathode? Give a reason for your answer.
c) Write down the equation for the half-reaction
occurring at the anode.
d) Write down the equation for the half-reaction
occurring at the cathode.
e) Give an equation for the nett ionic reaction of
the electrochemical cell.
Fig 12.21: Copper–nickel galvanic cell
3. A galvanic cell consists of a strip of lead metal in a
solution of lead(II) nitrate in one cell and in the other beaker a silver electrode
immersed in silver(I) nitrate solution. The two beakers are connected by a salt
bridge, and a voltmeter completes the circuit. The cell functions under standard
conditions. Oxidation takes place at the lead electrode.
a) Which electrode serves as the anode and which serves as the cathode?
b) Which electrode loses mass as the cell reaction proceeds?
c) Indicate the conventional sign (+ or –) for each electrode.
d) Write down the net ionic reaction.
e) What is the emf of the cell under standard conditions?
4. The following half-reactions take place in an electrochemical cell:
Fe → Fe3+ + 3e-
Fe2+ + 2e– → Fe
a) Which is the oxidation half-reaction and which is the reduction half-
reaction?
b) Give the nett ionic equation for this cell.
c) Calculate the emf of this cell.
5. Consider the galvanic cell represented by the following cell notation:
Al(s) /Al3+(aq) || Ag+(aq) / Ag(s)
a) Identify which electrode is the cathode and which electrode is the anode
b) In which direction will electrons flow in the cell?

c) Which substance will act as the reducing agent?

d) Write down the nett ionic reaction for the cell.
e) Calculate the nett cell potential (emf) of the cell.
f) State two important functions of the salt bridge in this cell.
6. Consider the following cell notation:
M(s) / Mn+(aq) || Ag+(aq) / Ag(s)
The E°cell for the cell is 0,65V.
a) Using the cell emf supplied, identify the M(s)/M2+(aq) half-cell.
b) Write down the nett ionic reaction for the cell

Oxidation numbers and application of
electrolytic processes
Oxidation numbers
You learnt about oxidation numbers in Grade 11. Oxidation numbers, tell us the measure
of electron richness or deficiency that a particular atom has in a chemical compound.
Thus, in an electrochemical reaction, the change in oxidation number can very quickly
and easily tell you what substances have been oxidised or reduced.
Rules for determining oxidation numbers in a molecule

It is far quicker and easier to apply a few simple rules to determine the oxidation number
of each atom in a molecule than to try and calculate from a molecular diagram and
electronegativity comparison. These rules are listed below:
Rules for Oxidation Numbers (ON)

• The oxidation number of a single un-combined atom is zero ( ON = 0)
• All Group I metals will always have ON = +1 in the combined state
• All Group II metals will always have ON = +2 in the combined state
• All Group VII halogens have ON = –1 in the combined state
• The oxygen atom in the combined state will always have ON = –2
• The hydrogen atom in the combined state will always have ON = +1
• The sum of all the oxidation numbers in a neutral molecule or compound always
adds up to zero
• If you have an ionic substance, the sum of the oxidation numbers of that ion adds
up to the charge on the ion
Checkpoint 13
Determine the oxidation numbers of the elements underlined in the following compounds:
a) FeO b) SO3 c) NH3 d) H2SO4 e) Cr2O72- f) Fe O3
Balancing redox reactions using oxidation numbers

Simple redox reactions can be balanced by using the oxidation numbers. The changes in
these oxidation numbers can then be tracked the between reactant and product species.
Consider the following worked example “
Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
• Write out the equation in an ionic form:
Na + 2H+O2– → Na+O2–H+ + H2

• Assign oxidation numbers to each atom for both the reactant and product
compounds using the ion-electron technique
• Identify the changes in oxidation number and label each change as either an
oxidation or reduction process
0 +2 -2 +1 -2 +1 0
Na + 2H+ O2– → Na+ O2– H+ + H2(g)
Oxidation – loss of 1e– (×2) reduction – gain of 2e–

• Multiply the half-reactions to balance the number of electrons being transferred
2Na + 2H+ O2– → 2Na+ O2– H+ + H2
• Recombine the ions to get the equation
2Na + H2O → 2NaOH + H2
• Finally, check to see that all atoms are in equal numbers for both reactant and
products
2Na + H2O → 2NaOH + H2
Checkpoint 14
1. Balance the following redox reactions:
a) HgO → Hg + O2
b) K + H2O → KOH + H2
Industrial applications of electrolytic processes
The recovery of aluminium from bauxite

Aluminium is extracted from its ore via electrolysis. In South Africa,
this extraction is done by the industrial giant BHP Billiton which has a
massive smelter at Richards Bay and is arguably one of the largest
smelting and extraction plant in the world. Aluminium is found in the
mineral known as bauxite which contains primarily aluminium oxide
(Al2O3) in an impure form. Bauxite is not naturally found in South
Africa but is found in vast quantities in Australia and thus it is
imported into SA to be extracted and purified.
The extraction process is via electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide.
Step 1:
Bauxite is treated with sodium hydroxide to convert the impure Al2O3
into aqueous aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) thus extracting the
aluminium from the ore. The Al(OH)3 is then heated to temperatures
in excess of 1 000 ˚C causing the aluminium hydroxide to be converted
back into pure aluminium oxide (Al2O3) know as alumina.
Fig 12.22: Molten aluminium

being poured from a smelter
Step 2:
The alumina must now be melted so that the
extraction of aluminium can now take place. Alumina
has a melting point of over 2 000 ˚C which require
huge amounts of energy. It is very expensive,
hazardous and environmentally unfriendly. To Bubbles
of gas
alleviate this problem the alumina is dissolved into a
substance known as cryolite (sodium aluminium
hexafluoride – Na3AlF6) which has a melting point of
1 000 ˚C. This significantly reduces the temperature
needed to extract the aluminium.
Step 3:
Fig 12.23: Electrolytic cell for the
The molten alumina-cryolite mixture is placed into a extraction of aluminium
reaction vessel where carbon electrodes are lowered
into the melt. The electrodes are connected to the positive terminal of an external power
supply making them the anode while the steel casing around the reaction vessel is made
the cathode.
At the cathode, reduction of the Al3+ ions in the melt to Al takes place.
Reduction: Al3+ + 3e– → Al
At the anode, oxidation of the O2- ions in the melt to O2 gas
takes place.
Oxidation: 2O2– → O2 + 4e–
Nett ionic reaction: 4Al3+ + 6O2- → 4Al + 3O2

However, due to the anode electrodes being made from carbon, a secondary chemical
reaction is able to occur between the oxygen gas and the carbon which forms carbon
dioxide gas (CO2). This now introduces an environmental concern with regards to the
industrial process.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Environmental and energy issues associated with the extraction of aluminium

• The process consumes a large amount of electricity and thus causes the production of
aluminium to be expensive.
• CO2 is emitted as a waste product which is released into the atmosphere which is
environmentally damaging (global warming). This is due to the process having to
use carbon electrodes.
• Fluoride emissions from the breaking up of the cryolite during electrolysis are
harmful to human health.
• Due to high production costs, recycling of aluminium products becomes highly
desirable as it is far cheaper to recycle the metal than to manufacture it.
Checkpoint 15
Aluminium is one of the most abundant metals on earth, yet it is expensive – largely
because of the amount of electricity needed to extract it. Aluminium ore is called bauxite.

The bauxite is purified to yield a white powder, aluminium oxide, from which aluminium
can be extracted. Figure 12.24 shows an electrolytic cell used for the extraction of
aluminium at temperatures as high as 1 000 °C.
a) State the energy conversion that takes place in
this cell.
b) At which electrode will aluminium be formed?
Write down the half-reaction for this formation.
c) Carbon dioxide forms at one of the electrodes
during this process. Identify at which electrode
this occurs and explain why this happens.
d) What is cryolite? Explain why cryolite is added to
the aluminium oxide inside the reaction container.
e) Identify TWO negative effects that the extraction
of aluminium will have on the environment.
Fig 12.24: Basic aluminium electrolytic cell
The chlor-alkali industry and the production

of chlorine
The chlor-alkali industry is a huge industry that forms a large part of the South African
economy. It is a specialised industry that focuses on the production of chlorine gas (chlor)
and sodium hydroxide (alkali) while hydrogen gas is produced as a by-product of the
process. The chlor-alkali industry uses an electrolytic technique to produce these chemical
products. All these techniques use electrolysis to extract the products as well as using a
solution known as brine as the starting material.
Brine is a concentrated solution of salt, in this case
aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl(aq))It provides a very
large number of chloride ions (Cl–) and sodium ions
(Na+) which are electrochemically reacted to produce
chlorine gas (Cl2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as
products.
The most popular electrochemical industrial method
used in the chlor-alkali industry is the use of the
Membrane Cell which has replaced the other more
outdated, expensive and environmentally hazardous
apparatus that were used in previous years, namely
the Diaphragm Cell and the Mercury Cell.
The Membrane Cell

This is the newest of the chlor-alkali processes which
relies on an ion-exchange membrane to separate the
sodium and chloride ions of the sodium chloride. The
ion-exchange membrane is a fluoro polymer which
contains certain chemical groups attached to its main
structure which allows it to be ion-selective to certain
Fig 12.25: The membrane cell

ions in its exchange mechanism. This means that in the membrane cell, sodium ions (Na+)
are selective transported through the membrane while other ions in solution are blocked
or prevented from moving through.
As can be seen in Figure 12.25, the cell consists of two half cells separated from each other
by the ion selective (ion exchange) membrane. The anode compartment (+) is filled with
the brine solution while the cathode compartment (-) is filled with pure water. The
membrane is placed midway between them only allowing the Na+ ions present in the
brine solution to permeate through it from the anodic to the cathodic compartments.
In the anode compartment

Cl- ions from the concentrated brine solution are attracted to the positively charged anode
where oxidation of the ions takes place form chlorine gas which then bubbles off from the
electrode surface and is immediately extracted out of the anodic compartment.
Oxidation: 2Cl– (aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e–
In the cathode compartment

Na+ ions have selectively moved through the membrane into the pure water inside the
compartment, as seen inFigure 12.25. H2O is a much stronger oxidising agent than the
Na+ ions, thus H2O molecules are reduced at the cathode instead of Na+.
Reduction: 2H2O(l) + 2e– → 2OH–(aq) + H2(g)
Hydrogen gas produced in the cathode compartment is immediately extracted out of the
compartment. The OH- ions that are produced by the reduction reaction remain in
aqueous solution with the Na+ ions.
Nett ionic reaction : 2Cl– + 2H2O → Cl2 + 2OH– + H2
If we now include the Na+ ions that remain unreacted in a spectator ion capacity, we can
write the overall chemical reaction as:
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Environmental impact of the chlor-alkali industry

The products of the chlor- alkali industry namely, hydrogen, chlorine gas and sodium
hydroxide are all hazardous and have the following dangers:
• Hydrogen gas is highly flammable and can react explosively.
• Chlorine gas is highly toxic which can cause severe damage to the lungs of a human.
• Sodium hydroxide is highly corrosive and toxic.
As mentioned earlier, previously outdated technologies of the mercury cell and the
diaphragm cell posed some severe environmental hazards, including:
• Mercury used in the mercury cell causes irreparable damage to the central
nervous system.
• Asbestos found in the diaphragm cell is a dangerous carcinogen and can cause the
severe respiratory disease called asbestosis. A carcinogen is a substance which can
cause cancer.

The advantages of the more modern membrane cell:

• Does not need frequent cleaning and replacement of parts.
• There is very little harmful impact on the environment as the membrane is
environmentally friendly.
• A high purity of NaOH flows out of the cathodic compartment.
• Much cheaper to run the membrane cell compared to any of the other cells used in
the industry.
Checkpoint 16
Figure 12.26 is a simplified version of a membrane cell, which is one of the electrolytic
cells used in the chlor-alkali industry. The letters P and Q represent the two gases formed
during this process.
a) Write down the letters P and Q in your answer book. Next to each, write down
the half-reaction that shows how gas P and gas Q are formed.
b) Water (H2O) and sodium ions (Na+) are both present in the cathode compartment
of the membrane cell. Explain why hydrogen gas, and not sodium metal, is
formed in the membrane cell. Refer to the relative strengths of oxidising agents
to explain your answer.
c) State ONE function of the membrane.
d) State TWO uses of chlorine.

Science around us
The problem of rusting in rural areas
Rusting, or what is scientifically known as electrochemical corrosion, is a problem many South Africans
face when it comes to the care and protection of their cast iron cooking pots (Figure 12.27). Iron objects
have a natural tendency to oxidise when in the presence of both water and oxygen to produce the familiar
orange/brown flakes of hydrated iron(III) oxide according to the following reaction :
Oxidation: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e–
Reduction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–
Net ionic reaction: 2Fe + O2 + 2H2O → 2Fe2+ + 4OH–
The iron(II)hydroxide formed is rapidly oxidised to hydrated iron(III)oxide
represented by the formula Fe2O3.xH2O. The orange/brown rust flakes off
the surface exposing more iron underneath allowing the rusting process to
continue uninterrupted.
Cast iron cooking pots can be protected against rusting in a number of
different ways. Most cast iron pots have a thin enamel paint coating that
covers both the inside and outside of the pot. This will prevent rusting
occurring, but as the pots get used more and more, so the paint layer gets
rubbed off exposing the iron layer below.
To prevent rusting now from occurring, it is advisable from to coat the Fig 12.27: Iron pots tend
surfaces with a thin layer of sunflower oil after the pot has been cleaned. to rust easily
The oil will prevent O2 and H2O from coming into contact with the exposed
surfaces and thus prevent rusting from occurring. If rust does appear on the pot, it is easy to remove by
wiping the surface with a cloth soaked in sunflower oil. This will also coat the pot with oil as well
allowing the pot to have many years of use.
Extend yourself
1. A galvanic cell is set up under standard conditions between silver (Ag) and
cobalt (Co) as shown in Figure 12.28.
Fig 12.28: The cobalt–silver galvanic cell

a) Describe a galvanic cell in terms of the energy transfers that take place
within it. (2)
b) Define oxidation. (1)
c) State the standard conditions that would be used for this cell. (2)
d) Suggest a suitable electrolyte to be used in the silver half-cell. (1)
e) Use your table of standard electrode potentials to give the equation for
i) the reaction occurring at the anode (2)
ii) the reaction occurring at the cathode (2)
iii) the net ionic reaction (2)
f) Give the symbol of the oxidising agent in this cell. (2)
g) State two essential uses of the salt bridge in the galvanic cell (2)
h) Write down the cell notation for the above cell ( include standard
conditions where necessary) (3)
i) Calculate the emf of this cell under standard conditions. (3)
j) What will happen to the emf of this cell as the cell reaction
approaches equilibrium? (1)
k) How will the current produced by the cell be affected if the temperature
of the electrolytes in the half cells is increased? Explain in terms of
reaction rate. (3)
2. A standard voltaic cell is constructed by connecting a copper half-cell and a
chlorine gas half- cell together. In the chlorine gas half-cell, a platinum electrode
is placed into the electrolyte. The diagram of the cell is illustrated in Figure 12.29.
Fig 12.29: Copper–chlorine galvanic cell

a) State the standard conditions that are applicable to the chlorine
gas half-cell. (3)
b) Write down a possible formula for the compound that X could be. (2)
c) Give two functions of the salt bridge. (2)
d) Write down, for the reaction that takes place in this voltaic cell,
the balanced:
i) oxidation half-reaction (2)
ii) reduction half-reaction (2)
iii) nett ionic reaction (2)
e) Calculate the emf of this cell. (4)
f) Why does the platinum electrode not react? (2)
g) Identify the reducing agent in the redox reaction taking place in this cell. (2)
3. A diagram of the membrane cell used in the chlor-alkali industry is shown
in Figure 12.30.
Some relevant equations as written on the Table of Standard Reduction potentials are:
Na+ + e– → Na – 2,71V
2H2O + 2e– → H2 + 2OH– – 0,83V

O2 + 4H+ + 4e– → 2H2O +1,23V

Cl2 + 2e– → 2Cl– +1,36V
a) Electrode X is positively charged in this electrolytic cell. State the name
for this electrode as well as the type of half-reaction that takes place here.(2)
b) Write down the half-reaction that takes place at electrode X. (2)
c) Write down the half-reaction that takes place at electrode Y. (2)
d) State the function of the membrane labelled Z. (2)
The membrane cell is the most economical and environmentally
friendly of the three cells used for the electrolysis of brine.
e) Name the two other cells used for the electrolysis of brine. For each one,
state and explain the environmental/health reason why it is being
discontinued in favour of the membrane cell. (6)
f) State the main safety risk of the chlor-alkali process, regardless of which
cell is used. (1)
4. South Africa is one of the world’s largest refiners of aluminium – and it is
extremely important to the country’s economy. Aluminium is produced from the
mineral ore, bauxite, in an electrolytic cell in which alumina (Al2O3) is dissolved
in molten cryolite. The cathode forms the lining of the cell wall while the anode,
which is made from a graphite (carbon) is lowered into the cell.
The nett ionic reaction can be represented as follows:

2Al2O3 (l) + 3 C(s) à 4 Al(l) + 3 CO2 (g)
a) What is the function of the cryolite? (2)
b) Referring to the overall reaction, write down the cathode half-reaction. (2)
Figure 12.31 shows an aluminium cell.
(anode)
(cathode)
Fig 12.31: An aluminium cell

c) Why must the aluminium oxide be melted before electricity will pass
through it? (2)
d) The graphite anodes in these cells need to be replaced regularly. Explain
why the anode needs to be replaced regularly.
Provide a half-reaction, or equation, as part of your explanation. (4)
e) The cell is designed such that the anode is easily removable. Explain
what benefits this will have to the manufacturing process. (3)
5. There are three different industrial processes that use electrolytic cells to
produce chlorine from brine (salt water). These processes are known as the
diaphragm process, the mercury process and the membrane process named
after the three different types of cells that can be used. Figure 12.32 shows a
membrane cell.
Fig 12.32: A membrane cell
a) What is brine? (1)

b) Use equations from the Table of Standard electrode potentials to write
down the half-reactions taking place at the:
i) anode (1)
ii) cathode (1)
c) Use values from the Table of Reduction Potentials to show that this
reaction is not spontaneous. (4)
d) Use the above diagram to identify the names of the three useful
products produced by this cell and write down a use of each one. (3)
e) The mercury process and the diaphragm process are currently being
phased out. Explain why both these two processes are harmful to
the environment. (4)
[82]

Definitions
anode the electrode at which oxidation takes place

brine a highly concentrated solution of sodium chloride (NaCl)
cathode the electrode at which reduction takes place
electrolysis chemical change produced in an electrolyte by an electric current
electrode a solid electric conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves an
electrolytic cell or other medium
electrolytic cell an electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy into chemical energy
through electrode reactions that are sustained by a supply of electrical energy
electrolyte a solution which is able to conduct electrical charge due to the movement of free ions
through the solution
galvanic cell an electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy to electrical energy as a result
of a self-sustaining spontaneous electrode reaction
oxidation the loss of electrons
oxidising agent the compound that gains electrons in a redox reaction
oxidation number: a number that is used to describe how electron rich or electron deficient an
atom is within a molecule
reduction the gain of electrons
reducing agent the compound that loses electrons in a redox reaction
spectator ion an ion which does not chemically participate in the reaction, so can be ignored
when considering the electrochemistry taking place in the cell
standard electrode potential is the voltage measured for a half cell under standard conditions when
the half-cell is connected to a standard hydrogen electrode to form a galvanic cell

Summary
Comparisons between the Galvanic Cell and the Electrolytic Cell
GALVANIC CELL ELECTROLYTIC CELL

Appearance
• No external source of electricity i.e. no • Must have a cell or battery in the external
battery or cell in circuit. circuit to supply electrical energy.
• It consists of two half-cells containing • Consists of two electrodes in the SAME
different electrodes, each of which is in a solution.
solution of its salt.
• There must either be a salt bridge
or some sort of porous membrane
separating the two half-cells to allow for
the passage of ions between cells.
Spontaneous/ A SPONTANEOUS reaction produces A NON-SPONTANEOUS reaction is produced
Non- electrical energy. by electrical energy.
Spontaneous
Energy
Chemical to Electrical Electrical to Chemical
Conversion
Polarity of Anode = negative Anode = positive
Electrodes Cathode = positive Cathode = negative
Eocell Eocell = positive Eocell = negative
Uses Batteries • Extraction of aluminium
• Primary – not rechargeable e.g. zinc- • Purification of metals
carbon, lithium, mercury. • Electroplating
• Secondary – rechargeable e.g. lead-acid • Chlor-alkali process
accumulator
The Galvanic and Electrolytic Cell are similar in the following ways:
• A redox reaction occurs.
• Oxidation takes place at the anode and reduction takes place at the cathode.
• Negative ions move towards the anode and positive ions move towards the cathode.
• Electrons flow through the wire from the anode to the cathode.

Topic
13 Chemical industry
• Elements in fertilisers
• The industrial manufacture of fertilisers
• The impact of the use of inorganic fertilisers
Agriculture is a major industry in South Africa. We have many crops which grow
successfully in our country, including maize, sugar cane and oats. It is very
important, if these crops are to be grown successfully, that the conditions of the soil
be correct. That is where the correct usage of fertilisers is very important. We will
investigate fertilisers in more detail in this topic.
Topic 13: Chemical industry • 479

In Grade 11, in the topic ‘Exploiting the lithosphere’, you learnt that the lithosphere is a
source of many valuable minerals that have a variety of uses. In this topic, we will
investigate the use of these minerals in the fertiliser industry.
Also in Grade 11, you studied the topic ‘Types of reactions’ where you learnt about acid-
base reactions. An acid-base reaction can result in a change in the pH of the solution.
In Grade 12, you have also studied acids and bases in Topic 8.
If a sample of soil had a pH of 4 and you desired it to have a pH of 7,
k
Chec would you add an acid or a base to the soil? Explain.
lf
myse
480 • Topic 13: Chemical industry

Elements in fertilisers
Elements required for the healthy growth of plants

In order for soil to be able to support and sustain plant growth, some important nutrients
non-mineral are required. Three non-mineral nutrients that plants require for growth are carbon,
nutrients hydrogen and oxygen, all three of which are available from the air in the form of carbon
hydrogen (H),
oxygen (O) and dioxide (CO2) gas and rain (H2O), so should not need to be replaced in the soil by man.
carbon (C)
Three primary elements that are sourced in minerals in the soil are nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). These nutrients are mineral nutrients that dissolve in
water in the soil and are absorbed by the roots of plants. The minerals that contain these
elements could get depleted over time and will need to be replaced if the plant is to grow
well. It is these three elements which make up the largest portion of all commercially
available fertilisers. Fertilisers are needed because there are not always enough of these
nutrients in the soil for the healthy growth of plants.
Sources and function of nitrogen, phosphorus and

guano bird, seal
potassium in plants
and bat
droppings
Nitrogen (N)
Although the air is made up of about 78%
nitrogen, plants are unable to access the element
in this form. However, in nature, lightning causes
oxygen to react with nitrogen in the atmosphere
to form soluble nitrogen oxides, such as NO and
NO2. These soluble oxides will dissolve in
atmospheric water such as clouds and become
part of the rain that falls. They are now readily
available for absorption by the plants. Another
very good source of nitrogen is guano where
available.
Nitrogen is essential for proteins, which make
strong stems and healthy leaves. A plant that has
a shortage of nitrogen can be identified by having
yellow leaves, with the oldest leaves going
Fig 13.1: Lightning is responsible for the formation of nitrogen
yellow first.
compounds in the soil
Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal and is not found as a free element in the soil, but
rather in minerals such as phosphates (PO43–). Plants will utilise the phosphorus found in
phosphates to help roots develop. Phosphorus is vital to the growth and health of plants.
It assists in converting the sun’s energy and other chemicals, such as nitrogen, into usable
food for plants. Phosphorus also helps crops ripen. Phosphorus is also essential to the
distribution and storage of energy in the form of sugars and starches. Without sufficient

phosphorus, plants will be stunted, though the leaves, instead of being pale as they are
with insufficient nitrogen, will be purplish from the accumulated sugars created by bone meal a
mixture of
photosynthesis that cannot be used in the absence of sufficient phosphorus.
crushed and
Compounds containing phosphorus are found in nature in bone meal and guano. A coarsely ground
bones that is
phosphorus deficiency will lead to stunted, sickly looking plants that produce a lower used as a
quality fruit or flower. fertiliser for
plants.
feldspar an
Potassium (K) important group
of rock-forming
Potassium is a very reactive metal and is also not found as a free element in the soil. minerals. They
Plants will utilise potassium salts such as potassium chloride (KCl) and potassium nitrate crystallize from
magma and they
(KNO3) to survive frost and to resist disease, as well as improving the quality of flowers occur as
and fruit. compact
minerals, as
Most potassium occurs in the Earth’s crust as minerals, such as feldspars and clays. veins in many
Potassium is leached from these by weathering. types of rock.
leach to drain
Potassium is also present in potash. Potash is made up of potassium oxide (K2O) and away from soil
potassium hydroxide (KOH) and is used chiefly in fertilisers. The main country that used by rainwater
to supply potash used to be Germany, which had a monopoly of potassium before the
First World War. Today most potassium minerals come from Canada, USA and Chile.
Germany dominated the world’s production of potash fertilisers before
and during World War I. The Germans actually even built more
fertiliser plants during the war in countries that they dominated, such
as France. Nitrogen is a key ingredient in explosives such as dynamite
and TNT. This explains the increase in demand for nitrogen-based
products that these factories provided. At the end of the war, countries
were returned back to their original ownership and Germany lost her
world monopoly in potash.
All potash for South Africa’s requirements is imported as there is no
source of readily available potash in South Africa. South Africa imports Fig 13.2 Feldspar is a source of
potassium salts such as potassium nitrate (KNO3) and potassium potassium.
sulphate (K2SO4).
Checkpoint 1
1. What are the three primary elements that are sourced from minerals in the soil for
healthy plant growth?
2. Why are fertilisers needed?
3. What is the primary source of each of the three elements mentioned in your answer
to question 1?
4. What is each element from question 1 used for in the growth of plants?
5. What is potash? What element is present in potash that is used for plant growth?
6. Why did Germany build so many more fertiliser factories during World War I?

Interpreting the N:P:K ratio on fertiliser packets

Commercial fertilisers contain percentages of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and
potassium (K). For this reason, these fertilisers are known as N:P:K fertilisers. N:P:K
fertilisers are classified by using a series of numbers that represent the amount of each
element that is available to the plant. The content of each nutrient is expressed as a
percentage by weight. Three numbers are shown on the bag, indicating the ratios of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium inside the bag, in that order. The number in the
brackets after these three tells us the total percentage of these elements in the bag. The
balance of the fertiliser is made up of fillers, such as gypsum, lime and sand.
Worked examples:
1. Figure 13.3 shows a fertiliser bag. Calculate the total percentages of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium in the bag.
Solution:
Add up the total number of ‘parts’ for the three elements combined:
2+3+2=7
N: 2 parts in every 7 contain nitrogen
P: 3 parts in every 7 contain phosphorus
K: 2 parts in every 7 contain potassium
These 3 elements make up 22% (number in brackets) of the total mass of the
fertiliser.
The percentages of N, P and K in the bag can be calculated as follows:
2 × 22 = 6,29%
N:  __
Fig 13.3 7
3 × 22 = 9,43%
P:  __
7
2 × 22 = 6,29%
K:  __
7
2. Figure 13.4 shows a fertiliser bag. Calculate the percentages of each nutrient in the
bag.
Solution:
Add up the total number of ‘parts’ for the three elements combined:
3+1+5=9
N: 3 parts in every 9 contain nitrogen
P: 1 part in every 9 contains phosphorus
K: 5 parts in every 9 contain potassium
These 3 elements make up 26% (number in brackets) of the total mass of
the fertiliser.
Fig 13.4

The percentages of N, P and K in the bag can be calculated as follows:
  2 × 26 = 8,67%
N: __
7
  1 × 26 = 2,89%
P: __
9
  5 × 26 = 14,4%
K: __
9
b) Suggest a reason why adding N:P:K fertiliser to the soil may not be the answer to
the plants’ needs.
Solution:
The soil may not be deficient in those elements and adding the fertiliser may upset the
balance of elements in the soil and may even cause the soil to become toxic.
Checkpoint 2
A fertiliser bag has the following information printed on the front of it:
2:1:3 (35)
Calculate the percentages of each nutrient in the bag.
Exercise 13.1
1. What are the three major elements required for the healthy growth of plants?
What do the plants use each of these elements for? What are natural sources for
each of these elements?
2. A farmer has his soil tested and is told that his soil is lacking in potassium.
She is given the choice of two inorganic fertilisers. The two choices have the
following labels:
• 2:4:1(30)
• 1:2:4(30)
Which fertiliser is most likely to fulfill the soil’s nutrient requirements? Explain.
3. Calculate the total percentages of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the
two bags of fertiliser in question 2.

The industrial manufacture of fertilisers
Making the connection between industrial

processes
The increase in the world’s population size means that there is an increasing demand for
food, whilst at the same time the space available to grow crops is also being reduced. As a
result of this, crops need to be grown more quickly and often in unfavourable conditions.
Fertilisers assist the growth of plants and vegetables.
There are many different compounds in fertilisers and many of these compounds need to
be produced industrially. We will study some of the industrial chemical processes
involved in the production of fertilisers.
Fractional distillation of air to produce nitrogen (N2)

Nitrogen is the first vital ingredient of fertilisers. The
most abundant source of nitrogen is the air, as air is
made up of approximately 78% nitrogen. However, the
nitrogen needs to be separated from all the other gases
in the air and this is done by a process called the
fractional distillation of air.
In this process, air is first filtered to remove dust. The
air is then cooled to –200 ˚C. During this cooling
process, water vapour condenses and is removed,
carbon dioxide freezes at –79 ˚C and is removed. The
remaining gases, oxygen, nitrogen and noble gases
such as argon, liquefy. This liquefied mixture of gases
–185˚C is then placed in a large chamber, such as the one
shown in Figure 13.5. The chamber is warmer at the
top than at the bottom. Oxygen liquefies at –183 ˚C,
whilst nitrogen liquefies at –196 ˚C. As a result of the
difference in their boiling points, oxygen remains a
liquid in the chamber and collects at the bottom, where
Fig 13.5: Fractional distillation of air
it is piped off and collected. The nitrogen gas boils
and collects at the top of the chamber as nitrogen gas.
The nitrogen gas is piped off, cooled and stored as
liquid nitrogen.
Checkpoint 3
1. What is fractional distillation?
2. Name four substances that can be separated from air by fractional distillation.

Sasol-Lurgi process to produce hydrogen
Low grade coal that has been mined is poured into a reacting chamber,
such as the one shown in Figure 13.6. The coal is subjected to extremely
high temperatures and pressures in the presence of steam and oxygen.
The gas that is produced contains high quantities of hydrogen (H2) and
carbon monoxide (CO), which are then separated.
The Haber process to produce ammonia

(NH3)
The nitrogen and hydrogen that are produced in the above two processes
are then reacted together to form ammonia in the Haber process, shown
in Figure 13.7.
Fig 13.6: Sasol-Lurgi process to

produce hydrogen
Fig 13.7: The Haber process to produce ammonia

3H2 + N2 ⇌ 2NH3
The reaction takes place in the presence of an iron or iron oxide catalyst. The gases
are subjected to a temperature of approximately 450° C and a pressure of approximately
300 atmospheres.
Ammonia is used in the manufacturing of fertilisers and in the making of nitric
acid (HNO3).

Checkpoint 4
1. What chemical is produced by the Haber process?
2. What reactants are required for the Haber process? How are these reactants obtained?
3. Give two uses of the product of the Haber process.
4. Under what conditions of temperature and pressure is the Haber process performed?
5. What is the catalyst used in the Haber process?
The Ostwald process to produce nitric acid (HNO3)

Nitric acid is produced in industry by the Ostwald Process. Ammonia which was
produced by the Haber process is used in the first step of the Ostwald process. The
Ostwald Process is made up of three steps:
Step 1: 4NH3 + 5O2 ⇌ 4NO + 6H2O
(This step is known as the ‘catalytic oxidation of ammonia’)
In this step a platinum gauze catalyst is used to speed up the reaction. This step
also takes place at a temperature of approximately 800° C.
Step 2: 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
Step 3: 3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO
The NO produced in this last step is collected and re-used in step 2.
A flow diagram representing the production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process is
Fig 13.8: The Ostwald process to produce nitric acid
Nitric acid is used in the production of fertilisers and explosives.

Checkpoint 5
1. What chemical is the Ostwald process used to produce?
2. What reactants are required for the first step of the Ostwald process? How are these
reactants obtained?
3. Give two uses of the product of the Ostwald process.
4. Under what conditions of temperature is the Haber process performed?
5. Name the catalyst used in the Ostwald process?
The Contact process to produce sulphuric acid

(H2SO4)
Sulphuric Acid is produced in industry by the Contact Process. The Contact Process is
made up of four steps.
Step 1: S + O2 → SO2
Step 2: 2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3
In this step the catalyst vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is used to speed up the
reaction. This step also takes place at a temperature of approximately 450 °C.
Step 3: SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 (H2S2O7 is called fuming sulphuric acid or
oleum)
Step 4: H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4 (fuming sulphuric acid is diluted to form H2SO4)
A flow diagram representing the production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process is
Fig 13.9: The Contact process to produce sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid is used in the production of:

• Fertilisers
• Battery acid
• Detergent
• Synthetic fibres
• Paint
Checkpoint 6
1. What chemical is produced in the Contact process?
2. Give five uses of the product of the Contact process.
3. Under what conditions of temperature is the second step of the Contact process
performed?
4. What is the catalyst used in the Contact process?
The production of phosphoric acid (H3PO4)

The sulphuric acid produced in the Contact process is used to
produce phosphoric acid. The sulphuric acid reacts with phosphate
rock to produce phosphoric acid. An example of such a reaction is the
reaction of sulphuric acid with the rock fluorapatite (Ca5F(PO4)3),
shown by the following equation:
Ca5F(PO4)3 + 5H2SO4 + 10H2O → 5CaSO4.2H2O + HF + 3H3PO4
This phosphoric acid is used to produce superphosphate fertilisers in
the following process. Phosphoric acid is also used to remove rust
and is a major ingredient in over-the-counter nausea medications.
Fig 13.10: Phosphoric acid is used in the Phosphoric acid is also used in the production of teeth whitening
production of teeth whitening toothpastes, such as that shown in Figure 13.10.
toothpastes
Checkpoint 7
1. What reactants are required for the production of phosphoric acid? Where are these
reactants obtained?
2. Give three uses of phosphoric acid.

The production of superphosphates and triple
superphosphates
Superphosphates
Superphosphate is a fertiliser produced by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on
powdered phosphate rock, according to the following equation:
Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 → CaSO4 + Ca(H2PO4)2
Superphosphates are phosphorous-rich fertilisers that are used to stimulate root growth
in plants. Superphosphate is gradually decomposed in the soil, providing soluble
phosphorus which is absorbed by roots and distributed within the plant.
Triple superphosphates
Phosphoric acid is reacted with ground phosphate rock (3Ca3(PO4)2CaF2), which results
in the production of triple superphosphate. The equation for the reaction is shown below:
3Ca3(PO4)2CaF2 + 4H3PO4 + 9H2O → 9Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaF2
Checkpoint 8
1. What is a superphosphate?
2. Which element are superphosphates rich in?
3. What do plants use superphosphates for?
The production of nitrogen-based fertilisers
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is produced by the acid-base reaction between ammonia,
produced in the Haber process and nitric acid, produced in the Ostwald process. The
equation for the reaction is:
HNO3 + NH3 → NH4NO3
This reaction is violent and very exothermic. The ammonium nitrate produced is used in
the manufacturing of fertilisers and explosives. Since it is used to make explosives, in
many countries its purchase and use is restricted to buyers who have obtained the
proper license.

Ammonium sulphate – (NH4)2SO4

Ammonium sulphate is used as a fertiliser for alkaline soils. The ammonium ion (NH4+)
is released and this lowers the pH of the soil, whilst also contributing nitrogen which is
essential for plant growth. Ammonium sulphate is produced by reacting ammonia,
produced in the Haber process, with sulphuric acid, produced in the Contact process.
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
Urea – (NH2)2CO
Urea was first discovered in urine in 1727 by the Dutch scientist Herman Boerhaave. Urea
is obtained by treating silver isocyanate with ammonium chloride, according to the
following equation:
AgNCO + NH4Cl → (NH2)2CO + AgCl
Urea is a nitrogen-based fertiliser. The advantage of using urea over other commercial
fertilisers is that involves little or no fire or explosion hazards and also releases few
pollutants into the environment.
Checkpoint 9
1. Give two uses of ammonium nitrate.
2. What reactants are required for the production of ammonium sulphate? Where are
these reactants obtained?
3. Give one use of ammonium sulphate.
4. Where is urea found naturally?
5. What two major products are Sasol famous for producing, other than petrol?
Sasol’s involvement in the production of fertilisers

and explosives
We have seen that many of the compounds used to make inorganic fertilisers are the
same as those used to make explosives. Sasol is a South African company that is involved
in mining, energy, chemicals and synfuels (synthetic fuels). Sasol produces a lot of the
chemicals used in the production of fertilisers and explosives.
Sasol Nitro’s fertiliser division produces and markets LAN (limestone ammonium
nitrate), ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate-based fertilisers and nitric acid to
industrial clients, farmers, traders and fertiliser companies.
Sasol Nitro’s explosives division produces and markets commercial explosives, a wide
range of specialised blasting accessories, bulk explosives used in opencast mines and
quarries and services to South Africa’s leading mining houses as well as exporting to
global markets.

Flow diagram of industrial processes
All of the above industrial processes are interlinked and can be illustrated using the flow
diagram in Figure 13.11 on the next page.
Fig 13.11: Flow diagram linking industrial processes

Exercise 13.2
1. Consider the flow diagram given in Figure 13.12.

a) Give the formula for substance A.
b) Name the industrial process by which substance A is
produced.
c) What catalyst is used in the Haber process?
d) Under what conditions of temperature and pressure
does the Haber process occur?
e) Give the chemical formula for substance B.
f) Give the chemical formula for substance C.
g) State the name of industrial process D.
Fig 13.12
h) Give the formula for substance E.
i) State a use for substance E.
j) Give the formula for substance F.
k) Identify two uses for substance F.
2. What two major industries are Sasol’s products used in?

The impact of the use of inorganic fertilisers
The impact that the use of inorganic fertilisers has

on humans and the environment
Organic fertilisers are derived plant remains or animal
excretions, such as plant compost and animal manure. Although
this is the more natural and least environmentally harmful
method of fertilising, these fertilisers normally contain less than
1% of nitrogen compounds and their precise composition is not
known.
Inorganic fertilisers are manufactured in chemical processing
plants. The percentage of plant nutrients in these fertilisers can
be predetermined and accurately controlled.
The use inorganic fertilisers enable us to produce large
quantities of food to feed an ever-increasing world population,
and ensure food security. Inorganic fertilisers make it possible Fig 13.13: Organic fertilisers are derived
for food to be made available for all communities at affordable plant remains or animal excretions
prices. Without the use of these fertilisers, we would not be able
to produce enough food to feed everyone. However, the use of
inorganic fertilisers also impacts the environment and our health.
Environmental impact of using

inorganic fertilisers
• When it rains, inorganic fertilisers run into our drains
contaminating our water and killing fish. In addition, this
results in oceanic ‘dead zones’ near the mouths of rivers.
Fig 13.14: Inorganic fertilisers are
• Nitrogen-based fertilisers can cause soil acidification when
manufactured in chemical processing plants
added. This may lead to a decrease in nutrient availability.
• Many inorganic fertilisers contain heavy metals such as cadmium. This contaminates
the soil. Cadmium is carcinogenic. carcinogenic
causes cancer
• Uranium is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilisers.
Uranium is radioactive, which can cause illnesses such as cancer.
• Methane emissions from crop fields are increased by the application of ammonium-
based fertilisers. These emissions contribute greatly to global climate change as
methane is a potent greenhouse gas.
• Nitrogen-based fertiliser use can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth
rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain agricultural pests, such as aphids. This
results in ‘super-bugs’, who are more numerous and more resistant to pesticides,
meaning that stronger pesticides need to be used more often.

How the use of inorganic fertilisers affects humans

• Fertilisers tend to house listeria, salmonella and E. coli bacteria, which can cause
abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea and body aches in humans and animals who
come in contact with them.
• Reproductive problems and birth defects such as "blue-baby syndrome" have been
attributed to the nitrates in inorganic fertilisers getting into the drinking water.
• High levels of nitrates and nitrites can lead to miscarriage in pregnant women.
• Nitrates in fertilisers can cause endocrine, immune and nervous system
malfunctions.
• Mercury, lead, cadmium and uranium are some of the toxic metals that have been
found in fertilisers and can cause disturbances of the kidneys, lungs and liver and
cause cancer.
Checkpoint 10
1. What is the difference between an organic and an inorganic fertiliser?
2. What impact does the use of inorganic fertilisers have on the environment?
3. How does the use of inorganic fertilisers affect humans?
Eutrophication
Fertilisers have to be soluble in water to travel through the soil
and be available to plant roots. If too much fertiliser is applied
or fertiliser is applied just before heavy rains, nitrates and other
soluble nutrients are leached from the soil and enter rivers and
streams in run-off water, leading to eutrophication.
Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies, such as
lakes, estuaries, or slow-moving streams receive excess
nutrients that stimulate excessive plant growth, evident in the
algae formation on the surface of the water. This process uses so
much oxygen from the water that other living organisms, such
as fish, die of suffocation. Eventually there are few, if any, living
organisms left.
Humans are also affected by nutrient-rich run-off. Most of our
Fig 13.15: Eutrophication leads to excessive
drinking water comes from rivers and dams. Drinking water is
algae growth on the water surface
purified before it is distributed to households. Normal
purification processes do not remove nitrate salts. High concentrations of nitrates in
drinking water may reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood and cause ‘blue-baby
leach when a syndrome’ in small babies. Blue-baby syndrome is a condition in which babies in the
soluble chemical
or mineral is
uterus are deprived of oxygen as a result of high concentrations of nitrates in drinking
made to drain water. As a result of this oxygen deprivation, babies can be born with a bluish colour to
away from the the skin. In extreme cases, the child can be born brain damaged.
soil, especially
by rainwater. Fertilisers are not the only cause of eutrophication. Sewerage and detergents containing
phosphates can also provide sufficient nutrients for a population explosion of algae.

Research task
The quality of water sources in the country has been on the news a lot in South
Africa. Rivers used to be sources of clean water. Conduct some research as to the
causes of this high pollution of rivers near you. Read up in local newspapers and on
the internet.
Investigate how many people rely on fertilisers for their gardens in your area.
Investigate whether the use of inorganic fertilisers has increased in recent years.
Research whether this can be related to the quality of water in the rivers near where
you live.
Write a report explaining how you conducted the investigstion required by the
reasearch task. Include a conclusion in the report.
Alternatives to inorganic fertilisers

Organic fertilisers are derived from plant remains or animal excretions,
such as plant compost and animal manure. There are communities in
South Africa that have been growing crops using different forms of
organic fertilisers long before inorganic fertilisers were ever produced.
Examples of organic fertilisers include:
• Chicken manure
• Kraal manure
• Compost
• Sewerage sludge.
Advantages of organic fertilisers
• Most organic fertilisers are slow release fertilisers, thus reducing the
risk of leaching and ultimately eutrophication. This also reduces the
frequency that the fertiliser needs to be applied.
• Soil chemistry is actually improved by the use of organic fertilisers.
• Costs are lower if the fertiliser if available locally.
Fig 13.16: A woman working in an
Disadvantages of organic fertilisers
organic vegetable garden
• Nutrient levels are less concentrated than in inorganic fertilisers, so a
greater quantity has to be used. This increases cost of purchase and cost of transport.
• The composition is variable and often uncertain.
• Improperly processed organic fertilisers may contain pathogens from plant or animal
matter that are harmful to humans or plants. However, proper composting should
remove them.
• When purchased at the supermarket, organically grown vegetables are much more
expensive than inorganically grown vegetables.

Presentation
Work in groups. Each group chooses one of the following topics to discuss. Prepare
a two minute presentation. Each person in the group must get a chance to speak in
the presentation.
• Discuss advantages of inorganic fertilisers.
• Discuss alternatives to inorganic fertilisers.
• Discuss how the public can help to prevent eutrophication.
You can use pictures or diagrams to assist your presentation.
Checkpoint 11
1. What advantages are there to using organic fertilisers, as opposed to
inorganic fertilisers?
2. What disadvantages are there to using organic fertilisers, as opposed to
inorganic fertilisers?
Exercise 13.3
1) a) Discuss factors in favour and against the use of inorganic fertilisers.

Summarise your findings in a table.
b) In terms of the above, evaluate the effects that the use of inorganic fertilisers
on crops has on humans and the environment.
2) a) What is eutrophication? What conditions give rise to it?
b) What are the consequences of eutrophication?
c) Suggest ways of preventing eutrophication.
3) a) Discuss factors in favour and against the use of organic fertilisers.
Summarise your findings in a table.
b) Draw up a table showing the advantages and the disadvantages of organic
farming over inorganic farming.

Extend yourself
1. The ammonia produced in the Haber process is used to make ammonium nitrate.
a) Write down the chemical formula of ammonium nitrate. (1)
The ammonium nitrate is used to make fertilisers because it is readily soluble
in water and contains a high percentage of nitrogen.
b) Calculate the percentage of nitrogen by mass in ammonium nitrate. (2)
c) Evaluate the positive and negative environmental impacts of the use of
nitrogen fertiliser. (4)
d) Discuss briefly what can be done to prevent eutrophication. (2)
2. The fertiliser superphosphate is made by treating calcium phosphate from
rock with sulphuric acid. Calcium phosphate rock is found in North Africa
where it is cheap and freely available.
a) Write down the formula for calcium phosphate. (1)
b) Write down the formulae of the products of the reaction. (2)
c) Is calcium phosphate a mineral which is soluble in water? (1)
3. Farmers have been using increasing amounts of inorganic fertiliser
worldwide over the past 30 years.
a) Why do we need to use fertiliser for planting and growing crops? (2)
b) List two possible risks which farmers encounter when using inorganic
fertiliser.(2)
c) How should farmers manage these risks? (2)
4. Many waterways in South Africa are threatened by eutrophication.
Analyse some proposals to solve this problem. The key ideas are as follows:
Proposal 1: Ban inorganic fertiliser.
Proposal 2: Triple the cost of inorganic fertiliser by imposing a tax.
a) What is eutrophication? (4)
b) What is the cause of eutrophication? (2)
c) Consider how the banning of inorganic fertiliser would affect farmers’
ability to produce food on a large scale and critically analyse how
effective proposal 1 would be as a solution to the problem of
eutrophication. (4)
d) How might proposal 2 force farmers to reduce the impact of
eutrophication and hence, critically analyse proposal 2 as a solution
to the problem of eutrophication. (4)

5. The Agrochemical Industry provides a

vital service by producing inorganic fertilisers
which are added to the soil to restore nutrients
so that more crops can be produced. Fertilisers
are available in many forms and can be
purchased easily in many different retail stores
throughout the country.
You are provided with a 10 kg bag of fertiliser that
carries the following information, NPK – 3:1:5 (26)
SR as seen in Figure 13.17.
a) Name the primary nutrients given by the Fig 13.17
symbols NPK required by all plants to ensure healthy and
sturdy growth. (3)
b) Using chemical formulae, give an example of the chemical form
in which these nutrients are found in artificial fertiliser. (3)
6. Research has found that good agricultural soil has a high component of soluble
fertiliser present. It is naturally present in the soil and all farmers regularly
measure the quantity as it is essential for healthy crop growth. However when
heavy rains fall, farmers regularly have to use artificial fertilisers on the land.
a) Using ammonium nitrate as an example, explain with the aid of a
chemical equation, what problem you see possibly occurring in the soil
when heavy rains fall. (3)
b) Do you think that the regular use of artificial fertilisers will solve the
problem? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
Organic fertiliser is a natural fertiliser which produces nitrates which are slowly
released into the soil over time. This process is assisted by the oxygenated water
that is absorbed by the rotting material. This process is very slow yet it is once again
becoming a popular method of fertilising crops in the modern day and age, as it was
long ago.
c) Why do you think it is advantageous for a farmer to want to use organic
fertilisers instead of synthetic fertilisers in his fields? (2)
There has been much controversy over the use of organic and inorganic fertilisers
in recent times. It is important to note that it makes no difference to a tomato
plant if the nutrients it is absorbing come from a pile of compost (organic) or from
a fertiliser factory (inorganic). A nutrient is a nutrient – no matter what the source
of it might be.
d) Name two organic fertilisers that are sources of primary
nutrients for plants. (2)
e) With reference to the agricultural environment in South Africa, list two
possible advantages and two possible disadvantages of
inorganic fertilisers. (4)
f) Based on the disadvantages of inorganic fertilisers above, suggest how
the use of organic fertilisers addresses this issue. (4)
[56]

Definitions
eutrophication a process whereby water bodies, such as lakes, estuaries, or slow-moving streams
receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant growth.
organic fertilisers fertilisers derived from plant remains or animal excretions, such as plant compost
and animal manure.
inorganic fertilisers fertilisers manufactured in chemical processing plants.
potash any of several compounds containing potassium, especially soluble compounds such as
potassium oxide, potassium chloride, and various potassium sulphates, used chiefly in fertilisers.
organic fertilisers are derived plant remains or animal excretions, such as plant compost and
animal manure.
inorganic fertilisers are manufactured in chemical processing plants.
Summary
Figure 13.11 on page 492 serves as a summary of industrial processes.

Elements required for the healthy growth of plants:
• Nitrogen (N) – sourced from the air.
• Phosphorus (P) – from bone meal and guano.
• Potassium (K) – from feldspars and clays.

Topic
14 Revision

Revision and examination preperation
Answering questions
What to expect in the year end examination
The following topics are revised from Grade 10 and 11:
• Newton’s laws (Newton 1, 2, 3 and Newton’s law of Universal Gravitation) and
application of Newton’s laws. (Physics Grade 11)
• Electrostatics (Coulomb’s Law and Electric field)
• Electric circuits (Ohm’s Law, Power and Energy)
• Representing chemical change (Chemistry Grade 10)
• Intermolecular forces (Chemistry Grade 11)
• Stoichiometry (Chemistry Grade 11)
• Energy an dchange (Chemistry Grade 11)
The following topics are revised from Grade 12:
• Momentum and impulse • Electrodynamics
• Vertical projectile motion in one dimension • Optical phenomena and
properties of materials
• Work, energy and power • Organic chemistry
• Doppler effect • Rates of reaction
• Electric circuits • Chemical equilibrium
• Electrochemical reactions • Chemical industry
You now need to prepare for your final matric Physical Sciences Grade 12
examination. This topic is about revision of work covered in Grade 11 and 12 that
you will be examined on.
Topic 14: Revision • 501

Revision and exams
The key to success in your final Grade 12 exams: Have a revision mentality for the
whole year!
This means that you shouldn’t leave all the revision till the last minute – revision should
start at the beginning of the year.
Revision strategies that have worked for other Grade 12s:

Have a revision mentality for the whole year Use time carefully
- Make your notes clear, colourful and easy to - Tomorrow is not good enough – start today!
remember - Draw up a study timetable
- Make index cards of important information - Use any spare time you have to do extra
- Go over your work regularly – build up the revision
knowledge in your knowledge bank Keep a positive mindset
- Regard difficulties as challenges, and look for
ways of overcoming difficulties
- Don’t be afraid to ask for help
Work with others Improve your memory
- Arrange revision sessions with your friends Try these ideas to help you remember things:
- Find a study partner - Over-learning: Go over information at least
Emphasis on action! three times. Check back often.
- Organise your notes – today! - Mnemonics: Use the first letter of each
- Re-work your notes if they are messy and can keyword in your summary to make up a new
be improved word that sums up the topic. It does not
matter if the letters don’t make up a real word
Revise by ear - W rite things down: In your own words, write
Read out loud or record yourself answering things over and over
questions – reading AND listening helps your - U se colour: Give themes, formulas and recall
memory sequences different colours. Use familiar
Stay healthy colour sequences like the rainbow colours,
- Sleep, relax, exercise, eat healthy foods national flag or red-orange-green of a robot
- Take study breaks according to your study - Summarise your notes: Use key words and
timetable key points
Use past papers
- Check which questions come up regularly
- Build writing speed by timing yourself as you answer a whole paper or specific sections under
exam conditions
- Only attempt to answer past papers once you have revised the section – otherwise you might
cause yourself to panic
- Discuss questions and answers with others - brainstorm answers to past questions and develop
model answers
- Consider in advance what detail needs to be left out of exam answers – always look at the mark
allocation
502 • Topic 14: Revision

Revision
My seven point revision action plan Some ideas

1. Things I will do to stay positive: Give myself positive messages;
accepting the challenge; working on
stress …
2. Things I will do to use time carefully: Go over my work from early in the
year; use different ways of revising;
organising a timetable; won’t make
excuses to not revise; use spare
moments for extra revision …
3. Things I will do to create variety in my revision: Work in many short spells; use
colour; learn out aloud …
4. Things I will do to over-learn my work: Rewrite notes; make index cards;
write essay plans; use memory
triggers; revise work many times …
5. Things I will do to practice: Go through past papers; write trial
papers …
6. How I will include other people in my revision: Form a study group; find a study
partner; ask my teacher when I need
help …
7. How I will select what topics to revise: Use past papers; ask for an exam
scope …
My seven point revision action plan

Copy and complete the table. Write ways in which you will achieve your revision goals.
Some ideas have been listed for you.
Advance preparation for the exam
Find out the exam Plan your exam time in

instructions advance
The week before-drink

Advance plenty of water; exercise
Practise preparation daily; relax daily; go
for the exam through your key cards;
visit the exam room
The night before – go

over the exam details; On the day – eat slow-
prepare what you need releasing carbohydrates
– stationery, a snack, like bread and cereals;
a jersey, your exam leave for the venue early
number; your ID book enough to allow for delays

Exam techniques and tips
Planning and approach to answering the paper

The first thing to do is read over, carefully, the entire exam paper. Spend a good ten
minutes reading before you write anything. In this time, work out which questions you are
going to answer, which order you are going to answer them in, and plan your time in the
exam: how much time you are going to spend answering each question. Take careful note
of the marking scheme (see later) when making this plan. Write down the plan on the back
sheet of your answer book. It helps you feel in control, and that helps keep you calm.
Do not be tempted to do a question on a certain topic first just because it is the topic you
know the most about. It might be a really difficult question. Are you confident you can do
it? Which parts can you do? How many marks do you think you could get on the parts of
the question you can do? You might find there is another, much easier question on topic
Y, which you might not have chosen because you found topic Y is harder, or because one
part of the question looks really difficult. Work it out for each part of each question:
which question is likely to get you the most marks? Do that one.
Reading the whole question is also important because many questions lead you through a
problem - the answer to part a) is used in part b), etc. There might be clues in later parts
of the question about what is expected. Make sure you notice them.
Work out a time schedule. Balance the time spend on a part of the question against the
marks you will achieve. The matric exam counts 150 marks and you have 3 hours (180
minutes) to complete the exam. On average you have 1,2 minutes per mark. Plan your
time accordingly. Remember: exam questions are not about writing down everything you
know about a topic - if you do this you will almost certainly run out of time. You are
trying to get the best mark you can on the whole paper, not just on the question you
happen to be doing at the time.
The plan (time schedule) is not a rigid one, if you go a few minutes over on one question
it is fine, but try and catch it up if this happens.
Do the easiest questions first

You need not do the questions in the order they are given in the exam. It is recommended
that you do the easiest one(s) first. However remember to number the questions
accurately and clearly so that it is clear to the person marking the paper which question
the answer belongs to.
There are two reasons for this. Firstly, getting one question done and be sure of getting
the marks. Completing a question successfully at the start of an exam is a confidence
booster, and can help reduce any feelings of panic that might arise when attempting the
more difficult questions or questions that you are unsure of.
The second reason is that the easiest question is likely to take less time than the average.
That means you will be ahead of your time schedule from the start – another good
confidence boost. It also means that when you get round to the most difficult question,
you are free to spend all the time you have left on it, without having to drop it half-way
through and come back to it later, if time permits – not a good idea if it can be avoided.

Revision
Look at the mark allocation

If four marks have been allocated for the description of concept then the marking
memorandum will indicate four key points – a mark each. Mention them all, and you get
four the marks. Often, for a question like this, there might be a list of five or six points,
but you will only be given one mark for each of them, up to a maximum of four.
Therefore do not waste time and give more than four points. If however you have not
made four key points, you have missed something.
Do not spend half-an-hour writing a long essay for two marks. It is a waste of time –
better to spend the time on other parts of the question paper.
Do not get stuck, move on

Avoid writer’s block, you have not got time for it. If you get stuck on a question, move
on. Start doing another one. Staring at a question you do not know how to answer, is a
waste of time. Very often when coming back to a question after half-an-hour, it suddenly
becomes clear.
If you are running out of time

Suppose you only have time left to do one question, but there are two questions left to do.
Which one do you choose? The way to maximise your marks is to do the first half of both
of them. You gain marks faster at the start of a question than at the end.
If you do not have time to write sentences, but you do know what to do, then just write
bullet points. If you do not have time to do the calculations, write and explain what
calculations you would do. You can get marks for method.
Use all the time

Once you have completed the paper there is always something you can do to improve
your paper. Check, and check again. When you have finished, go back to the beginning,
and try to do the questions in different ways, and check they agree. Add more
explanations, double-check answers.
If you have got time left at the end, remember: ACUTE.
Assumptions (have you explained them all, even when not explicity asked.)
Calculations (have you checked them all - doing things different ways if possible and
time permits. Did you press those calculator buttons right? Do the answers to different
parts of the question agree? Check, and check again.)
Units (have you written the units? Do the units for all formulas make sense and agree -
this is a very powerful technique for checking that you have used the correct formula.)
Truth (have you done all the parts of all the sections in the questions? If asked to make a
list and explain why, do not just make a list. This is probably the biggest cause of
unnecessary lost marks - read the question and answer the question, the whole question,
and nothing but the question. Just like the truth in a court of law.)
Explanations (have you explained what you are doing at all stages - good explanations
will get marks for method even if the answer is wrong; miss out the explanation and you
are throwing away easy method marks.)
[Adapted from: http://www-users.york.ac.uk/~dajp1/Exam_Hints/Exams.html]

Paper 1 - Physics
Grade 11 Revision
Newton’s laws
Types of forces
All objects are attracted towards the centre of the Earth. This gravitational force is
known as the weight (W) of an object and its unit is the Newton (N). The weight of an
object is calculated using the following equation: W = mg, where m is the mass of the
object, measured in kilograms (kg) and g is the acceleration due to gravity
(on Earth g = 9,8 m.s–2 towards the earth).
The normal force (N), is the force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it.
The normal force acts perpendicular to the surface irrespective of whether the plane is
horizontal or inclined.
A frictional force (f ) is defined as the force that opposes the motion of an object and it
acts parallel to the surface the object is in contact with.
Newton’s Laws of motion

Newton’s first law: An object continues in a state of rest or uniform velocity unless it
is acted upon by a net force.
Inertia is the property of a body that resists any change in its motion.
Newton’s second law: When a net force, Fnet is applied to an object of mass, m, it
accelerates in the direction of the net force. The acceleration a, is directly proportional
to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass. Fnet = ma
Fnet is the net force applied to the object. Force is measured in Newton’s (N). Force is
a vector quantity, m is the mass of the object, measured in kg, a is the acceleration of
the object and is measured in m.s-2.
Newton’s third law: When object A exerts a force on object B; object B simultaneously
exerts an oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on object A.
Properties of action-reaction pairs of forces:
1. They are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
2. They act on different bodies (they do not cancel each other).
3. They act simultaneously (at the same time).

Revision
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: Every object in the Universe attracts every other
object in the Universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
In symbols: Where:
Gm m2 F = the gravitational force of attraction, measured in newtons (N)
F = _______
  12 
d
m1 and m2 = the interacting masses, measured in kilograms (kg)
d = the distance between the centers of the masses, measured in
metres (m)
G = 6,67 × 10–11 N.m2.kg–2 (the Universal Gravitational Constant)
Force diagram: A force diagram is a picture of the object(s) of interest with all the
forces acting on it (them) drawn in as arrows.
Free-body diagram: In a free-body diagram, the object of interest is drawn as a dot
and all the forces acting on it are drawn as arrows pointing away from the dot.
An object is in equilibrium if the net force acting on it is zero. Objects that are in
equilibrium are either at rest or moving at constant velocity in a straight line. An
object is in equilibrium if it satisfies both of the following conditions:
Conditions for equilibrium:
1. All the forces acting parallel to plane of motion of an object must be balanced (i.e.
the vector sum of the forces acting parallel to the plane is zero) and
2. All the forces acting perpendicular to the plane of motion must be balanced (i.e.
the vector sum of the forces acting perpendicular to the plane is zero).
Questions:
1. A passenger standing in a stationary bus is not holding onto the over head handles.
The bus suddenly pulls off to the left and the passenger falls backwards.
a) State Newton’s first law of motion.
b) Use Newton’s first law to explain why the passenger falls backwards.
c) How would holding onto the overhead handles prevent the passenger from
falling over?
2. Two trolleys of mass 2 kg and 1 kg are joined together by a light string as shown in
Figure 14.1. A force 25 N is applied to the 2 kg trolley at to the horizontal. The system
of trolleys accelerates to the left. The 2 kg trolley experiences a frictional force of 4 N
and the 1 kg trolley experiencees a frictional force of 2 N.
Fig 14.1

a) State Newton’s second law of motion.
b) Draw a fully labeled free-body diagram of all the forces acting on the 2 kg trolley.
c) Draw a fully labeled free-body diagram of all the forces acting on the 1 kg trolley.
d) Calculate the acceleration of the system of trolleys and the magnitude of the
tension T in the string.
3. Figure 14.2 shows a 900 kg car at rest on a plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
a) Calculate the force of friction acting on the car.
b) Calculate the normal force acting on the car.
c) The plane is now inclined at a greater angle but
the car still remains stationary. How will this
affect the force of friction acting on the car?
4. a) State Newton’s third law of motion. Fig 14.2
b) Using Newton’s third law, explain how a rocket in deep space is able to propel
itself forward.
5. Indentify all the action-reaction pairs of forces present in each of the following
situations (Draw a fully labeled force diagram for each situation):
a) A swimmer pushes off the side of the pool.
b) A book rests on the table.
c) A car moving at constant velocity along the road.
6. a) State Newton’s Law of Universal gravitation.
b) Calculate the gravitational force of attraction between the Sun and the Earth.
Mass of the Sun = 2,0 × 1030 kg, mass of the Earth = 6 × 1024 kg, distance from the
Earth to the Sun = 1,5 × 1011 m.
7. Consider two masses. The distance between their centers is d. By what factor would
the gravitational force between the two masses change if:
a) Each mass was doubled.
b) The distance between their centers was halved.
c) One of the masses is halved and the distance between their centers is doubled.
8. Calculate the radius of the moon, if its acceleration due to gravity is 1.67 m.s–2.
Mass of Moon = 7,4 × 1022 kg. G = 6,67 × 10–11 N.m2.kg–2.

Revision
Electrostatics
The unit of charge (Q) is the coulomb (C). 1 mC = 10–3 C; 1 µC = 10–6 C; 1 nC = 10–9 C
and 1 pC = 10–12 C. The charge on an electron (e–) = –1,6 × 10–19 C.
The charge on a proton (p+) = +1,6 × 10–19 C
Coulomb’s Law: The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
In symbols: Where:
kQ Q Force (F) = a vector quantity, measured in newtons (N)
F = ______
  12  2
r. Q1 and Q2 = the two point charges, measured in coulombs (C)
r = the distance between the two point charges, measured in
metres (m)
k = 9 × 109 N.m2.C–2
The two point charges exert forces of equal magnitude on each other in opposite
directions.
An electric field is a region of space in which an electric charge experiences a force.
The direction of the electric field at a point in the field is the direction that a positive
test charge (+1 C) would move if placed at that point. Electric field (E) is a vector
quantity.
The electric field is represented by lines. Arrows on the lines indicate the direction of
the electric field as shown in the Figure 14.3 and Figure 14.4. Field lines are drawn
closer together where the field is stronger.
Fig 14.3 a): Electric field around Fig 14.3 b): Electric field around
a positive point charge a negative point charge
Fig 14.4 a): Field lines between Fig 14.4 b): Field lines between
opposing charged point charges positively charged point charges

The electric field (E) at a point in the field is defined as the force
experienced per unit of charge placed at that point.
In symbols: Where:
F . E = the electric field, measured in newtons per coulomb (N.C–1)

E =  __
q
F = the force experienced by the charge placed in the electric field,
measured in newtons (N)
q = the charge placed in the electric field, measured in coulombs (C)
E and F are both vector quantities.
The force exerted on a charge q placed in an electric field (E) is found using: F = Eq.
The electric field at a distance r from a point charge Q is found using:
In symbols: Where:
kQ Q = the charge creating the electric field, measured in coulombs (C)
E = ___
  2 
r
r = the distance from charge Q, measured in metres (m)
k = 9 × 109 N.m2.C–2
Questions:
1. a) What is meant by the term “electric field”?
b) What does an electric field line indicate?
c) Why is electric field regarded as a vector?
d) What is the defined direction of an electric field?
2. a) Draw a diagram to show the electric field around a positive point charge.
b) Where is the electric field strongest? Explain your answer.
c) Use your diagram to explain why the magnitude of the electric field decreases
with increasing distance from the charge.
3. a) Draw the electric field between two negative charges.
b) Use your diagram to explain why there is a place in this field where the
magnitude of the electric field is zero.
4. a) Calculate the electric field at a distance of 30 mm from a +8 nC charge.
b) Calculate the force experienced by an –4 nC charge placed 30 mm from the +8 nC
charge.
5. A -60 µC charge experiences a force of 3,6 N when placed at a point on an electric
field. Calculate the electric field at that point?
6. Two point charges Q1 = +4 nC and Q2 = –2 nC are placed 8 cm apart along a
horizontal line as shown in Figure 14.8. Point X is 5 cm from Q1 on the line between
the two charges.
+ –
Fig 14.5

Revision
a) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at point X due to
charge Q1 alone.
b) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at point X due to
charge Q2 alone.
c) Calculate the resultant electric field at point X due to both Q1 and Q2.
d) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on an electron placed at point X.
7. Three point charges are placed at the corners of a right angled triangle ABC as shown
in Fig 14.6.
A B
– +
–
C
Fig 14.6
a) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant electric field at point B
due to charges Q1 and Q3.
b) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on charge Q2 using:
i) The resultant electric field at point B.
ii) Coulombs Law
Electric circuits
Emf (ε) is defined as the amount of electrical energy supplied by the battery per
coulomb of charge moved between its terminals.
Potential difference (V) between two points in a circuit is defined as the amount of
work done (W) per coulomb of charge moved between these two points.
In symbols: Where:
W = work done, measured in joules (J)
 W 
V = ___
Q Q = charge measured in coulombs (C)
V = potential difference, measured in volts (V)

Current (I) is defined as the rate of flow of charge (Q).
In symbols: Where:
Q
I = __
    I = current, measured in ampere (A)
t
Q = charge, measured in coulombs (C)
t = time, measured in seconds (s)

Ohm’s Law: The current (I) in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference (V) across the ends of the conductor, provided the temperature of the
conductor is kept constant.
In symbols: Where:
V = R.I V = the potential difference across the conductor, measured in volts (V)
I = the current in the conductor, measured in ampere (A)
R = the resistance of the conductor, measured in ohms (Ω)
Ohmic conductors:
A graph of voltage versus current for an ohmic conductor is shown
in Figure 14.7. The graph shows that current (I) in the conductor is
directly proportional to the voltage (V) across it.
The gradient of this graph represents the resistance (R) of
the conductor.
This graph shows that the resistance (R) of the conductor is
constant and does not vary with current, provided the
current is low.
If the resistance of a conductor does not vary with current, then
this conductor is said to be an ohmic conductor.
Non-ohmic conductors:
Higher currents will have a greater heating effect on the metal, Fig 14.7
increasing the resistance of the metal. This is when
the conductor becomes non-ohmic because its
resistance now varies with current.
The graph of voltage versus current for the filament
of a light bulb is shown in Figure 14.8.
The resistance of the metal is represented by the
gradient of the graph.
The resistance of the conductor is at first constant
(where the graph is a straight line), but then the
resistance increases with current (where the
graph curves).
Fig 14.8

Revision
The current in the metal is no longer directly proportional to the voltage across it i.e. the
conductor is no longer ohmic.
A summary of the rules for series and parallel networks of resistors:
Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

Current is the same in each Current is divided (split)
Current (I)
resistor. amongst the resistors.
Voltage is divided (split) Voltage is the same across
Potential difference (V)
amongst the resistors. each resistor.
Resistance (R) Rs = R1 + R2 + ...   1   = ___
___  1   + ___
 1   + ...
Rp R1 R2
Energy in a circuit (E)
Electrical devices convert electrical energy into other forms of energy such as heat and
light. We say that electrical energy is dissipated in a resistor (converted to other
energy forms).
The work done (W) in moving the electric charge between the ends of a resistor is equal
to the energy (E) dissipated in the resistor. The energy dissipated in a resistor can be
calculated using:
 V  .Δt
2
E = VIΔt or E = I2.R.Δt or E = ___
R
Electrical power (P)
Power (P) is defined as the rate at which electrical energy (E) is converted to other
forms of energy in an electric circuit.
In symbols: Where:
P = power, measured in watts (W)
 E  
P = ___
Δt E = electrical energy, measured in joules (J)
Δt = time, measured in seconds (s)
The power dissipated in a resistor (R) can also be calculated using the following
equations:
 V  
2
P = V.I P = I2R P = ___
R
Questions:
1. In the circuit in Figure 14.9, the
reading on the voltmeter across
the 3 Ω resistor is 9V. Ignore the
internal resistance of the battery.
a) Define potential difference.
b) Calculate the potential
difference across the parallel
network of resistors.
c) What is the emf of the battery?
Fig 14.9

d) Define current.
e) What is the reading on the ammeter A?
f) Calculate the quantity of charge passing through the 3 Ω resistor in 1 minute.
g) Calculate the current in the 5 Ω resistor.
h) How would the reading on the voltmeter connected across the 3 Ω resistor
change if resistor R2 was removed from the circuit? Explain your answer.
i) Calculate the power dissipated in
i) the 10 Ω resistor in 1 minute.
ii) the external circuit in 1 minute.
2. A small torch bulb with a rating of 4 V, 200
mA is connected to a 5 V battery as shown
Figure 14.10.
a) Calculate the resistance of a suitable
resistor (R) that should be connected
in series with the bulb so that the bulb
functions according to its rating.
b) Calculate the power dissipated in the
bulb in 5 minutes. Fig 14.10
Grade 12 work
Topic 1 Momentum and impulse
1. a) Define momentum.
b) State the SI unit of momentum.
c) Is momentum a vector or a scalar quantity?
2. A 200 kg bumper car carrying a 60 kg driver has a constant velocity of 4 m.s–1 east.
a) Calculate the momentum of the driver.
b) Draw and label the momentum vector for the driver.
c) Calculate the momentum of the driver-bumper car system.
d) How would the momentum of the driver-car system change if another person of
equal mass was also in the car travelling at the same velocity? Explain your
answer.
3. A loaded transport truck with a mass of 20 000 kg is travelling at 2 m.s–1 east. What
will be the velocity of a 1 500 kg car if it has the same momentum as the truck?
4. How would the momentum of an object change if:
a) the mass is halved but the velocity remains the same?
b)  1 of its original magnitude?
the velocity is reduced to __
4

Revision
5. A 0,6 kg basketball is dropped and hits the ground with a speed of 4 m.s–1. The ball
bounces upwards with a speed of 3 m.s–1. Calculate:
a) The change in momentum of the ball.
b) Draw a labeled vector diagram to illustrate the initial, final and change in
momentum vectors.
6. State Newton’s second law in terms of momentum.
7. State the law of conservation of momentum.
8. a) In the context of momentum, what is an isolated system?
b) Why is it necessary to choose an isolated system when solving a momentum
problem?
9. A 0,3 kg volleyball is thrown horizontally at 4 m.s–1 west and it strikes a stationary
basketball of mass 0,6 kg. The volleyball rebounds east at 0,8 m.s–1. What is the
velocity of the basketball immediately after the collision?
10. A loaded train freight car (mass 12 000 kg) rolls at 3,5 m.s–1 (to the right) towards
another freight train car (mass 6 000 kg) which is travelling at 2 m.s–1 in the opposite
direction. Upon collision the two cars couple (lock together).
a) What is the velocity of the two freight train cars after the collision?
b) Calculate the impulse exerted on each freight train car.
c) If the collision lasts for 0,8 s, calculate the net force exerted on each freight train car.
d) Prove that this is an inelastic collision.
11. A girl of mass 55 kg jumps from the top of a 1,5 m high wall. She reaches the ground
with a velocity of 3 m.s–1.
a) Calculate her change in momentum as she comes to rest on the ground.
b) Calculate the net force acting on her to stop her if she bends her legs and stops
in 0,22 s.
c) How would the net force acting on her be affected if she keeps her legs rigid and
straight when landing on the ground? Explain your answer.
12. A 2000 kg truck enters an arrestor bed travelling at 35 m.s–1 north. The trucks speed
is decreased to 22 m.s–1 over 5 s. Calculate the net horizontal force acting on the truck.
Topic 2 Vertical projectile motion in one dimension

1. A builder drops a brick from the top of a wall 9,4 m above the ground. Calculate:
a) The final velocity of the brick.
b) The time it takes the brick to reach the ground.
2. A rocket in a fireworks display consists of a wooden handle on top of which the
gunpowder is fixed which will, when ignited accelerate the rocket vertically
upwards at 3 m.s–2 for 4 s when it explodes and the acceleration stops. The wooden
handle falls back to the ground.
a) Calculate the final velocity of the rocket after the 4 s acceleration.

b) Calculate the height reached after the 4 s acceleration.
c) Calculate the height reached by the handle.
d) Calculate the time that the wooden handle will take before reaching the ground
after the explosion.
e) Draw a displacement-time curve of the movement of the rocket and handle.
f) Draw a velocity-time curve of the total movement.
g) Draw an acceleration-time graph of the total movement
3. A con artist has to jump from a bridge onto a moving train travelling at a constant
speed of 10 m.s-1 in an action movie film. If the vertical distance from the top of the
train to the bridge is 4 m and the train approaches the bridge at 20 m.s–1, how far
from the bridge must the train be when the con artist must jump to land on the train?
4 A ball is dropped from the roof of a
building. It hits the ground and bounces
upwards. The velocity-time graph in
Figure 14.11 describes the motion of the
ball.
Assume that the contact time between
the ball and the ground is so small that
we do not show it in the graph.
a) How many times did the ball
bounce?
b) What is the velocity of the ball at
point X1 ?
c) What is the velocity of the ball at
point Y1 ?
d) Why is the velocity of the ball at Y1
smaller than at X1?
e) Where is the ball at point Z1?
f) What was the height of the roof of
the building from which the ball
was dropped?
g) How high did the ball bounce the Fig 14.11
first time?
h) How long did the ball move upwards after the first bounce ?
i) How long did the ball move downwards after reaching maximum height after
the first bounce?
j) Draw a displacement–time graph of the motion of the ball

Revision
Topic 4 Work, energy and power

1. Define the work done by a force on an object.
2. Explain the difference between positive and negative work.
3. Draw a free-body diagram for each question below. Decide which force(s) are doing
work on the object and calculate the work done by these forces.
a) A 10 kg block is slides 3 m to the right at constant speed across a frictionless
surface.
b) A horizontal 40 N force is applied to a 3 kg block. The block is displaced 5 m to
the right across a rough surface at constant speed.
4. A man pulls a 20 kg crate along a rough horizontal surface a force of 150 N at an
angle of 20° to the horizontal as shown in Figure 14.12. The
crate experiences a frictional force of 80 N as it is moved
10 m along surface.
a) Calculate the work done by the applied force on
the crate.
Fig 14.12 b) Calculate the work done on the crate by friction.
c) How much work is done by the gravitational force on the crate? Explain your
answer.
d) Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the speed of the crate after moving
10 m. Assume the crate started from rest.
5. A dynamics trolley of mass 1,2 kg moving
at 3 m.s–1, rolls from point A to B along a
frictionless runway. The length of the
runway is 1 m. The vertical height
between points A and B is 0,5 m. Refer
Figure 14.13.
Fig 14.13
a) Is the mechanical energy of the trolley conserved as it moves from A to B?
b) Calculate the speed of the trolley at point B.
c) Now suppose the surface AB is rough and the trolley experiences a constant
frictional force of 3 N as it moves from A to B. Will the trolley reach point B?
Justify your answer by means of a calculation.
6. A boy pushes a 25 kg box with a horizontal force of 90 N along a horizontal floor for
4 m in 4 s. The force of friction between the box and the floor is 25 N.
a) Calculate the power of the boy.
b) Calculate the rate at which energy is dissipated as heat.
7. Calculate the average power output required by a 1 000 kg car in order to climb a
slope at a constant speed of 20 m.s–1 while encountering wind resistance and friction
totalling 800 N. The slope is inclined at 3° to the horizontal.

8. An electric motor drives a water pump which is submerged at the bottom of a
borehole that is 12 m deep. Calculate the minimum power of the electric motor
required to pump water at a rate of 175 litres per minute.
Topic 5 Doppler effect

1. a) What is the Doppler effect?
b) You are standing next to an ambulance. Describe the sound of the siren of the
ambulance when:
i) the ambulance is stationary
ii) the ambulance is moving away from you
iii) the ambulance is moving towards you
iv) the ambulance is moving and you are inside next to the driver.
c) Explain why the frequency of sound changes when the source of the sound is
moving relative to the position of the listener.
2. A truck from the fire brigade has a siren that produces a sound at 800 Hz. The truck
approaches a burning building at 70 km.h–1. Assume the speed of sound is 340 m.s–1
Calculate: the frequency of the sound heard by the people watching the fire.
3. A formula 1 racing car approaches the grandstand next to the race track at a speed of
288 km.h–1. Assume the speed of sound is 340 m.s–1 and the engine produces a sound
with frequency 1 200 Hz:
a) What will the frequency be of the sound that is heard by the spectators on the
grandstand?
b) A second racing car produces a sound with a frequency of 1 180 Hz and the
frequency of this car is heard by the spectators as 1 550 Hz. What is the speed of
the second car?
4. The Doppler effect is used in medical science.
a) Name two applications of the Doppler effect in medical science.
b) Describe briefly how the Doppler effect is used to measure the flow of blood in
the human body.
5. The Doppler effect also occur in electromagnetic waves such as light waves.
a) Describe briefly what is meant by “the red shift” in the frequencies of light
emitted from distant stars.
b) A line in the hydrogen spectrum has a frequency of 4,5 × 1014 Hz when
measured in a laboratory. The same line in the light of a star has a frequency of
4,4 × 1014 Hz.
i) Is the star moving away from or coming towards the Earth?
ii) Calculate the speed of the star.

Revision
Topic 9 Electric circuits

1. Define or describe the following terms:
a) Terminal potential difference.
b) Internal resistance
c) Emf
d) A short circuit
2. A cell of emf 1,5 V and internal resitance 0,3 Ω is connected in series with an ammeter
and torch bulb. The ammeter reads 0,22 A.
a) Draw a neat circuit diagram, including the internal resistance of the cell.
b) Calculate the potential difference across the bulb.
c) Calculate the power delivered to the bulb.
d) Calculate the power supplied by the cell.
e) Explain why more power is supplied by the cell than is delivered to the bulb.
3. The circuit diagram in Figure 14.14 represents a
combination of resistors in series and parallel. The
battery has an emf of 12 V and an unknown
internal resistance r.
With switch S open, ammeter A gives a reading of
1,4 A.
a) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit.
b) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.
c) Calculate the energy dissipated in the 3 Ω
resistor in 2 minutes.
Switch S is now closed.
Fig 14.14
d) How will each of the following be affected? In
each case explain your answer.
i) The total resistance of the circuit.
ii) The reading on ammeter A.
iii) The terminal potential difference.
e) A conducting wire of negligible resistance is
now connected between points P and Q. What
effect will this have on the temperature of the
battery? Explain your answer.
4. I n the circuit shown Figure 14.15, the current in the
battery is 1,6 A. The 11 V battery has an internal
resistance of 1,8 Ω.
Fig 14.15

Calculate:
a) the combined resistance of the two resistors connected in parallel.
b) the total resistance of the circuit.
c) the resistance of resistor R.
d) the current in the 8 Ω resistor.
Topic 10 Electrodynamics
1. Explain what is meant by the following terms:
a) magnetic flux
b) change in magnetic flux.
c) electromagnetic induction.
2. a) State the energy conversions that take place in an electric generator.
b) Describe how you would build a simple AC generator. Draw a neat diagram and
explain the function of each part.
c) Explain how an AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
d) What change would you make to the design of the AC generator so as to convert
it to a DC generator?
e) Which of Fleming’s rules do you use to describe the action a generator?
f) Draw sketch graphs to show how the output voltage varies during two full
cycles of the coil of
i) an AC generator
ii) the DC generator
g) Mark on your graphs where you would find Vrms for each generator.
h) State and explain five different ways of increasing the induced emf in an AC
generator?
i) State two everyday uses of an electric generator.
3. a) State the energy conversions that take place in an electric motor.
b) Draw a neat diagram of a simple DC electric motor, showing one armature coil
and the directions of the magnetic field, the current and the motion of the coil.
c) Explain with the aid of a diagram how the commutator reverses the current in
the coil every 180° in order to maintain the rotation of the coil.
d) Why will this single coil motor have little power?
e) What steps can be taken to increase the power of a practical motor?
f) Which of Fleming’s rules do you use to describe the action an electric motor?
g) How could you get the coil to spin in the opposite direction?
h) Explain how a torque is produced on the coil.
i) State two everyday uses of an electric motor.

Revision
4. When a certain AC supply is connected to a lamp it lights with the same brightness
as it does when connected to a 12 V battery.
a) What is the rms voltage of the AC supply?
b) What is the peak voltage of the AC supply?
c) If the power dissipated in the lamp is 24 W, calculate both the rms and peak
current values for the source.
d) Show that the resistance of the lamp can be calculated using either the rms
values or the peak values.
5. A current of 2 A is measured in a resistor of 75 Ω which is connected between the
output terminals of an AC supply.
a) Calculate the voltage across the resistor.
b) If the answer to (a) is a rms value, calculate the peak voltage.
c) Calculate the power dissipated in the load resistor.
6. State two advantages of using AC.
Topic 11 Optical phenomena and properties of materials

1. a) What is the photoelectric effect?
b) Calculate the energy of a photon of violet light with a wavelength of 410 nm.
2. a) Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate the photoelectric effect.
b) Describe Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect.
c) State two observations associated with the photoelectric effect which cannot be
explained in terms of the wave theory of light?
3. A clean aluminium plate is charged negatively. When radiation of the correct
frequency is incident on the plate, photoelectric emission will take place.
a) Explain what is meant by photoelectric emission.
b) Describe what happens to the charge on the aluminium plate.
c) Why must the radiation have the correct frequency? What is this frequency
called?
d) The work function of aluminium is 6,8 × 10–19 J. Calculate the frequency of the
radiation necessary to cause photoelectric emission.
4. a) Define the work function of a metal.
b) How does the work function of a metal determine
i) whether or not photoelectric emission will take place?
ii) the kinetic energy of a photoelectron?
c) The work function of sodium metal is 3,6 × 10–19 J. Calculate the maximum
kinetic energy of a photoelectron emitted from the surface of sodium metal when
light of wavelength 420 nm is incident on the sodium metal.

5. A metal plate is illuminated with ultra-violet radiation of frequency 2 × 1015 Hz. The
maximum kinetic energy of the liberated electrons is 5,06 × 10–19 J.
a) Calculate the energy of one photon.
b) Calculate the work function of the metal.
c) Calculate the maximum speed of the ejected electrons.
d) The radiation is maintained at the same frequency, but the intensity is doubled.
State and explain what changes, if any, occur to the number of electrons released
per second and the maximum kinetic energy of these electrons.
6. Explain, in terms of the movement of electrons within an atom, how a line emission
spectrum is formed.
7. Refer to Fig 14.16. Calculate the
wavelength of the radiation
emitted when the electron in a
hydrogen atom makes a
transition from the energy level
at – 1,4 × 10–19 J (n = 4)
(n = 4) to the energy level at
– 5,4 × 10–19 J (n = 2)?
8. Figure 14.17 shows wavelength

of some of the principal lines in
the visible line emission
spectrum of helium.
Fig 14.16
Fig 14.17
a) Calculate the frequency of the yellow spectral line which has a wavelength
of 588 nm.
b) Calculate the energy of the photon of yellow light which corresponds to
this wavelength.
c) Which of these three labelled spectral lines represents the lowest energy change
of an electron within a helium atom? Explain your answer.

Revision
Paper 2 - Chemistry
Grade 11 Revision
Representing chemical change and stoichiometry
Chemical change means that the chemical composition of a substance changes. For a
chemical reaction to take place, the bonds between atoms, ions or molecules that
make up the reactants must be broken apart. Once apart, they can combine with other
atoms, ions or molecules to form a new substance. Energy is needed to break these
bonds and energy is released when new bonds are formed. A chemical reaction can
therefore be described as an energy exchange process.
Representing chemical change: Two substances, 32 g sulphur powder and 56 g iron
filings are mixed are placed in a crucible and heated over a bunsen burner until the
two components start to react. During the reaction, which will continue without
further addition of heat, heat is given off. After completion of the reaction there is no
sign of the sulphur or iron filings but a new hard, grey-coloured substance has been
formed.
The chemical reaction that took place can be represented by the following reaction
equation:
S(s) + Fe(s) → FeS(s)
If we add the masses of the reactants and that of the product, we see that: 32 g S
reacted with 56 g Fe to form 88g FeS.
This shows two very important aspects of chemical change which is formulated in the
law of conservation of mass and atoms:
• The total mass of all the reactants is equal to the total mass of all the products.
• The total number of atoms of each substance that take part in the reaction does
not change.
The reaction equation also reflects the actual mole quantities of reactants used and
products formed by the coefficients, e.g for the reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3(g)
1 mol N2 gas reacted with 3 mol H2 gas to give 2 mol NH3 gas.
We know that a mole of any chemical substance contains the mass number of that
substance in grams. For this equation we have: 28 g N2 reacts with 6 g H2
to give 34 g NH3
Note that the law of conservation of mass and atoms is still valid
Balancing of reaction equations. A chemical equation can only show the correct
quantities reactants used and products formed if the equation is balanced, which
means that the law of conservation of mass and atoms has been obeyed.

In the process of balancing another important law must be obeyed namely;
The law of constant composition which states that a specific chemical compound
always contains the same elements in precisely the same ratios.
This means that:
• MgO will always be one Mg atom bonded to two O atoms
• CaCO3 will always be one Ca atom bonded to one C atom and three O atoms
In balancing reaction equations, we are not allowed to change the formulae of the
reactants or the products. We can only change the number of moles in the equation:
Balancing procedure:
Example: Balance the equation: Ca + HCl → CaCl2 + H2
• Count number of atoms on left and right side
Left: Ca × 1 : Cl × 1 : H×1 Right: Ca × 1 : Cl × 2: H × 2
We need one Cl and one H on the left side. If we add one HCl on the left side it will
change the equation to: Ca + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2
Left: Ca × 1 : Cl × 2 : H × 2 Right: Ca × 1 : Cl × 2 : H × 2
We have a balanced equation!
Questions:
1. Balance the following reaction equations:
a) CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ)
b) NH3(g) + O2(g) → NO(g) + H2O(ℓ)
c) Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe(s) + CO2(g)
2. Prove your balancing of all three equations by calculating the actual masses of
reactants and products formed.
3. The reaction: N2(g) + H2(g) → NH3(g) is a very important commercial
reaction. Millions of tons NH3 are produced annually for fertilizers, explosives and
many other uses. Use this equation to predict what mass of NH3 will be produced if
2 kg N2(g) reacts completely with an unlimited amount of H2(g).
Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular forces are forces that hold atoms or ions together in a molecule or
ionic crystal.
Atoms or ions only combine to form molecules because they want to acquire a noble
gas structure. In a noble gas the atoms are at the lowest possible potential energy
state. In order to get a noble gas structure atoms share electrons in their valence
energy orbitals. For example, a hydrogen atom has one electron in its 1s energy level.
It requires two electrons to get a noble gas structure and will combine with another
hydrogen atom (or any other atom) to get the noble gas structure

Revision
When two atoms bond by sharing electrons, they lose potential energy (called bond
energy) and their combined potential energy is a negative value which ensures high
stability of the molecule. The same amount of energy must be added to the molecule
to break the bond.
Noble gases do not form molecules because they are already in very low potential
energy state because their outer energy levels are filled with electrons. The position of
the shared electrons between two bonded atoms depends on the electronegativity of
the two atoms.
• Two atoms with the same electronegativity will result in covalent bonding where
the shared electrons are more or less in the middle between the two atoms.
Typical non-polar covalent molecules are H2, N2, O2, C.
• Atoms with different electronegativity values will have the position of the shared
electrons more towards the atom with the highest electro negative value.
Molecules that consist of atoms with different electronegativities can exhibit shift
of electrical charge which gives rise to polar covalent molecules e.g. H2O, HCl
• If the difference between the electronegativity values is more than 0,9, the shared
electrons are considered to be completely attached to the atom with the higher
value and this gives rise to ionic bonding as in NaCl [Na+Cl-] or KMnO4
[K+MnO4–].
• Oxidation numbers is the most likely charge that an atom or ion has when
assuming that all the bonds between the atoms in a compound are ionic bonds.
• In metals the positive atoms are bonded by a “sea of delocalized electrons”.
The forces between molecules depend on the degree of polarity and on the molecular
shape of a molecule. non-polar covalent molecules such as N2 have very weak forces
(van der Waal forces) between them and they have low boiling points. Slightly polar
covalent molecules like HCl have stronger forces between them and they have higher
boiling points. Boiling point is a measure of the bond strength between molecules.
Water is a polar molecule and the intermolecular force (hydrogen bond) between
water molecules is very strong. The boiling point of water at 100oC is much higher
than most other molecules.
The force between ionic compounds is an electrostatic force – the negative ions attract
the positive ions around it and form a lattice crystal structure. These bonds are strong
and give rise to high boiling points
Chemical bonding
When two chemical substances react the following takes place:
• The bonds between the atoms of the reactants must be broken. This can only
happen if energy, equal to the bond energy, is added to the reactants. This is
called the activation energy.

• The single atoms are in a high energy state for a very short period of time (the
activated complex).
• The atoms collide and combine with other atoms to form new compounds. As
soon as they combine, energy is released and they form stable products.
• The total energy before and after such a reaction can be calculated if the bond
energies are known.
• The difference between the original potential energy of the reactants and the final
potential energy of the products is called the heat of the reaction , ∆H.
Lewis structures
In a Lewis structure, the bonds in a chemical compound are represented by the
following:
• The nucleus and inner electrons of each atom are represented by the atom’s
symbol.
• The valence electrons, shown as dots or crosses are placed around the symbol.
Questions:
1. Draw Lewis structures for the following molecules:
F2 ; H2O ; CCl4
2. a) What is the difference between a non-polar and a polar bond? Give an example
of each.
b) A water molecule (H2O) and a hydrogen sulphide molecule (H2S) are both
compounds of elements between group 1 and group 6 of the periodic table. The
boiling point of water is 100oC while that of hydrogen sulphide is −60oC. Explain
this difference in boiling points.
c) Use electronegativity values and molecular shape considerations to explain why
CO2 molecules are not polar.
3. a) What is the sum of the oxidation numbers in a
i) neutral compound and
ii) in an ion?
b) Determine the oxidation number of the underlined atoms in the following:
i) H2 SO4 ii) K MnO3 iii) Cr2O72–
4. Study the following reaction equation:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O(l) ∆H < 0
a) Is this a balanced reaction equation?
b) Redox reactions are reactions where electron transfer takes place. If electrons are
transferred during a reaction, the oxidation number of the atoms involved in the
electron transfer will change. Use oxidation numbers to determine whether this
reaction is a redox reaction.

Revision
Energy and change

A chemical reaction between two or more reactants can only take place if:
• Energy is added to the reactants. The amount of energy added must be at least
equal to the bond energy between the atoms in the reactants. This energy, also
called the activation energy, is used to break the bonds between the atoms of the
reactants. The activation energy will differ for different reactions since the bond
energy of different reactants differ, but the activation energy can be reduced for
certain reactions by means of a catalyst. The catalyst does not take part in the
reaction, it only lowers the activation energy so that the reaction rate is increased.
• The free atoms now have high kinetic energy and move around, collide with each
other and form new compounds. This phase of the reaction is called the activated
complex, which is an unstable high energy state of atoms. The activation energy is
the difference between the energy of the activated complex and the original energy
of the reactants.
• Once the atoms formed new compounds, they lose the kinetic energy which they
had and this energy is released to the surroundings.
• The difference between the original potential energy of the reactants and the final
potential energy of the products, is called the enthalpy or heat of reaction indicated
by the symbol ∆H.
• ∆H is therefore a measure of the energy change of the reaction and can be
calculated as follows:
∆H = Energy of products – Energy of reactants.
• If ∆H < 0, the energy of reactants is higher than the energy of the products. The
difference in energy is released to the surrounds which will become warmer.
This type of reaction is called an exothermic reaction. Once the reaction has started, the
released heat provides it’s own activation energy and the reaction continous on its own
• If ∆H > 0, the energy of the
products is higher than the
energy of the reactants.
The difference in energy absorbed
from the surrounds which will
become colder. Once this reaction
started, heat from an external source
must be supplied to keep the
reaction going.
Figure 14.18 shows an energy
diagrams illustrating the energy
changes for these two types of
reactions.
Fig 14.18

Questions:
1. a) Draw an energy diagram to illustrate the energy change for the reaction in which
the potential energy of the reactants is 140 kJ. mol–1, the activation energy is
240 kJ.mol–1 and the potential energy of the products is 340 kJ.mol–1.
b) Calculate the energy change for this reaction
c) Is this an endothermic or exothermic reaction?
2. Study the following reaction equation:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O(l) ∆H < 0
a) Is this a balanced equation?
b) Draw a rough graph of potential energy versus reaction course for this reaction.
Indicate clearly on the graph the following:
i) the activation energy
ii) the activated complex
iii) the heat of the reaction
c) Describe shortly what happens at the point on the graph indicated by
“activated complex”.
d) Is this an endothermic or an exothermic reaction?
e) The following values for bond energies in joule.mole–1 are given:
H–H = 432, O=O = 494 and H–O = 459.
Calculate the value of ∆H for this reaction
Remember that bond energies have negative values
3. Heptane (C7 H16) is the component in petrol that gives petrol the energy to drive
vehicles. When heptane burns in oxygen, the following equation describes the
reaction:
C7 H16(l) + 11 O2(g) → 7CO2(g) + 8 H2O(l)
The following bond energies in kJ.mol–1 are given:
C–H = 413 ; O=O = 498 ; C=O =707 and H–O = 463
Calculate ∆H for this reaction.

Revision
Grade 12 work
Topic 3 Organic chemistry
1. a) Give the IUPAC names for the following organic molecules A , B, C and D as
shown in Figure 14.19
C D
B
A
Fig 14.19
b) Draw the structural and condensed formulae of the following:

i) 2,3,3-trimethylhexane
ii) 3,3,-dibromopropyne
iii) Methylethanoate
iv) Propanone
2. a) Classify the following reactions as illustrated in i):
i) CH2=CH2 + H2 → CH3CH3 Addition reaction – hydrogenation
ii) CH2Cl-CH2Cl → CH2=CHCl + HCl
iii) CH2 = CH2 + H2O → CH3CH2OH
iv) CH2 =CH2 + HCl → CH3CH2Cl
b) Write the reaction equation for the reactions:
i) Hydrochloric acid reacts with methanol
ii) Potassium hydroxide reacts with chloroethane.
3. a) What is meant by the term “polymerisation”?
b) What is a monomer?
c) Ethene can be used to produce a polymer like polythene by addition reactions.
Explain how this is done and illustrate your answer with structural formulae.
d) Polyester is made by the reaction of an alcohol and a carbolic acid. During the
reaction, water is eliminated and the two functional groups binds to form a
polymer that contains different monomers. What is this reaction called?
e) Name two uses of polythene and two uses of polyester.

4. Dichloroethane, C2H4Cl2, is used to make chloroethene. Chloroethene is the monomer
which is used to make polyvinylchloride (PVC) as follows:
C2H4Cl2 → C2H3Cl → PVC
Reaction 1 Reaction 2
a) Name the type of reaction 1 and write the structural formulae for this reaction
b) Name the type of reaction 2 and draw the structure of the polymer PVC showing
two repeat units.
Topic 6 Rates of reaction

1. Eita pain killers offers consumers powders and tablets in a wide range of sizes to suit
their personal needs and has a heritage of trust and proven performance owing to its
potent triple action formulation which combines paracetamol, aspirin and caffeine.
This has endeared it to millions of South Africans over the years making it South
Africa’s leading analgesics brand.
Figure 14.20
The following information appears on the package insert:

EITA HEADACHE Tablets & EITA HEADACHE Powders
COMPOSITION:
Eita Headache Tablets: Each tablet contains:
Aspirin 226,8 mg
Paracetamol 162,0 mg
Caffeine 32,4 mg
Eita Headache Powders: Each powder contains
Aspirin 453,6 mg
Paracetamol 324,0 mg
Caffeine 64,8 mg
a) Taking the information above into consideration, how many Eita Tablets would
have the same effect as one Eita Powder?
b) Use the molecular collision theory to explain why Eita powders provide faster
relief to headaches than the tablets.

Revision
KNOWN SYMPTOMS OF OVERDOSAGE AND PARTICULARS OF ITS TREATMENT:

Aspirin: These include dizziness, tinnitus, sweating, nausea, vomiting, mental confusion,
hyperventilation, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, ketosis and depression of the
central nervous system. In children serious signs of overdosage may develop rapidly.
Paracetamol: Liver damage which may be fatal may only appear after a few days.
Symptoms of overdosage include nausea and vomiting. Acute intoxication causes kidney
failure.
Caffeine: Large doses may cause restlessness, excitement, muscle tremor, tinnitus,
scintillating scotoma, tachycardia and extrasystoles.
In the event of overdosage consult a doctor or take the patient to the nearest hospital
immediately. Specialised treatment is essential as soon as possible.
The latest information regarding the treatment of over-dosage can be obtained from the
nearest poison centre.
c) Would you advise a coffee addict to take EITA Powders? Explain.
2. Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation:
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
A learner investigated the rate of this
reaction using the apparatus shown in
Figure 14.21.
Experiments 1, 2 and 3 were done using
0,35 g amounts of powdered calcium
carbonate. All acid solutions were
saturated with CO2 before reacting it
with the carbonate.
Fig 14.21
Experiment 1:
100 cm3 of 0,5 mol.dm-3 (excess) hydrochloric acid was added to 0,35 g of powdered
calcium carbonate in the flask and the stopper was quickly replaced in the flask. The
stopwatch was then started and the volume of carbon dioxide was recorded every 15
seconds.
Figure 14.22 shows the volumes of carbon dioxide produced after 15 and 30 seconds
for experiment 1.
a) Record these volumes as numbered in the table on the next page.
Fig 14.22: Volumes of carbon dioxide produced

Time (seconds) volume of carbon dioxide (cm3)
Experiment 1 Experiment 2
15 Fig 14.21a) 60
30 Fig 14.22b) 79
45 57 87
60 66 89
75 68 90
90 80 90
105 84 90
120 87 90
135 89 90
150 90 90
160 90 90
Experiment 2:
100 cm3 of a 1 mol.dm–3 hydrochloric acid was added to 0,35g of powdered
calcium carbonate.
Experiment 3:
25 cm3 of a 1 mol/dm3 solution was diluted with 75 cm3 of distilled water and then added
to 0,35 g of powdered calcium carbonate. (The acid is still in excess)
b) Write down a suitable aim for this experiment.
c) Why does the acid solution need to be saturated with CO2 before the start of the
reaction?
d) Plot a graph of volume of carbon dioxide produced against time. For
Experiments 1 and 2, draw a smooth best fit curve using the points. Ignore any
anomalous (out of the ordinary) readings. Label the curves 1 (experiment 1) and
2 (experiment 2).
(Note: The best fit curve does not pass through the origin)
e) By considering the experimental method described, explain why the plotted
curve does not pass through 0,0.
f) Identify clearly on your graph for Experiment 1 any anomalous reading and
suggest a reason for it.
g) Why was the maximum volume of gas the same in each experiment?
h) Identify and state two variables which are kept constant in this experiment.
i) Consider the experimental method and suggest a change in the method which
could reduce the error referred to in f) above.

Revision
j) (i) At what time in Experiment 1 was the rate the greatest?

START MIDDLE END
Select the correct answer above.
(ii) For which experiment is the average rate fastest? State one reason why.
(iii) Draw a curve on your graph to represent the results you would expect for
experiment 3 and label it 3.
Topic 7 Chemical equilibrium

1. a) Write the formula for the equilibrium constant for the reaction assuming all
substances are gases:
aA + bB → cC + dD
b) The following reaction is part of a chain of reactions in the production of
nitric acid:
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2 (g)
4 mol NO(g) , 2,5 mol O2(g) and 2 mol NO2(g) sealed in a container with a volume of
500 cm3. When the reaction reached equilibrium at a temperature of 100 oC, there
were 3 mol NO2 in the reaction vessel. Calculate the value of Kc at this temperature
2. a) What is meant by the term “dynamic equilibrium?
The Haber process is a very important industrial process. The product of this
process is ammonia gas which is used in the production of fertilizers, explosives,
medicine, etc.
The reaction equation for this process is:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) ∆H = –98 kJ.mol–1
b) What effect will the following changes have on the reaction equilibrium? Explain
your answer.
i) The pressure is increased on the reaction vessel
ii) The temperature is increased.
c) The reaction rate is very slow under normal laboratory conditions (temperature
of 20 oC and a pressure of 100 kPa). The reaction conditions are adjusted in
practice to ensure a reaction rate that produces big quantities of NH3? Describe
these conditions.
3. Fritz Haber and Karl Bosch of Germany developed the Haber-Bosch Process in the
early years of this century, before World War I. The effort was a joint one between
German industry and the German University. While the reaction between nitrogen
gas and hydrogen gas to produce ammonia gas had been known for many years, the
yields were very small and the reaction very slow. Haber and Bosch and their co-
workers determined the conditions necessary.

In the industrial process a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen is passed over iron at a
temperature of about 450 ºC and 200 atmospheres pressure. The equation for the
reaction is:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) (ΔH = –98 kJ.mol–1)
a) Explain why the nitrogen and hydrogen mixture is passed over iron.
b) Explain with reference to reaction conditions of temperature and pressure,
why attempts to carry out the industrial formation of nitrogen had been
unsuccessful in yielding significant amounts of ammonia, until the early part of
the 20th century.
In a small scale plant, used to investigate this reaction, 0,35 mols of N2 and 0,70 mols
of H2 were added to a sealed reaction vessel of volume 2 dm3 and allowed to react
until dynamic chemical equilibrium was reached at 450 oC. Every 10 s, a sensor inside
the reaction vessel was able to record the amounts of reactant and product present
and the results are given.
Amount of reactant and product
Time (s) N2 (mols) H2 (mols) NH3 (mols)
0 0,35 0,70 0,00

10 0,30 0,55 0,10
20 0,26 0,43 0,18
30 0,24 0,37 0,22
40 0,22 0,31 0,26
50 0,21 0,28 0,28
60 0,20 0,25 0,30
70 0,20 0,25 0,30
80 0,20 0,25 0,30
c) Draw the graph of the amount (mol) of each of the substances in the above table
versus time on the same set of axes.
d) Use the graph drawn in c) to answer the following questions:
i) How long does it take for the reaction to reach equilibrium? Explain.
ii) Do any reactions occur during the time interval t = 70 s and t = 80 s?
e) When t = 80 s, the sealed container is heated causing a rapid rise in temperature.
Equilibrium is re-established after an additional 20 s and maintained for a further 20 s.
i) Is the forward reaction endothermic or exothermic? Explain.
ii) Show the effect of an increase in temperature on the amounts of N2, H2 and
NH3 for the time 80 s to 120 s by completing the lines on the graph for this
period.

Revision
Topic 12 Electrochemical reactions

1. A standard voltaic cell is constructed by connecting a copper half-cell and a chlorine
gas half-cell together. In the chlorine gas half cell, a platinum electrode is placed into
the electrolyte. The diagram of the cell is illustrated in Figure 14.23.
Fig 14.23
a) State the standard conditions that are applicable to the chlorine gas half-cell.
b) Write down the formula of the compound that X could be.
c) Give two functions of the salt bridge.
d) Write down, for the reaction that takes place in this voltaic cell, the:
i) oxidation half-reaction
ii) reduction half-reaction
iii) complete nett ionic reaction
iv) reducing agent in the redox reaction taking place in this cell.
e) Calculate the emf of this cell.
f) Why does the platinum electrode not react?
2. A galvanic cell is constructed using a chromium electrode in a 1 mol. dm–3 solution of
Cr(NO3)3 and a copper electrode in a 1 mol. dm–3 solution of Cu(NO3)2. Both solutions
are at 25 °C.
a) Write a balanced net ionic equation for the spontaneous reaction that occurs as
the cell operates. Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.
b) A partial diagram of the cell is shown in Figure 14.24.

Fig 14.24
i) Which metal is the cathode?

ii) What additional component is necessary to make the cell operate?
iii) What function does the component in ii) serve?
c) Calculate the cell potential of this cell.
d) What happens in the cell when the cell potential slowly decreases to 0 V?
3. Figure 14.25 represents an electrolytic cell that can be used to electroplate a copper
medal with a thin layer of silver to improve its appearance. The medal is clipped
onto one of the two carbon electrodes.
Fig 14.25

Revision
a) Which electrode, anode or cathode, must the medal be clipped onto?

b) Write down the following:
i) The electrode at which reduction occurs.
ii) The name and formula of the electrolyte that has to be used to achieve the
desired result.
c) Write down the equation for the half-reaction happening at the medal.
d) How will the concentration of the electrolyte change during the electroplating
process? Write down only increase, decrease or remains the same.
Topic 13 Chemical industry

1. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are the three macronutrients essential for plant
growth and are found in most packaged fertilizers. These are not packaged in their
elemental form but rather as compounds. NPK is one particular fertilizer which has
a mixture of all three macronutrients. It is made in the following way.
• Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, may be prepared by reacting calcium phosphate with
sulphuric acid.
• Ammonia is prepared through the Haber process.
• Some ammonia is converted to nitric acid which is then mixed with phosphoric acid.
• The mixture is neutralised with more ammonia and the solution is partly evaporated.
• Potassium chloride is added to form granules.
• The granules are coated to make the fertiliser free-flowing.
a) Complete the flow-chart for the production of NPK in Figure 14.26. Write down
the names of the correct chemicals which correspond with the numbers 1–5
in the boxes.
Fig 14.26

b) Write down the formulae of the three main compounds found in NPK fertiliser.
c) Eutrophication is the result of an increase in chemical nutrients such as
compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus into the ecosystem. Increased nutrients
causes excessive plant growth and subsequent decay, which depletes oxygen
levels in water that ultimately causes a reduction of fish and other animal
populations. How does the manufacture of biofuel negatively influence the
environment in this way?
d) i) Name the main source of nitrogen for the Haber process.
ii) Rewrite and then balance the following reaction equation for the Haber
reaction.
N2 + H2 → NH3
iii) Why does increasing the pressure increase the chance of molecules of
hydrogen reacting with molecules of nitrogen?
iv) The percentage yield of ammonia is the percentage, by mass, of the nitrogen
and hydrogen which has been converted to ammonia. Calculate the mass, in
tonnes, of ammonia which can be produced from 90 tonnes of hydrogen
when the percentage yield is 50%. The relative atomic masses are:
H = 1; N = 14. Show clearly how you calculate your answer.
2. Ammonia is a very important chemical.
SUBSTANCES MADE PERCENTAGE (%)

FROM AMMONIA OF AMMONIA USED
fertilizers 75
nitric acid x
nylon 5
others 10
a) What is the value of x – the percentage of ammonia used to make nitric acid?
b) What is the name of the industrial process used to produce ammonia?
The production of ammonia is a reversible process as shown by the following
equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇋ 2NH3(g) + heat
c) Is the forward reaction exothermic or endothermic?
d) The table shows the percentage yield of ammonia at different temperatures and
pressures.
PRESSURE PERCENTAGE (%) YIELD PERCENTAGE (%) YIELD

(ATMOSPHERES) OF AMMONIA AT 350 °C OF AMMONIA AT 500 °C
50 25 5
100 37 9
200 52 15
300 63 20
400 70 23
500 74 25

Revision
i) Use the data in the table to draw two graphs for percentage yield of
ammonia versus pressure for both sets of results on the same set of axes.
ii) Use your graph to find the conditions needed to give a yield of 30%
ammonia.
iii) On the graph, sketch the graph you would expect for a temperature
of 450 oC.
e) One property of inorganic fertilizers is that they are soluble in water.
i) Explain why this property is essential for the fertilizer to be effective.
ii) Give one advantage and one disadvantage of this property for the farmers
who use these fertilizers. Provide an explanation for each.
iii) This property can adversely affect humans, and plant and animal life,
located far away from the farms on which the fertilizers are used. Draw a
flow diagram to illustrate how these adverse effects come about. Ensure that
the adverse effect is described and/or named.

Answers to calculation-based questions
Exercise 1.1 7) a) 0,10 m.s–1 left

4) 13,2 kg.m.s–1 toward the pins 8) a) 1,48 m.s–1 eastward
5) 120 m.s–1 towards the target 9) 2 517,31 kg
6) a) 42 kg.m.s eastward
–1 10) 1,13 m.s–1 west
b) 226,8 kg.m.s–1 eastward 12) c) 0,46 m.s–1 left
c) 268,8 kg.m.s–1 13) 8 m.s–1 right
7) 75 m.s–1 southward 14) 7,2 m.s–1 forward
8) 135 818,07 kg 15) a) 0,45 m.s–1 in the same direction as school
bag
9) 32,57 m.s–1 westward
16) 0,33 m.s–1 westward
10) a) 14 000 kg.m.s–1 opposite direction to its
motion
Exercise 1.4
b) 15 kg.m.s–1 opposite direction to its motion
6) 2,25 m.s–1 right
11) a) 1,4 kg.m.s–1 upward
7) a) 3,5 m.s–1 west
12) a) 3,2 kg.m.s–1 westward
c) 87,8 %
b) 2,4 kg.m.s–1 westward
8) a) 2,92 m.s–1 east
c) 0,8 kg.m.s–1 eastward
9) a) 85,19 kg
13) 9,28 kg.m.s–1 northward
14) 68 m.s–1 upward Exercise 1.5
15) b) 1 561 000 kg.m.s–1 northward 6) 84 N.s away from bat
d) 607 006 kg.m.s southward
–1
7) a) 360 N opposite to direction of motion
b) 3 600 N opposite to direction of motion
Exercise 1.2
c) 36 000 N opposite to direction of motion
9) 2 700 N opposite to direction of motion
8) 544,68 kg.m.s–1 forward
10 a) 1,62 kg.m.s–1 away from the cushion
9) a) 240 N.s left
b) 0,02 s
10) 1 600 N away from cushion
11) b) 7,9 m.s–1 upward
11) a) 0,22 m.s–1 left
12) a) 7,75 s
b) 22 200 N.s right
13) 6,5 x 107 N backward on the gases
12) a) 17,5 kg.m.s–1 away from block
14) b) 17 529, 32 N upward
b) 17,5 N.s away from the block
15) a) 169,84 N right
c) 8,75 x 10–3 s
b) 1698,4 kg.m.s–1 right
13) 6 s
c) 113,23 N right
14) c) 850 N northward
16) a) 2,2 kg.m.s–1 opposite to direction of motion
15) 3 142 m.s–1 opposite to direction of shuttle
b) 14 666,67 N opposite to the direction of
motion
Exercise 1.6
17) 0,0032 s
1) a) 12 000 N away from airbag
Exercise 1.3 b) 180 000 N away from airbag
4) 0,5 m.s–1 right 2) a) 1 561 N upward
5) 55,32 kg b) 14 686 N upward
6) a) 0,02 m.s–1 opposite to direction of astronaut
540 • Answers
Revision
Extend yourself – Topic 1 c) 2,42 s

3) a) 0,43 m.s–1 westward 8) a) 25 m.s–2 upwards
b) 17,98 J b) 9,8 m.s–2 downwards
5) a) 4,8 m.s–1 left c) 4 438,78 m
6) a) 1,83 m.s right
–1
Exercise 2.3
b) 11 700 kg.m.s–1 left
1) a) 2551,02 m
c) 16 714 N right
b) 25,51 s
7) 2,93 m.s–1 eastward
2) a) 44 m.s–1 down
8) 10 000 N northward
b) 97,5 m
9) a) 10 N.s forward
3) a) 91,13 m
b) –166,7 N opposite to direction of motion
b) 5,23 s
Exercise 2.1 4) 4,14 s
1) a) 5897,96 m 5) a) 32,5 m.s–1 downwards
b) 34,69 s b) 50,63 m
2) a) 31,89 m 6) a) 70,46 m
b) 2,55 s b) 4,10 s
3) a) 44,1 m 7) a) 46,2 m.s–1 downwards
b) 29,4 m.s–1 down b) 106,4 m
4) a) 19,6 m.s–1
Exercise 2.4
b) 39,60 m.s–1
1) a) i) 7,06 m
c) 4,04 s
ii) 3,14 m
5) 127,55 m
iii) 3,92 m
6) a) 14 m.s–1 upwards
iv) 9,8 m.s–2
b) 1,43 s
2) a) i) 3,14 m
7) a) 19,6 m.s–1 upwards
ii) 11,03 m
b) 58,8 m
iii) 7,89 m
c) 19,6 m.s–1 downwards
iv) –9,8 m.s–2
Exercise 2.2 b) 9,8 m.s–2 downwards
1) a) 102,04 m 3) a) 9,8 m.s–2 downwards
b) 5,10 s b) 0,6 s
2) a) Does not reach girl c) 1,2 s
b) 1,25 m d) –5,88 m.s–1
3) 25,51 s 4) a) i) 3,97 m
4) a) 32,41 m ii) 9,8 m.s–2
b) 2,04 s iii) 1,76 m
c) 4,61 s iv) 2,21 m
5) a) 29,4 m.s upwards
–1 v) 8,27 m
b) 44,1 m 5) c) i) 9,8 m.s–2
6) a) 41,17 m.s–1 downwards ii) 122,5 m
b) 2,67 s iii) 0 m.s–2
7) a) 32 m.s–2 downwards iv 1 260 m
b) 9,8 m.s–2 downwards 6) a) i) 31,89 m
ii) 45,08 m.s–1
Answers • 541
b) i) 31,89 m 5) b) 250,62 N down the slope
ii –71,79 m c) +9 022,32 J
7) 7,88 m.s –1
d) 3,92 m.s–1
6) a) 3 m.s–1
Extend yourself – Topic 2
c) 1,34 m
1) a) 2,02 s
7) c) i) +535,51 J
b) i) 19,80 m.s–1
ii) 4,39 m.s–1
ii) 22,18 m.s–1
iii) 22,18 m.s–1 Exercise 4.4
2) b) i) –9,8m.s –1
4) b) 744,8 J
ii) 4,77 s c) –573,8 J
3) c) 6,17 m.s–1 5) a) Case (i): +98 J
d) 5,55 m.s –1
Case (ii): +140 J
c) Case (i): 0 J
Exercise 3.9
Case (ii): +42 J
3) Ethane: 79,84 %
d) 4,1 m.s–1
Ethene: 85,59 %
6) a) 13,62 m
Ethyne: 92,24 %
b) 3 700 N down the slope
Exercise 4.1 c) 30 400 N up the slope
2) a) +2 500 J 7) a) 62,61 m.s–1
b) +42,14 J b) 2 250 J
c) +40 000 J c) –7 550 J
d) +20 000 J d) 37,75 N opposite to direction of motion
3) b) i) + 3 000 J 8) b) 15 680 J
5) a) +9 063,08 J c) 31,30 m.s–1
b) –7 600 J d) 339,5 m
9) a) 0N
Exercise 4.2 b) 0J
3) c) +150 J
c) 50 N parallel to and up slope
d) +150 J
d) +500 J
e) +129,90 J
10) b) 1,57 m.s–1
f) +37,5 J
11) a) 22,17 m.s–1
g) +92,40 J
b) i) –172,05 J
4) a) +3 200 J
ii) 1 713,64 N up
b) –2 822,4 J
12) 3,93 m.s–1
c) +377,6 J
13) a) 18 375 J
5) b) +19 850 J
b) –33 075 J
6) g) +118 671 J
c) 33 075 J
Exercise 4.3 e) 1 653,75 N
2) b) 3 528 N
Exercise 4.5
c) 28,26 m.s–1
3) a) +200 J
3) a) 147,08 N down the slope
b) 53,3 W
b) 11,13 m.s–1
4) 882 W
4) b) 8,52 m.s–1
5) a) 28,33 s
542 • Answers
Revision
6) 56 680 J f) 4,28 W
7) 1 000 W 3) a) 4 800 N
8) a) 72 W b) 78 000 W
b) 12 W c) 30 000 W
9) 650 893 W 4) 9,38 m.s–1
10) 612,24 kg 5) a) 188 517,6 J
b) 373,8 N
Exercise 4.6
6) a) 200 000 N
2) a) –7 500 000 J
b) 1 029 m
b) 22 920 W
c) 6 x 106 W
3) 762 W
7) 245 W
4) a) 18 N
b) 0,41 m.s–1 Exercise 5.1
5) a) 16 076 W 1) a) 334,43 Hz
b) 6 195 W b) 272 Hz
6) b) +20 145 J 2) a) 290,37 Hz
c) 14 245 J b) 261,17 Hz
d) 712,25 W 3) 8,72 m.s–1
7) a) 437 500 J 4) a) 432,5 Hz
b) 3 365,4 N forwards b) 415 Hz
ii) 6 865,4 N forwards 5) 891,67 Hz
iii) 85 817,5 W 6) b) 3 495,46 Hz
c) 134 561 W
8) a) 49,74 m.s–1
1) a) 600 Hz
b) 23,49 m.s–1
b) 0,57 m
9) a) 80 N
e) 1,14 m.s–1
b) 80 N left
2) f) 4,40 m.s–1
c) 1,74 m.s–1
3) b) 236,1 Hz
10) 27 747 W
Exercise 6.3
Exercise 4.7
1) c) –550 kJ
1) 1 694,42 W
2) c) 280 kJ
2) 14,7 kW; unreasonable claim
3) 107,8 W Exercise 7.2
4) 2,72 W 1) 0,99
2) 0,8
3) 2,78 × 10–2 mol.dm–3
1) c) i) 1 200 J
4) 30,98 mol.dm–3
ii) +2 485 J
iii) –1 285 J Exercise 7.3
iv) 128,5 N up the slope 1) 49,21
2) a) 2,4 J 2) 8
b) 0,816 m 3) 12,5
d) 0,6 J 4) 13,44
e) 0,06 N 5) 1,25
Answers • 543
6) 0,0564 c) 13,3
8) a) 0,25 mol.dm–3
Exercise 7.4
b) 0,21 mol.dm–3
1) c) 0,20
9) 0,82 mol.dm–3
2) b) 2,33
10) 0,088 mol.dm–3
Exercise 8.9
1) d) 4,84 × 10–3
1) 90,02 %
2) b) N2: 5,71 × 10–2 mol.dm–3
2) 10,82 %
H2: 2,76 × 10–1 mol.dm–3
3) 46,02 %
NH3: 1,71 × 10–1 mol.dm–3
d) 0,24 Extend yourself – Topic 8
e) 6,90 x 10 mol.dm
–2 –3
7) a) 0,1 mol.dm–3
3) c) vi) 1,37 c) 0,25 mol.dm–3
4) h) 8,47 8) a) 0,04 mol.dm–3
b) 13
Exercise 8.4
9) d) 0,32 mol.dm–3
1) 0,89 mol.dm–3
e) 2,54 g
2) 2,50 mol.dm–3
10) a) 4g
3) 1,27 g
d) 0,03 mol
4) 4,91 g
f) 12,90
Exercise 8.5
Exercise 9.1
1) 2
1) b) 1,875 V
2) 3
c) 0,469 W
3) 1
d) 0,5 W
4) 1,70
2) a) 2,5 V
5) 1 × 10–12 mol.dm–3
b) 9Ω
6) 13,9
c) 1,25 W
7) a) 4
3) a) 10 Ω
b) 2,17
b) 0,4 Ω
c) 10,18
c) 1 555,2 J
8) a) 7 × 10–3 mol.dm–3
4) a) 1,92 Ω
b) 1,43 × 10–12 mol.dm–3
d) 1,76 Ω
Exercise 8.8 5) c) 1,5 Ω
1) c) 0,23 mol.dm–3 d) 2V
2) a) 1,03 mol.dm –3 e) 6Ω
d) 1,96 mol.dm–3 6) a) 4Ω
3) 20 cm3 b) 8Ω
4) 0,48 mol.dm –3 c) 4Ω
5) 0,24 mol.dm –3 d) 1A
6) a) 0,1 mol 8) a) 11,68 V
b) 10,6 g b) 307,2 W
d) 0,3 mol.dm –3 c) i) 4,38 s
7) b) 0,17 mol.dm–3 ii) 4,375 x 1021
544 • Answers
Revision
9) 0,2 Ω b) 125,03 W
10) 10 V 9) a) 170 V
11) 0,25 Ω b) 120,21 V
c) 0,017 s
d) 58,82 Hz
1) a) 1,5 Ω
e) i) 8,5 A
b) 5Ω
ii) 6,01 A
c) 0,45 A
iii) 722,5 W
d) V1 = 5,4 V
10) a) 8A
V2 = 2,7 V
b) 5,66 A
V3 = 2,7 V
c) 961,07 W
3) b) 0,25 A
c) 2,5 V Exercise 10.5
d) 5,5 V 4) a) 240 V
e) 0,75 W b) 620 V
f) 0,125 W c) 37 200 W
6) a) V1 = 12 V d) 14 400 W
V2 = 12 V e) 61,3 %
b) V2 = 0 V f) 4,8 V
c) 6Ω g) 5,76 W
d) 2Ω 5) a) 28,8 W
b) 2 000 Ω
Exercise 10.3
8) b) 100 A Extend yourself – Topic 10
d) 1 411 200 J 2) f) 30 J
e) 15 680 W g) 15 W
9) d) 0,00087 kg.A –1
h) 75 %
e) 0,194 T 4) c) 55 200 W
6) c) 219,2 V
Exercise 10.4
7) 69,4 %
4) a) i) 3A
8) 192,6 Ω
ii) 4,24 A
9) a) 50 Ω: 4,4 A; 12 Ω: 18,3 A; 24 Ω: 9,16 A
iii) 36 W
b) 311,1 V
5) b) 4,1 A
c) 7 009,2 W
c) 311,46 V
12 Ω: 18,3 A
6) a) 9V
24 Ω: 9,16 A
b) 12,73 V
b) 311,1 V
c) i) 4A
c) 7 009,2 W
ii) 5,66 A
d) i) 2,25 Ω Exercise 11.1
ii) 2,25 Ω 2) 2,65 × 10–19 J
7) a) 180 V 3) b) UV shorter λ: f = 1,5 × 1015 Hz
b) 254,6 V c) Green light longer λ: f = 5,76 × 1014 Hz
c) 540 W d) 1,5 × 1015 Hz
8) a) 250 W e) i) 3,82 × 10–19 J
Answers • 545
ii) 9,95 x 10–19 J λC = 6,63 × 10–7 m
h) 5,83 × 10 –19
J
Exercise 11.3
5) a) 4,97 × 10 m –7
2) 4,74 x 1014 Hz
b) i) 3,96 x 10–19 J
4) b) i) 9,35 × 10–14 Hz
ii) 9,4 × 105 m.s–1
6) c) 3,59 × 10–19 J Extend yourself – Topic 11
7) a) 1,11 × 10 –18
J 1) b) 2,83 eV
b) 8,1 × 10–19 J 2) b) 1,99 × 10–18 J
8) f) 3,85 × 10 –19
J c) 1,57 × 106 m.s–1
9) b 5,02 × 10 m –7
3) b) 9,95 × 10–19 J
10) c) 5,5 × 10–20 J c) 3,07 × 10–19 J
d) 8,21 × 105 m.s–1
Exercise 11.2
e) 1,04 × 1015 Hz
2) d) 3,45 × 10–19 J
4) e) 4,54 × 10–19 J
3) a) 4,49 × 1014 Hz
5) h) 3,38 × 10–19 J
b) 2,98 × 10–19 J
4) a) 1,64 × 10–18 J Exercise 13.1
b) 1,21 × 10 m = 121 nm
–7
3) N: 8,57 %; P: 17,14 % K: 4,29 %
5) λA = 4,85 × 10–7 m N: 4,29%; P: 8,57%; K: 17,14%
λB = 1,81 × 10–6 m
546 • Answers
Revision
• Periodic Table Answers • 547
Mechanics
p = mv W = FΔx cos θ vf= vi+ aΔt
Fnet= ma Wnet= Ekf− Eki vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx
FnetΔt = Δp Ek= 2_ 1mv2 Δx = viΔt + 2_ 1aΔt2
Gm m
F = ______
  12 2 (G = 6,7 × 10−11 N.m2 .kg−2
d
) Ep= mgh (
Δx = _____
2 )
v + v
  i f   Δ t
Pav= Fvav
 Gm
g = ____ (G = 6,7 × 10−11 N.m2 .kg−2
)
r2
Waves, sound and light
(v±v
fL = _____ )
  v ± vL fS
S
Electricity and magnetism

kQ Q2
R = __  V  ε = Vload+ Vinternal resistance F = ______
  12  I
I r Irms= ____
  max__ 
P = I2R ε = IRext+ Ir E = __ Fq  √2
__
 VR 
P = __
2
φ = BACosθ F = Eq
rms= Vmax√
V 2
NΔφ kQ Pav= Vrms = 2_ 1Imax Vmax
Irms
P = IV ε = − ____
    E = ___  2 
Δt r
Matter and materials

E = hf c = 3 × 108 m.s–1 o= hfo
W
c = fλ h = 6,6 × 10–34 J.s E = Wo+ KEmax
 hc
E = ___ KEmax = 2_ 1mv2  max
λ
Chemical change
o = E  o
E  cell cathode− E  anode
o
548 Data sheets •

Revision
Table of Standard Reduction (Electrode) Potentials

Half –reaction E°/ volt
Li + e
+ -
⇌ Li -3.05
K+ + e- ⇌ K -2.93
Cs+ + e- ⇌ Cs -2.92
Ba2+ + 2e- ⇌ Ba -2.90
Sr2+ + 2e- ⇌ Sr -2.89
Ca + 2e
2+ -
⇌ Ca -2.87
Na+ + e- ⇌ Na -2.71
Mg + 2e
2+ -
⇌ Mg -2.37
A + 3e
3+ -
⇌ Al -1.66
Mn2+ + 2e- ⇌ Mn -1.18
2H2O + 2e -
⇌ H2(g) + 2OH -
-0.83
Zn2+ + 2e- ⇌ Zn -0.76
Cr + 3e
3+ -
⇌ Cr -0.74
Fe2+ + 2e- ⇌ Fe -0.44
Cd2+ + 2e- ⇌ Cd -0.40
Increasing reducing ability

Co + 2e
2+ -
⇌ Co -0.28
Ni2+ + 2e- ⇌ Ni -0.25
Increasing oxidising ability
Sn + 2e
2+ -
⇌ Sn -0.14
Pb2+ + 2e- ⇌ Pb -0.13
Fe + 3e
3+ -
⇌ Fe -0.04
2H + 2e
+ -
⇌ H2(g) 0.00
S + 2H+ + 2e- ⇌ H2S(g) +0.14
Sn4+ + 2e- ⇌ Sn2+ +0.15
SO42- + 4H+ + 2e- ⇌ SO2(g) + 2H2O +0.17
Cu + 2e
2+ -
⇌ Cu +0.34
2H2O + O2 + 4e -
⇌ 4OH -
+0.40
SO2 + 4H+ + 4e- ⇌ S + 2H2O +0.45
I2 + 2e- ⇌ 2I- +0.54
O2(g) + 2H+ + 2e- ⇌ H2O2 +0.68
Fe + e
3+ -
⇌ Fe 2+
+0.77
Hg + 2e
2+ -
⇌ Hg +0.79
NO3- + 2H+ + e- ⇌ NO2(g) + H2O +0.80
Ag + e
+ -
⇌ Ag +0.80
NO3- + 4H+ + 3e- ⇌ NO(g) + 2H2O +0.96
Br2 + 2e -
⇌ 2Br -
+1.09
Pt + 2e
2+ -
⇌ Pt +1.20
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e- ⇌ Mn2+ + 2H2O +1.21
O2 + 4H + 4e + -
⇌ 2H2O +1.23
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- ⇌ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O +1.33
Cl2 + 2e -
⇌ 2Cl -
+1.36
Au + 3e
3+ -
⇌ Au +1.42
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- ⇌ Mn2+ + 4H2O +1.51
H2O2 + 2H + 2e + -
⇌ 2H2O +1.77
F2(g) + 2e- ⇌ 2F- +2.87
• Data sheets Answers • 549

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© McLaren, Gray, Nozaic, du Plessis, 2013

© Illustrations and design Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd, 2013

First published 2013

Published by Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd

Private Bag X19

Typeset by Boss Repro

Cover image from INPRA

Cover design by Devine Design

Illustrations by OKS, Daniella Levin, Geoff Walton, USDI

Gallo images: 88, 188, 194, 427

Keith Rein: 103, 104, 105, 122, 123, 145, 152

Braam van Reenen: 338 (bottom)

Topic 14 Revision.................................................................................................................................... 501

Wear a lab coat or lab apron when performing experiment

Wear safety goggles when performing the experiment.

• Toxic fumes are formed during this experiment.

What you will learn about in this topic

Let’s talk about this topic

Topic: Skills for practical investigations • 1

• Test with an experiment

2 • Topic: Skills for practical investigations

Trace the historical development of a scientific

Topic: Skills for practical investigations • 3

Identify an answerable question and formulate a

Design the experiment

4 • Topic: Skills for practical investigations

° Safety precautions applicable in any laboratory

° Small scale objects are used to simulate larger scale events.

° The masses can be determined with a mass scale.

° The velocities are determined by measuring the time taken to travel 1 m.

Select appropriate tools and technology to collect

° Two trolleys with spring-loaded plungers that can be released by a push-button to

° A smooth laboratory bench can be used as a runway.

° A measuring tape or ruler to measure the distances travelled by the trolleys.

Topic: Skills for practical investigations • 5

° Thermometer ° Mass balance

° Metric ruler ° Graduated cylinder

Recording the data

° The table must have a heading, stating what is being recorded.

° You must not include units in the body of the table.

Potential difference (V) Current (A)

6 • Topic: Skills for practical investigations

° The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal axis (x-axis).

° The dependent variable is plotted on the vertical axis (y-axis).

Fig 1: Graph drawn from data in Table A

Topic: Skills for practical investigations • 7

For the graphs in Figure 2, note that:

° Concentration is the independent variable and is drawn on the x-axis.

° The curve in graph Figure 2a is a smooth freehand curve.

Analyse the information

8 • Topic: Skills for practical investigations

Determine the accuracy and precision of the

Sources of error in experiments are usually due to:

° controlled variables not being controlled

° errors in the measurement of dependent and independent variables

Topic: Skills for practical investigations • 9

° errors in the measurements of the masses of the trolleys

° errors in the measurement of the distances

Analyse experimental results and identify sources