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    Relational Algebra 1

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    Shourya Prasad
    The document discusses the structure and components of relational databases including database schemas, relations, attributes, tuples, domains, keys, and null values. It also describes common relational algebra operations like select, project, join, union, difference, and rename that are used to query and manipulate relations. Examples are provided to illustrate how to write queries using these operations.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Relational Algebra 1

    Uploaded by

    Shourya Prasad
    6 views32 pages
    The document discusses the structure and components of relational databases including database schemas, relations, attributes, tuples, domains, keys, and null values. It also describes common relational algebra operations like select, project, join, union, difference, and rename that are used to query and manipulate relations. Examples are provided to illustrate how to write queries using these operations.

    Original Title

    Relational_algebra_1705921277151295842865ae4afd764f1

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    The document discusses the structure and components of relational databases including database schemas, relations, attributes, tuples, domains, keys, and null values. It also describes common relational algebra operations like select, project, join, union, difference, and rename that are used to query and manipulate relations. Examples are provided to illustrate how to write queries using these operations.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    6 views32 pages

    Relational Algebra 1

    Uploaded by

    Shourya Prasad
    The document discusses the structure and components of relational databases including database schemas, relations, attributes, tuples, domains, keys, and null values. It also describes common relational algebra operations like select, project, join, union, difference, and rename that are used to query and manipulate relations. Examples are provided to illustrate how to write queries using these operations.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    Outline

    Structure of Relational Databases


    Database Schema
    Keys
    Schema Diagrams
    Relational Query Languages
    The Relational Algebra
    Example of a Instructor Relation

    attributes
    (or columns)

    tuples
    (or rows)
    Attribute

    The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the


    domain of the attribute
    Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is,
    indivisible
    The special value null is a member of every domain.
    Indicated that the value is “unknown”
    The null value causes complications in the definition of many
    operations
    Relations are Unordered

    Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary


    order)
    Example: instructor relation with unordered tuples
    Database Schema
    Database schema -- is the logical structure of the database.
    Database instance -- is a snapshot of the data in the
    database at a given instant in time.
    Example:
    • schema: instructor (ID, name, dept_name, salary)
    • Instance:
    Relational Query Languages
    Procedural versus non-procedural, or declarative
    languages:
    • Relational algebra
    • Tuple relational calculus
    • Domain relational calculus
    The above 3 languages are equivalent in computing
    power
    We will concentrate in this chapter on relational algebra
    • Not turning-machine equivalent
    • Consists of 6 basic operations
    Relational Algebra
    A procedural language consisting of a set of operations that take
    one or two relations as input and produce a new relation as their
    result.
    Six basic operators

    • select:
    • project:
    • union:
    • set difference: –
    • Cartesian product: x
    • rename:
    Select Operation
    The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.
    Notation: p(r)
    p is called the selection predicate
    Example: select those tuples of the instructor relation where the
    instructor is in the “Physics” department.
    • Query

    dept_name= Physics” (instructor)

    • Result
    Select Operation (Cont.)
    We allow comparisons using
    =, , >, . <.
    in the selection predicate.
    We can combine several predicates into a larger predicate by using the
    connectives:
    (and), (or), (not)
    Example: Find the instructors in Physics with a salary greater $90,000,
    we write:

    dept_name= Physics salary > 90,000 (instructor)

    Then select predicate may include comparisons between two


    attributes.
    • Example, find all departments whose name is the same as their
    building name:
    • dept_name=building (department)
    Project Operation
    A unary operation that returns its argument relation, with
    certain attributes left out.
    Notation:

    A1,A2,A3 ….Ak (r)


    where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.
    The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained
    by erasing the columns that are not listed
    Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are
    sets
    Project Operation (Cont.)
    Example: eliminate the dept_name attribute of instructor
    Query:

    ID, name, salary (instructor)


    Result:
    Composition of Relational Operations

    The result of a relational-algebra operation is relation and


    therefore of relational-algebra operations can be composed
    together into a relational-algebra expression.
    Consider the query -- Find the names of all instructors in the
    Physics department.

    name( dept_name = Physics (instructor))

    Instead of giving the name of a relation as the argument of the


    projection operation, we give an expression that evaluates to a
    relation.
    The instructor X teaches table
    Join Operation
    The Cartesian-Product
    instructor X teaches
    associates every tuple of instructor with every tuple of
    teaches.
    • Most of the resulting rows have information about instructors
    who did NOT teach a particular course.
    To get only those tuples of “instructor X teaches “ that pertain
    to instructors and the courses that they taught, we write:
    instructor.id = teaches.id (instructor x teaches ))

    • We get only those tuples of “instructor X teaches” that pertain


    to instructors and the courses that they taught.
    The result of this expression, shown in the next slide
    Join Operation (Cont.)
    The table corresponding to:

    instructor.id = teaches.id (instructor x teaches))


    Join Operation (Cont.)
    The join operation allows us to combine a select operation
    and a Cartesian-Product operation into a single operation.
    Consider relations r (R) and s (S)
    Let “theta” be a predicate on attributes in the schema R “union”
    S. The join operation r s is defined as follows:

    Thus
    instructor.id = teaches.id (instructor x teaches ))

    Can equivalently be written as

    instructor Instructor.id = teaches.id teaches.


    Union Operation
    The union operation allows us to combine two relations
    Notation: r s
    For r s to be valid.
    1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
    2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2nd
    column
    of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
    column of s)
    Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2017 semester,
    or in the Spring 2018 semester, or in both

    course_id ( semester= Fall year=2017 (section))

    course_id ( semester= Spring year=2018 (section))


    Union Operation (Cont.)

    Result of:

    course_id ( semester= Fall year=2017 (section))

    course_id ( semester= Spring year=2018 (section))


    Set Difference Operation
    The set-difference operation allows us to find tuples that are in one
    relation but are not in another.
    Notation r – s
    Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
    • r and s must have the same arity
    • attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
    Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2017 semester, but
    not in the Spring 2018 semester

    course_id ( semester= Fall year=2017 (section

    course_id ( semester= Spring year=2018 (section))


    The Assignment Operation
    It is convenient at times to write a relational-algebra expression
    by assigning parts of it to temporary relation variables.
    The assignment operation is denoted by and works like
    assignment in a programming language.
    Example: Find all instructor in the “Physics” and Music
    department.

    Physics dept_name= Physics (instructor)


    Music dept_name= Music” (instructor)
    Physics Music

    With the assignment operation, a query can be written as a


    sequential program consisting of a series of assignments
    followed by an expression whose value is displayed as the result
    of the query.
    The Rename Operation
    The results of relational-algebra expressions do not have a
    name that we can use to refer to them. The rename operator,
    , is provided for that purpose
    The expression:

    x (E)
    returns the result of expression E under the name x
    Another form of the rename operation:

    x(A1,A2, .. An) (E)


    Equivalent Queries
    There is more than one way to write a query in relational algebra.
    Example: Find information about courses taught by instructors in
    the Physics department with salary greater than 90,000
    Query 1

    dept_name= Physics salary > 90,000 (instructor)

    Query 2

    dept_name= Physics ( salary > 90.000 (instructor))

    The two queries are not identical; they are, however, equivalent --
    they give the same result on any database.
    Equivalent Queries
    There is more than one way to write a query in relational algebra.
    Example: Find information about courses taught by instructors in
    the Physics department
    Query 1

    dept_name= Physics (instructor instructor.ID = teaches.ID teaches)

    Query 2

    ( dept_name= Physics (instructor)) instructor.ID = teaches.ID teaches

    The two queries are not identical; they are, however, equivalent --
    they give the same result on any database.

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