Physics Notes for SS1

Topic: Matter, Atomic Structure, States of Matter, Diffusion, Osmosis and Brownian Motion

Content

✓ Atomic Structure

✓ Molecular Theory of Matter

✓ Diffusion and Osmosis

MATTER

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. All substances are made up of matter. It
exists in three states namely, solid liquid and gas. Examples of solids are ice, brick, metal, concrete,
wood etc. examples of liquid are water, milk, oil etc while that of gas are oxygen, nitrogen, CO 2

STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Matter is made up of discrete particles namely atom, molecules and ion.

Atom: An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can have a separate existence. Atom is made
up of a nucleus and a revolving electron around an orbit or shell. The nucleus consists of proton and
neutron. The proton is positively charged, electron is negatively charge and neutron is neutral (i.e. has
no charge). The number of protons equates the number of electrons .An atom that contains the same
number of protons and electrons is said to be electrically neutral.

Molecule: A molecule is an atom or group of atoms of the same or different elements joined in simple
proportion. They come together to make up matter.

Brownian Motion
Brownian motion, also called Brownian movement, any of various physical phenomena in which some
quantity is constantly undergoing small, random fluctuations. It was named for the Scottish botanist
Robert Brown, the first to study such fluctuations (1827).

If a number of particles subject to Brownian motion are present in a given medium and there is no
preferred direction for the random oscillations, then over a period of time the particles will tend to be
spread evenly throughout the medium. Thus, if A and B are two adjacent regions and, at time t, A
contains twice as many particles as B, at that instant the probability of a particle’s leaving A to enter B is
twice as great as the probability that a particle will leave B to enter A. The physical process in which a
substance tends to spread steadily from regions of high concentration to regions of lower concentration
is called diffusion. Diffusion can therefore be considered a macroscopic manifestation of Brownian
motion on the microscopic level. Thus, it is possible to study diffusion by simulating the motion of a
Brownian particle and computing its average behaviour. A few examples of the countless diffusion
processes that are studied in terms of Brownian motion include the diffusion of pollutants through the
atmosphere, the diffusion of “holes” (minute regions in which the electrical charge potential is positive)
through a semiconductor, and the diffusion of calcium through bone tissue in living organisms.

MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER

Using kinetic theory explain the (i) definite structure of solid (ii) shape of liquid (iii) gas

Solid: Matter consists of molecules which are tightly held together by intermolecular forces to make the
molecules to vibrate about their mean positions, giving the solid definite shape. If the solid is heated,
the total energy is divided among the molecules to make them vibrate faster. Eventually, they move so
fast that they break loose from their fixed position and turns to liquid.

Liquid: The molecules of a liquid can move about within the given volume of the container. Hence,
liquid has its own size but no shape. If the liquid is heated, its molecules gain kinetic energy and move
faster, until eventually molecules can escape from the surface. The liquid then vanishes and turns to
gaseous state.

Gas: The molecules of a gas are also in constant motion like the liquid but comparatively far apart. They
move at high speed, colliding with one another and with the walls of their containing vessel. They fill the
vessel and exert pressure on the walls of the container. The pressure of the gas is caused by the collision
of the molecules with the walls of the container.

DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS

DIFFUSION: Diffusion is the process by which different forms of matter (fluids) mix intimately with one
another owing to the kinetic nature of their molecules. It is also the tendency of a gas to mix with
another and fill an empty space as a result of the constant random motion of the molecules.

The rates of diffusion or factors affecting diffusion are

(i) density
(ii) mass

(iii) temperature

(iv) pressure

(v) concentration

Also, Graham’s law of diffusion states that at constant temperature, gas diffuse at rates inversely
proportional to the square root of their vapour densities.

R α1/√M → R = K/√M .;K = R√M

Hence, R1√M1 = R2√M2 = …= Rn√Mn

Hence, R1/R2 = √M2/√M1 where R – rate of diffusion, M – relative molecular mass. NB : (i) R =
volume (gas)/time

(ii) Relative molecular mass is twice its vapour density.

RMM = 2 X V.D

OSMOSIS: This is the movement of water molecules from the region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.

Week: 5

CONTENT

✓ Definition of surface tension

✓ Effect of surface tension

✓ Application of surface tension

✓ Reduction of surface tension

SURFACE TENSION

1. Is the property of a liquid to make its surface behave as though it is covered by an elastic skin.

2. Is the force per unit length? Y= F/L

3. Is the force acting parallel to the surface of the liquid?

EFFECTS OF SURFACE TENSION

1. Soap bubbles are spherical in shape

3. Razor blade or needle gently placed on the surface of water floats

4. Spilled mercury on glass surface form spherical droplets.

APPLICATION OF SURFACE TENSION

1. Use in the manufacturing of rain proof or water proof

2. Absorption of ink with blotting paper

3. Rising of oil in lamp wicks

4. Movement of melted wax into the neck of a burning candle.

REDUCTION OF SURFACE TENSION

1. Adding impurities such as detergent/soap, alcohol, oil, camphor, kerosene, grease

2. By heating the liquid.

CAPILLARITY

CONTENT

✓ Definition of Capillarity

✓ Cohesion and adhesion

✓ Application of capillarity

Capillarity is defined as the tendency of liquids to rise or fall in narrow capillary tubes.

Cohesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of the same substance.

Adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of different substance or it refers to the
force which makes molecules of different substance to attract.

APPLICATION OF CAPILLARITY

Adhesion of water to glass is stronger than the cohesion of water, hence, when water is spilled on a
clean glass surface, it wets the glass. The cohesion of mercury is greater than its adhesion to glass,
hence, mercury spilled on glass forms small spherical droplets.

Topic: Elasticity

CONTENT
✓ Definition of elasticity

✓ Hooke’s law

✓ Tensile stress, tensile strain and young modulus.

Elasticity is the tendency of a material to regain its original size or shape after deformation or after it has
been compressed or extended.

Hooke’s law states that provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension in an elastic material
(wire) is proportional to the force applied

i.e F α e

F = Ke…………………………………………1

Where K is force constant, stiffness or elastic constant

Force constant is the amount of force that causes a unit extension. It is the ratio of force to extension of
an elastic material.

Hooke’s law applies up to the elastic limit. For load beyond Lthe wire (material) stretch permanently.
The point where small increase in load produces large extension is known as yield point.

Breaking point is the point where the wire cannot withstand any further increase in load.

Yield point: it is the minimum stress/load acting on an elastic material beyond which plastic deformation
sets in.

Elastic limit is the maximum load (force) which a body can experience and still regain its original size.

Tensile stress is the force acting on a unit CSA of a wire/rod or force per unit CSA of a wire or rod.

Tensile stress = Force/Area …………………….2

Tensile strain = extension/Original length ……………………..3

Young modulus can be defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain

Young modules = tensile stress/ tensile strain…………………..4

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. The SI unit of tensile stress is ….. (a) N/m (b) Nm (c) N/m2 (d) m2

2. The SI unit of tensile strain is ….. (a) N/m (b) Nm (c) N/m2 (d) none of the above

3. Young modulus of elasticity is the atio of tensile stress to tensile strain provide the load does not
exceed the (a) breaking point (b) elastic limit (c) yield point (d) stress limit

4. A piece of rubber 10cm long stretches 6mm when a load of 100N is hung from it. What is the strain?
(a) 60 (b) 0.6 (c) 6×10-2 (d) 6×10-3

5. Hooke’s law states that (a) F α A (b)F α e (c) E α F (d) E α A

THEORY

1. A wire is gradually stretched by loading it until it snaps (a) sketch a load- extension graph for the wire

2. Indicate on the graph the elastic limit (E), yield point (Y) and breaking point (B)

Topic: Energy Stored In An Elastic Material

CONTENT

✓ Force in a bar

✓ Energy stored in a wire

✓ Energy stored per unit area

FORCE IN A BAR

When a bar is heated and then prevented from contracting as it cools, a considerable force is exerted at
the end of the bar. Given a bar of a young modulus E, a cross sectional area A, a linear expansivity of
magnitude α and a decrease in temperature of Ө, then

E = stress/strain = F/A/e/L

=F/A х L/e
E = FL/Ae

F = EAe/L ………………………….1

Recall, Linear expansivity α = change in length/original length х temperature change

α = e/L х Ө

e = αLӨ

F = EAαeLӨ/eL

F = EAαӨ ……………………………2

ENERGY STORED IN A WIRE

The application of force on any wire provided the elasticity limit is not exceeded is proportional to the
extension provided.

Consequently, the force in the wire has increase from zero to F

Average force = F + O/2 = F/2

Recall work done = Average force х distance

W = f/2 x e = ½ Fe ………………………….3

Substitute eqn 1 into 3

W = EAe2/2L……………………………….4

Work Stores per unit volume

W = 1/2 X stress X strain

This implies that Wv = Ee2/2L2

Substance which lengthens considerable and undergo plastic deformation until they break are known as
ductile substance. E.g lead, copper, wrought iron.

Substance which break after the elastic limit is reached are known as brittle substance e.g glass and high
carbon steel. It should be noted that brass, bronze and many alloys appears to have no yield point. By
this we mean that this material increase in length beyond the elastic limit as the lead is increased
without the sudden appearance of a plastic stage.

EVALUATION

1A uniform steel wire of length 4m and are of cross section 3×10-6m2 is extended by 1mm. Calculate
the energy stored in the wire if the elastic limit is not exceeded (young modulus = 2×10 11n/m2)
1. A spiral spring is compressed by 0.02m. Calculate the energy stored in the spring if the force constant
is 400n/m2