Abstract

This lab consists of two major parts A and B. Part A was to find to examine the resistive forces
in two fluids considering the mechanics of motion. Firstly, the measured viscosity of water was
found using the capillary flow. It was found that the
−1
dynamic viscosity of water @25 ℃ : 0.1079 Ns m .The second part of the experiment aimed at
measuring viscosity by Strokes’ Law. Glycerine was used to measure the viscosity. I was found
that the viscosity of glycerine @ 25℃ :0.2425 Ns m−1 . State your errors values as well here.
Introduction
Viscosity is a characteristic that quantifies the magnitude of a fluid's internal friction to
determine its resistance to flow. What does viscosity mean physically? This characteristic is
frequently correlated with the apparent thickness of a fluid; fluids that appear ‘thicker’ have a
greater tendency to resist motion; this is because their molecules possess strong intermolecular
forces, which give the fluid its thick consistency and cause it to resist movement.

The standard definition of viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow and deformation via shear
stress. Viscosity is measured in Newton-seconds per square meter (Ns/m2), which is sometimes
abbreviated to Pa-second (Pa s), because 1 Pa equals 1 second (Ns/m2). It is important to note
that there are two distinct forms of viscosity, each with its own unique unit, but that will be
covered later.

Two identical jars are exhibited, with one containing honey and the other containing water. In a
matter of milliseconds, the water jar is empty by inverting it to its open end, water flowing out of
the container quickly and without any resistance, and the jar being turned upside down. The
honey jar is turned on its open end using the same degree and angle as the water jar. The slow
flow of honey could lead one to believe that it responds slowly to the pull of gravity, but this is
not the case. The thick consistency of honey is a direct result of its extremely powerful
intermolecular forces. These intermolecular forces generate significant internal frictions within
the fluid's (honey's) layers, which causes the fluid to resist flow.

Honey can be characterized as a fluid with a high viscosity since it exhibits significant resistance
to flow. Water, on the other hand, exhibited little to no resistance to flow due to the fact that its
intermolecular interactions are minimal, resulting in layers with negligible resistance to motion.
Fluidity, which is the opposite of viscosity, can be used to describe water. Simply put, it is the
reverse of viscosity. Fluidity refers to the ease of motion of a fluid; water and acetone have
relatively high fluidity.
Forms of Viscosity
There are two primary types of viscosity: dynamic (absolute) viscosity, which is measured in Ns/
2 2
m or Pa s, and kinematic viscosity, which is measured in m / s or St. (Stocks). The primary
distinction between these two qualities is that the dynamic viscosity represents the fluid's internal
resistance to flow, as stated above, but the kinematic viscosity is equal to the dynamic viscosity
of the fluid divided by its density. To clarify, dynamic viscosity measures the force required for a
fluid to flow, but kinematic viscosity indicates how quickly a fluid flows when a specific force is
applied. Given that the kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the fluid's
density, it follows that the dynamic and kinematic viscosities are proportionate. The dynamic
viscosity depends on the fluid's composition, its temperature, and its pressure (for gases, liquids
are incompressible). The kinematic viscosity of a fluid depends on its dynamic viscosity and
density. The sort of force applied to the fluid is another important distinction between these two
viscosities; in the case of kinematic viscosity, the fluid under study is exposed to gravitational
force. Regarding dynamic viscosity, the fluid is undergoing an external force (shear stress).

Density
The density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid to its volume. The density of
gases is dependent on pressure and temperature, while the density of liquid remains constant.
The density of water is 1000 kg.m-3 while density of air is 1.225 kg.m-3.
m
ρ=
V
where the Greek letter ρ (rho) is the symbol for density, m is the mass, and V is the volume.

Stokes' Law
The mathematical expression of the drag force on a spherical object falling through a fluid is
Stokes' Law. Sir George G. Stokes derived it for the first time in 1851. On the basis of the
behaviour of a particle sinking in a fluid, he developed the equation.
This application of the Navier-Stokes equation is unique. This equation describes the relationship
between the velocity, pressure, temperature, and density of a fluid flow. The Navier-Stokes
equation was independently derived by Sir Stokes and Claude-Louis Navier some years before
the Law. It is a generalization of Euler's equation that includes viscosity, or the fluid's resistance
to flow, as a parameter. Viscosity is frequently equated to the fluid's internal friction. This made
the equation more realistic, but harder to calculate.
For Stokes' Law to apply, the following conditions must hold:
  The flow of the fluid cannot be turbulent. A turbulent flow is characterized by
unpredictable pressure and velocity changes.
 There cannot be acceleration. The sphere is falling with constant speed.
 The particle is smooth and round.
 The particle's composition is uniform.

Stokes' Law Equation

Stokes' Law is best expressed as a force equation. The drag force is the result of the viscosity of
the fluid and the size and velocity of the particle:

F D =6∗π∗μ∗V∗r

The parameters are as follows:

F D  is the drag force on the sphere. Units are in newtons (N).

μ is the viscosity, with units in kilograms per meter per second (kg/m/s)
V is the velocity, with units in meters per second (m/s).
r is the radius of the sphere, with units in meters (m).

The two sides of this equation are directly proportional to each other. This means that if either
side increases, the other will as well. Therefore, when the sphere (or ball) increases in radius, the
drag force will also increase. The same is true for both the viscosity and velocity.
Not all fluids have the same viscosity. For example, the viscosity of honey is 100 kg/ms, while
that of water is 0.0001 kg/ms. Therefore, the drag force of a sphere of honey will be greater than
that of a similar-sized sphere of water.
The viscosity and velocity are also related to each other. In the case of Stokes' Law, this is
the terminal velocity of the particle. Terminal velocity is defined as the maximum attainable
velocity of an object as it falls through a fluid. As the object has reached terminal velocity,
despite continuing to fall, it no longer feels the effects of the gravitational acceleration. Using the
force balance equation (the gravitational force (Fg=m∗) and drag forces must be equal and
opposite), the terminal velocity can be determined. The following equation represents the
relationship between the terminal velocity and viscosity:

V=2r 2/ (ρ−σ)g/9μ
Missing the error equations, radius equation, and the V/t = (X-H)… equation
V is the same velocity as above (m/s).
r is the same radius as above (m)
ρ is the density of the spherical particle, with units of kilograms per cubic meters (kg/m3 ¿

σ is the density of the fluid (also in kg/m3 ¿

g is the gravitational acceleration, which is equal to 9.8 m/ s2

μ is the same viscosity as above

Therefore, the terminal velocity V will be larger for fluids with lower viscosities. For example,
as honey has a higher viscosity than oil (0.1 kg/ms), the terminal velocity of oil will be larger
than that of honey for spheres of the same size and density.
Fluid pressure can be defined as the measurement of the force per unit area on a given object on
the surface of a closed container or in the fluid. Gravity, acceleration, or forces outside a closed
container are the factors that cause this pressure. 

Fluid Pressure Formula

The following relation can be used to calculate the pressure in fluids. 
Pfluid = P + ρgh 

Where, 
P   = Pressure at the reference point 
Pfluid = Pressure at a point taken in fluid 

Ρ   =  Density of the fluid 

g   = Acceleration due to gravity (considering earth g = 9.8 m/s) 
h   = Height from the reference point 

On dividing the mass of the fluid in consideration with the volume of fluid considered,
the density of the fluid can be calculated:
ρ = m/v 
Where, 
m =  mass of the fluid 
v = volume of fluid considered 
The total pressure on the system is given as follow if the fluid is subjected to atmospheric
pressure: 
Pfluid = Po + ρgh 

Where, 
Po = the atmospheric pressure 

Conditions for the Consideration of Fluid Pressure:

 In an open condition or open channel flow
 In a closed condition or closed conduit 

The Pressure at any Point in a Static Fluid

 Within a static fluid at a given point in space, the sum of acting forces must be equal to zero.
The condition for static equilibrium would otherwise not be met. Consider a rectangular region
within the fluid medium with density ρL (same as that of the fluid medium), width w, length l,
and height h for analyzing such a simple system. Then, within the medium, the forces acting in
this region are taken into account. Firstly, a force of gravity acting downwards (its weight) in the
region is equal to its density object (ρ), times its volume of the object (v), times the acceleration
due to gravity (g). Due to the fluid above the region, the downward force acting on this region is
equal to the pressure times the area of contact. Likewise, due to the fluid below the region, there
is an upward force acting on this region which is equal to the pressure times the area of contact.
The sum of these forces must be zero to achieve static equilibrium. The pressure from the fluid
below the region must be greater than the pressure from the fluid above by the weight of the
region, for any region within a fluid, to achieve static equilibrium. 

Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle (also known as Pascal’s Law ) is applied to the static fluids and in static fluids
takes advantage of the height dependency of pressure. Pascal’s Principle can be used in
exploiting the pressure of a static liquid as a measure of energy per unit volume to perform a
given work such as in hydraulic presses.  Pascal’s Principle qualitatively states that in an
enclosed static liquid pressure is transmitted undiminished. Pascal’s Law quantitatively within a
fluid can be derived from the expression that determines the pressure at a given height (or depth)
and is defined by Pascal’s Principle:
 p2=p1+ Δp  
Δp=ρgΔh 

Where,
 p1 =  externally applied pressure  
ρ  =  density of the fluid 
Δh = difference in height of the static liquid 
g  = acceleration due to gravity

Precaution

Procedure 1
• In order to eliminate inaccuracies in height measurement, all meniscus measurements must be
obtained at eye level.
• Place the grease spot on the underside of the capillary tube to prevent fluid from running back
under the tube.
• Ensure the measuring cylinder is totally dry before taking any measurements, as excess fluid
can lead to inaccurate findings.

Procedure 2
• Ensure that the experimenter accounts for the stopwatch's reflex time when recording the time
for the X and Y distances.
• For an accurate radius estimate, ensure that the diameter of the balls is correctly measured in
two planes.
• Take care to ensure that the stopwatch begins when the sphere ball reaches the X distance
marking on the cylinder and ends when it reaches the Y distance marking.

Method Just say “As stated in lab manual”

Procedure 1 
The capillary tube was carefully removed from the apparatus and the radius, r, was measured and
a thread of water into the capillary tube was drawn up. The length of the water, weigh the watch
glass was measured then the water was expelled into it, and reweighed. The measurements were
made carefully since r appears to the fourth power in the Poiseuille formula while using a long
thread of water.
 The apparatus was Reassembled, with the capillary mounted horizontally at a distance H above
the bench. Then the water was fed into the reservoir of the constant head apparatus at a rate
faster than the water can escape through the capillary, so that this head is constant. After , the
level of the water in the head is measured on the manometer .It was then ensured that the water
drip at a slow rate from the open end of the capillary. A spot of grease was then placed  on the
underside of the capillary near the end to prevent water running back beneath the tube along with
a  thermometer in the constant head apparatus
When conditions are steady, remove the beaker and allow the drops to collect in a clean dry
measuring cylinder. After a measured time of about 15 minutes (depending on the rate of flow)
remove the cylinder and measure the volume of water collected. Change the height of the water
level in the constant head apparatus, pour out the water in the measuring cylinder, dry the
cylinder and repeat the experiment. 

The beaker was removed when conditions are steady and the drops were allowed to collect in a
clean dry measuring cylinder. After a measured time of about 15 minutes the cylinder was
removed and the volume of water collected was measured. Then the height of the water level
was changed in the constant head apparatus and the water was poured in the measuring cylinder,
dry the cylinder and the experiment was repeat for different values of X, varying the rate of flow
as much as possible without allowing the flow to become too rapid or turbulent. The readings
were tabulated.
 
Procedure 2 
The measuring cylinder A was filled with glycerine. The largest ball-bearing was then dropped
in. Mark X , a fixed position, was placed well below the top of the liquid, so that the bearing
reaches a steady velocity by the time it reaches X. A second mark Y, was then fixed near the
bottom of the cylinder, and the distance l cm between X and Y was measured.
The diameter of each ball was measured in two perpendicular directions with the micrometer
screw- gauge . Then, the fall of ball-bearings was timed with varying diameter between the
marks X and Y. The density of the glycerine was measured along with its temperature. 
Tables of Results

Measurements

Mass of watch glass 197.20g 0.1972kg

Mass of watch glass + mass of water 197.28g 0.1978kg
Mass of water thread 0.08g 0.0008kg
Length of thread of water L 13.45cm 0.1345m
Temperature of water 25ºC 25ºC
Length of capillary tube (H) 13.45cm 0.1345m

Table showing measurements taken during the lab

Height x Time/s Volume of Volume of Volume (X-H)/m

water/ cm³ water/ m³ /(m3/s)
47.50cm 0.475m 900.00 12.50 1.25x10-5 1.39 x10-9 0.3405
47.90cm 0.479m 900.00 12.50 1.25x10-5 1.39 x10-9 0.3445
48.40cm 0.484m 900.00 13.00 1.3x10-5 1.4410-9 0.3495
49.30cm 0.493m 900.00 14.00 1.4x10-5 1.56 x10-9 0.3585

Mass g Micrometre Average Diameter Time of Terminal 2

a radius
Change here Readings/s put units here fall for velocity/ms−1 units
to kg xy/mm
should be
seconds
not mm
4.47 10.24 10.23 10.235 10.235x10-3 0.49 1.08 2.619 x10-5
3.51 9.16 9.07 9.115 9.115x10-3 0.57 0.93 2.077 x10-5
1.48 7.01 7.04 7.025 7.025x10-3 0.73 0.73 1.234 x10-5
1.46 7.03 7.00 7.015 7.015x10-3 0.84 0.63 1.230 x10-5
1.04 6.19 6.21 6.200 6.200x10-3 1.04 0.51 9.610 x10-4

Calculations

V Volume of liquid m3
=
t time elapsed
V 1.25 x 10−5
=
t 900.00

−9 −1
V t =1.39 x 10 ms

Radius of the capillary (r): r =

√ m
πLρ

r=
√ m
πLρ

From the equation above: r =

√ 0.0008
π (0.1345) ρ

r =√1.8933 x 10
−6

−3
r =1.376 x 10

Radius of the capillary = 1.376 x10-3m

V π r4 P
Liquid transmitted per second =
t 8l

4
V π r ( X−H ) ρg
Where =
t 8l

From the graph

y=mx+c
 4
V ρπg r
Where = •(X−H )+0
t 8l
V
y=
t

ρπg r 4
m=
8l
x =( X −H )
c= 0
Gradient

ρπg r 4
 m=
8l
Slope of a best fit line = m
Y 2−Y 1
Mmax m=
X 2− X 1
−9 −9
1.55 x 10 −1.39 x 10
m=
(0.3590−0.3422)

1.6 x 10−10
m=
( 0.0168)

−9
m=9.52 x 10 units

Mmin

Y 2−Y 1
m=
X 2− X 1

1.54 x 10−9−1.41 x 10−9

m=
(0.358−0.3443)

1.3 x 10−10
m=
(0.0137)
m=9.49 x 10−9 units

Maverage
Y 2−Y 1
m=
X 2− X 1

−9 −9
9.52 x 10 + 9.49 x 10
m=
2

−8
1.902 x 10
m=
2

−9
m=9.505 x 10 units

Error in slope

mmax −m min
∆ m=
2 √n

9.52 x 10−9−9.49 x 10−9

∆ m=
2 √5

−12
∆ m=6.708 x 10 units

From the gradient

ρπg r 4
m=
8l
 4
ρπg r
∴=
8 ml

[(1000) π (9.8)(1.376 x 10−3 )4 ]

¿
[ 8 ( 9.505 x 10−9 ) (0.1345) ]

−6
1.1036 x 10
¿ −5
1.023 x 10

¿ 0.1079 Nsm-1

−1
∴ Dynamic viscosity of water @ 25 ℃ : 0.1079 Ns m

Calculations

Sample Terminal Velocity Calculation

distance travel for ball 1
V t=
time for ball 1

0.53
V t=
1.08
−1
V t =0.490 ms

What about the sample calculation for a^2 ?

Calculation of Viscosity
2
2 a
V t = g ( ρ−σ )
9 ❑

Where
2
2 ( a
¿ g ρ−σ )
9 Vt
Gradient
c
 m=
d

Slope of a best fit line = m

Y 2−Y 1
Mmax m=
X 2− X 1

(2.70 x 10 ¿ ¿−5−0.12 x 10−5)m 2

m= ¿
(1.20−0.44 )ms−1

−5
2.58 x 10
m=
(0.76)

2
−5 −1 m
m=3.3947 x 10 ms wrong unitsis =ms
m
s

Y 2−Y 1
Mmin m=
X 2− X 1

−5 2
(2.20 x 10 ¿ ¿−5−1.5 x 10 ) m
m= ¿
(1.14−0.675) ms−1

7 x 10−6
m=
(0.465)
 −5 −1
m=1.57 x 10 ms

Maverage

(7 x 10¿¿−6)m2
m=(2.58 x 10¿¿−5)+ ¿¿
2

3.28 x 10−4
m=
2

−5 −1
m=1.64 x 10 ms

Error in slope:

mmax −m min
∆ m=
2 √n

2.58 x 10−5−7 x 10−6

∆ m=
2 √5

−6
∆ m=4.2038 x 10 units

From the gradient

c
m=
d

Viscosity calculation
 2 g( ρ−σ ) c
¿ ×
9 d

2 g ( ρ−σ )
∴= ×m
9

2(9.8)(8050−1260)
¿ × 1.64 x 10−5
9

−1
¿ 0.2425 Nsm

−1
∴ Viscosity of glycerine @25 ℃ :0.2425 Ns m

Errors
Table: Associated error of instrument used to determine viscosity of water and glycerine.
Instrument Error
Vernier Caliper ±0.01mm
Travelling Microscope ±0.01mm
Metre Rule ±0.50cm
Stop Watch Exp 1 ±0.17s
Stop Watch Exp 2 ±0.16s
Scale ±0.0001g
Thermometer ±0.50oC
Micrometer Screw Gauge ±0.005mm

Error in time was determined as: Error∈time=error of stopwatch+reflex time

Discussion
The findings of the first experiment revealed a direct proportionate relationship between V/t and
(X-H), as shown by the linear relationship in graph 1. In other words, the volume per second
(rate of flow) of a Newtonian fluid is determined by the height of the capillary tube system (i.e.,
an increase in height leads in an increase in flow rate). The viscosity of water at 25 degrees
Celsius is 0.1079 Ns m−1. Experiment 2 needs the construction of a cylinder with changing
glycerine and steel ball sizes in order to estimate terminal velocity v t The viscosity of glycerine
at 25 degrees Celsius was determined using a linear graph created from the radius a 2and terminal
velocity v t. By linking points that showed frequently in the scatter plot, linear interpolation was
employed to identify the line that best fit the data. The gradient was then determined by dividing
the difference between two y values by their corresponding x coordinates. Glycerine has a
theoretical viscosity of 1.41 Nms−1 at 20 degrees Celsius.

Fluids have their own viscosity because of the friction between layers of fluid as they move past
each other. Poiseuille's equation shows that the flow speed slows down because of this internal
friction. The way the layers of a fluid interact depends on how homogeneous or heterogeneous
the fluid is and what its chemical make-up is. For example, the viscosity of water, which is a
homogenous fluid, is set by how the molecules of water interact with each other. Since water is a
Newtonian fluid, its viscosity doesn't change with the speed of the stream. This means that water
flows that aren't turbulent have a viscosity that doesn't change (i.e., viscosity does not change
with changes in velocity). In the diagram, the relationship between water flow and pressure is
shown by a dashed line. At a constant driving pressure, the flow of a fluid with more viscosity
will be lower than that of a fluid with less viscosity because of the way the two variables are
related. Because blood is much thicker than water, the slope of its flow-pressure relationship is
less steep than that of water. Blood is not a Newtonian fluid like water because its viscosity
increases at low flow rates (e.g., during circulatory shock). When there isn't much flow, there are
more interactions between red cells and plasma proteins and between plasma proteins and red
cells. Because of this, red blood cells in the microcirculation may stick together and form chains
(rouleau formation), which makes the blood thicker. Because the blood's parts interact so much
when it isn't flowing, it takes a driving pressure that is much higher than zero to get it going
again. That's called the yield stress, and you need it to get things going.

Plasma is made up of more macromolecules than just water, electrolytes, and proteins like
albumin and fibrinogen. Plasma is thicker than water because of the way its molecules interact
with each other. At 37 degrees Celsius, for example, the relative viscosity (r) of plasma to water
is about 1.8. This means that water has 1.8 times the viscosity of plasma.

Blood viscosity: When new parts are added to plasma, like red cells, white cells, and platelets,
the viscosity goes up even more. Among these made-up parts, red cells have the most effect on
viscosity. The y-intercept in the picture shows the viscosity at 0% hematocrit (plasma without
cells), which is about 1.8. Higher hematocrit values are linked to a higher relative viscosity of
red blood cells. It's important to remember that this rise is not linear; as hematocrit goes up, so
does viscosity. Because of this, hematocrit has a big impact on how thick the blood is. The
average hematocrit is 40%, and the blood is about 4 times thicker than water. Patients with
polycythemia have an abnormally high hematocrit level because they have an abnormally high
number of red blood cells. This makes their blood much thicker than the blood of healthy people.
Even a 50% rise in hematocrit, from 40% to 60%, makes the relative viscosity rise by 100%.
(from 4 to 8). When viscosity goes up, it makes it harder for blood to move through the body.
This puts stress on the heart and threatens organ perfusion. People with anemia sometimes have
low hematocrits, which makes their blood thinner.

Temperature is one of the most important things that affects how thick blood is. As blood cools,
it gets thicker and moves more slowly, like molasses. Because of this, there is a link between
temperature and viscosity that goes in the wrong direction. Each degree Celsius that the liquid is
cooled by adds about 2% to its viscosity. The temperature at the center of the body rarely
changes by more than a few degrees. When a person's hand is exposed to cold temperatures,
which makes the fingers cold, sympathetic-mediated vasoconstriction and a drop in blood
temperature in the cooled area happen. It has been shown that causing whole-body hypothermia
thickens the blood and reduces blood flow to organs. This makes it useful for surgery and critical
care.

When the body's blood-clotting systems are turned on, platelets stick together and interact with
proteins in the plasma. Because of this, the blood thickens and clots, which traps red blood cells.

We know that blood flows laminarly most of the time and turbulently at other times based on
what we know about laminar and turbulent flow. Specifically in the blood veins and arteries near
the heart. This happens because the heartbeat generates a lot of force, causing turbulent blood
flow in narrow arteries (Klabunde 2007).

Applications of Viscosity in Fluids

Why is it essential to know how to calculate the liquid's flow rate and, consequently, its
viscosity? Viscosity of liquids is an essential characteristic that must be carefully evaluated in a
variety of industries. For example, the viscosity of paints, varnishes, and similar household
products is strictly controlled so that they may be applied equally and smoothly with a brush
roller.

In fact, many antique dealers and homeowners are happy that the furniture stripping liquid has
been thickened. Previously, this thin, odorous liquid was difficult to use since it tended to run off
the furniture before it could remove old paint and finishes. The viscosity has been increased to
almost gel-like consistency, making the product easier to apply and stick to the furniture's
surface.

Some medications, such as the several wart-removal treatments, have had their viscosity changed
to facilitate application. To coat and soothe the throat, pharmaceutical companies produce
medications with a high viscosity that may still be consumed, such as cough syrup. Numerous
occupations demand the ability to alter the viscosity of a substance for specific applications. For
instance, chefs must be able to thin gravies more than sauces and thicken frostings more than
icings. Seasonally appropriate viscosity must be selected for engine oil by mechanics.

Artists must have the ability to thin or thicken oil and acrylic paintings. Technicians in chemical
processing plants must control the viscosity of diverse substances.

Consider chocolate for a moment. To consistently cover the entire candy bar with the same
amount of chocolate, the coating on the candy bar must have the correct consistency and
temperature. Some candy coatings are particularly sensitive to temperature. If the cany is roasted
for too long, it will become hard and unpleasant to bite. The confection must be reproduced.

The Canadian maple syrup industry is based on liquid viscosity management. Sugar maple trees'
sap is used to produce maple syrup. The sap is weak, watery, and devoid of sweetness. However,
after heating the sap and draining the majority of the water, the result is a thick, sweet, and
flavourful syrup that makes pancakes and waffles irresistible!
State in your own words which procedure gives a better understanding of finding
viscosity.
An advantage of procedure 1 is its accuracy in findings and procedure 2 is the time required to
complete the experiment is less than procedure 1. A disadvantage is the capillary tubes or
manometers are not fixed to a place and can change position and procedure 2 is retrieving the
metal spheres from the glass column.

Source of Error

Incorrect measurement of the distance between X and Y in experiment two could have affected
our final solution.
 - Not recording the full times of the experiment excluding the milliseconds can affect the
final reading
- Tampering with the capillary tube changing the H value of the experiment when
calculating the results.

Difficulty:

- Measurement of the diameter of the smaller balls for experiment using the micrometer
screw gauge as the ball was difficult to hold and place in the micrometer screw gauge.
- Measuring the exact time of the ball movement from X to Y was difficult.
Improvement:

The use of larger balls for the experiment 2 with the glycerin as the smaller balls presented a
challenge in the measurement that could affect the results.

References
“Dr. Douglas Armstead.” Doug Armstead. Accessed November 6, 2022.
https://facultyweb.cortland.edu/douglas.armstead/.
“Measurement of Viscosity of Liquid.” Accessed November 6, 2022.
https://niser.ac.in/sps/sites/default/files/basic_page/viscosity_2016.pdf.
Physics 1. Accessed November 6, 2022. http://aldebaran.feld.cvut.cz/vyuka/physics_1/.
“School of Physical Sciences.” School of Physical Sciences | National Institute of Science
Education and Research. Accessed November 6, 2022. https://oldsite.niser.ac.in/sps/.
Need to put in at least one in-text citation