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51]

Review Article

Marine environmental radioactivity measurement

programme in India
S. K. Jha, S. J. Sartandel, R. M. Tripathi
Environmental Radioactivity Measurement Section, Health Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Trombay,
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Abstract
Coastal marine Environmental Radioactivity Measurement Programme in India assume significance in view of massive expansion of
nuclear power plants in the Asia Pacific region and to establish benchmark of specific radionuclides in coastal marine environment.
In the present study Marine Environmental Surveillance was carried out along the east and west coast of India. Fallout out 137Cs and
naturally occurring 226Ra, 228Ra were assessed by in house developed in-situ pre-concentration method using copper ferrcyanide
and manganese di-oxide coated filter cartridges. 137Cs activity concentration mapped for Indian coastal region varied from 0.30
to 1.25 Bq m-3 and these were compared with 137Cs levels of Asia Pacific Region. The marine surveillance data also indicates no
input from any source including operation of nuclear power plant in east and west coast of India.

Keywords: Activity concentration, Indian coast, large volume, pre-concentration

INTRODUCTION nonexistent at most of the locations. The understanding

and the evaluation of the possible interaction of various
Environmental monitoring is one of the major activities anthropogenic pollutants with the coastal marine
necessary to ensure protection of environment and human environment of the east and west coast of Indian
health from the wide spectrum of materials released into sub‑continent assumed significance about five decades
the environment as a result of technological developments. ago with the setting of nuclear power plants, release of
The unique activities of assessing the impact of operations industrial, domestic, and sewage waste in coastal water.[1]
beyond plant boundaries were initiated by the nuclear The initiation of the marine monitoring program of the
industries as an operational responsibility right from environmental studies for nuclear sites was made at
its inception. The care and concern for the environment Trombay following the setting of the research center in
shown by the nuclear industries slowly permeated to 1957.
have environmental activities and today it is mandatory
to have an environmental impact assessment and The study of radioactivity in the marine environment is
environmental management plan for any proposed filled with challenges. The sea and their depths are not
industrial activities. It is particularly significant that easily accessible; the environment is ever changing, and
marine environmental surveillance program for nuclear special techniques are needed for the measurement of
technological development in our country was started very low‑level of radionuclides present. Environmental
at a time when environmental data were either sparse or radioactivity measurement facilitated in; (i) assessing
the short‑term and long‑term impact of man‑made
Address for correspondence:
Dr. S. K. Jha, Environmental Radioactivity Measurement Section,
sources of marine radioactivity, (ii) characterizing the
Health Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre distribution of key radioactivity pollutants in regional
Trombay ‑ 400 085, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. ocean/sea, (iii) establishing benchmark of specific
E‑mail: skjha@barc.gov.in

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DOI: How to cite this article: Jha SK, Sartandel SJ, Tripathi RM. Marine
10.4103/0972-0464.169368 environmental radioactivity measurement programme in India. Radiat
Prot Environ 2015;38:72-7.

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Jha, et al.: Marine environmental radioactivity measurement

radionuclides in coastal marine environment against and 228Ra an beta emitting particle (half-life = 5.8 years)
which future man‑made contribution can be assessed, (iv) of 232Th decay series. Distribution of radium isotopes in
understanding transport process and the fate and the water column depends[4] on their respective half‑lives
behavior of pollutants in marine environment.[1,2] In the as well as the distribution of their parent nuclides in the
past decades, the method for detection and measurement sediments. In the light of the possible radio‑ecological
of radioactivity in the marine environment has improved significance[5] in the environment, investigation of the
vastly, and a large database has been generated. distribution of 226Ra and 228Ra in sea water was a part of
the environmental surveillance program.[6]
SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVITY IN MARINE
ENVIRONMENT However, artificial radionuclides or radionuclides
associated with human activities have become to a large
Environmental radioactivity is ubiquitous and virtually all extent, the focus of regulatory control. The major sources
materials in the environments on our planet are exposed to of artificial radionuclides in the marine environment are:
ionizing radiation. The two sources of radioactivity in the • Nuclear weapon testing in the atmosphere or under
marine say, seafood, as with the terrestrial environment, water
are natural and artificial. Table 1 gives the overall estimate • Controlled, routine release of low‑level radioactive
of radioactivity in oceans. The naturally occurring effluents by nuclear power plant and related
predominant radionuclides are 40K with a half‑life of installations
1.28 × 109 years, 232Th with a half‑life of 1.405 × 1010 years, • Nuclear accidents such as the Chernobyl accident
and 238U with a half‑life of 4.468 × 109 years. Both 232Th accidents involving nuclear‑powered submarines,
and 238U have decay products that also contribute to the or reentry of satellites with radioactive materials
of humans from consumption of seafood. One of these • Sea dumping of radioactive waste.
decay products, alpha‑emitting 210Po from the 238U decay
series, is considered to contribute significantly to dose Of these major sources, atmospheric nuclear weapon
from ingestion of marine products.[3] Its parent in the testing is considered as the most significant contributor to
decay series, 210Pb, serves as a natural tracer that provides the presence of radionuclides in the marine environment.[7]
historical information on land‑based and atmospheric
inputs into the marine environment. In the recent years, In 1946, the first planned disposal of packaged radioactive
there has also been an increased recognition of the wastes into the deep sea took place in the Northeast Pacific
radiological significance of nonnuclear process of natural Oceans. This waste management strategy was adopted
radioactivity build-up in particular, 226Ra, 228Ra, 222Rn, 210Po, in order to isolate radionuclides from man’s terrestrial
and 210Pb produced, for example by phosphate processing environment, while allowing these radionuclides to decay
plants, offshore oil and gas installations, and ceramic to a level that no longer pose an unacceptable health risk
industries, etc., UNSCEAR-2000. 226Ra an alpha emitter to man. In 1972, the convention on the prevention of
(half-life = 1602 years) of the primordial 238U decay series marine pollution by dumping of wastes and other matter
which was held in London, that is, London Dumping
Convention (LDC) was adopted and later entered
Table 1: Environmental radioactivity in oceans
into force in 1975. The LDC designated International
(Σ=13.7 Bq/l)
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as the international
Nuclide Activity Origin
competent authority with respect to sea dumping of
(mBq/l)
radioactive wastes. In 1983, a nonbinding moratorium
40
K (40potassium) 11,800 Primordial
on sea dumping was proposed by LDC. Thus, the last sea
87
Rb (87rubidium) 107 Primordial dumping operation on record was in 1982 in the Atlantic
234
U (234uranium) 48.1 Primordial Ocean. In the span of 36 years, 12 countries have disposed
238
U (238uranium) 44.4 Primordial in 47 sites, a total of about 46 PBq or 1.24 MCi of mainly
210
Pb (210lead) 11.4-118 Atmospheric solid or solidified low‑level radioactive waste in the sea.
210
Po (210polonium) 28.1-85.1 Atmospheric
and 210Pb
From the prospects of regulatory agencies, a database
3
H (3tritium) 11-22 Cosmogenic
dealing mainly with the artificial radionuclide will be
14
C (14carbon) 7.4 Cosmogenic
useful to provide benchmark values in order to assess
3
H (3hydrogen) 1147-2738 Fallout the impact of future radionuclide input into the marine
137
Cs (137caesium) 0.25-29.6 Fallout environment. Among these artificial radionuclides,
90
Sr (90strontium) 0.74-18.5 Fallout 137
Cs and 239,240Pu were considered of primary interest
14
C (14carbon) 0.37-1.48 Fallout in terms of existing inventories and significance
239+240
Pu (239plutonium 0.011-0.044 Fallout to health. Both these radionuclides are considered
and 240plutonium) as important indicators of radioactive pollution of

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Jha, et al.: Marine environmental radioactivity measurement

the marine environment and good tracers of water is required to be sampled. In this situation, collecting
movement. hundreds of liters of water from different locations,
field processing such as acidification, tracer addition,
SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT transportation, etc., will add to the complexity in the
measurement of the activity.[8] In the new developed
A wide range of seafood and indicator materials method cesium isotope in dissolved phase was sequestered
routinely monitored in environmental surveillance are using sorption material copper ferrocyanide coated on 1 µm
reported in Table 2. The frequency of measurement pore size filter cartridge. Figure 1 gives the various process
depends on the level of environmental impact from involved in sample preparation and measurement of 137Cs
the source under scrutiny, with the intervals between in sea water. The preconcentrated copper ferrocyanide
measurements varying between 1‑week and 1‑year. cartridges were ashed in a furnace at 350°C and analyzed
Indicator materials such as seawater, sediment, and biota using gamma spectrometric technique [Figure 2].
are sampled to provide information on current status
and trends in contamination levels in the environment. QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY
These materials can concentrate particular radionuclides
and offer a cost‑effective means of determining levels Marine environmental radioactivity laboratory developed
of activity in the environment. Generated data helps to procedure appropriate for Indian condition, documented
distinguish contributions to the overall dose rates from and implemented an appropriate (quality control [QC])
artificial and natural radionuclides. program. Accurate and precise determination of
radionuclide concentrations in marine samples is crucial
The natural and man-made radionuclides as discussed in for reliable marine radioactivity assessment. Validity
Table 1 in seawater exists in trace levels, which quite often of the environmental monitoring data is ensured by
present difficulties in actual measurement by employing proper choice of sampling location, sampling frequency,
existing method. To generate data on activity in radium adoption of appropriate sensitive techniques, counting
in marine seawater, on‑site pre-concentration using MnO2 instruments, and QC program. Periodic inter‑laboratory
coated polypropylene filter cartridges was adapted.[5] and intercomparison exercise, use of reference sample,
After pre-concentration, the cartridges were ashed in a and replicate analysis are some of the programs
furnace at 500–550°C, filled in standard geometry and perused for ensuring the reliability of analytical
analyzed by gamma‑ray spectrometric technique. results. Environmental Radioactivity Measurement
Section; Health Physics Division had participated in
The common practice of 137 Cs measurement was special proficiency test organized in the frame of the
by adsorption of the radionuclides on ammonium IAEA Technical Cooperation project RAS/7/021. This
phosphomolybdate which is routinely used in the proficiency test involved checking national capability
laboratory. This is effective with samples containing in field measurement, homogenization, and developed
significant activity. In case of measurement of low‑level analytical method for low‑level contamination of
activity such as fallout levels, a large volume of sea water cesium isotopes in sea water. The results of proficiency

Table 2: Details of sample preparation, analytical techniques, detection limits, and observed normal
range of radionuclides involved in regular environmental surveillance in sea water
Radionuclide Sample preparation Analytical technique Sample size Normal range (mBq/l) Detection
required required (l) limit (mBq/l)
238
U Fe(OH)3 precipitation Alpha spectrometry 20 44.4 0.12
226
Ra Fe(OH)3, BaSO4 precipitation Alpha spectrometry 20 0.7-5.6 0.12
228
Ra Fe(OH)3, BaSO4 precipitation Alpha spectrometry 20 0.9-9.4 0.12
226
Ra Preconcentration Gamma spectrometry 1000 0.7-5.6 0.2
228
Ra Using MnO2 0.9-9.4
234
Th Fe(OH)3 precipitation Gamma spectrometry 50 0.05-0.68 0.12
210
Po Fe(OH)3 precipitation Alpha spectrometry 20 0.13-2.1 0.12
137
Cs AMP precipitation Gamma spectrometry 100 0.1-1.3 0.1
137
Cs Preconcentration Using Gamma spectrometry 1000 0.1-1.3 0.02
CuFe(CN)6
Pu
239+240
Co-precipitation Fe(OH)3 Alpha spectrometry 500-1000 10−3 0.12
241
Am Co-precipitation Alpha spectrometry 500-1000 0.1×10−3–5×10−3 0.12
40
K Evaporation and Gamma spectrometry/ 2 11.8 Bq/l/300-500 1700
concentration (2 l) indirect method using AAS ppm total potassium
AAS: Atomic absorption spectrometry

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Jha, et al.: Marine environmental radioactivity measurement

PUMP Flow
meter
Sea water sample pumped ~ Sample ash in
1000 liters standard counting
geometry

10 µ 5µ 0.5µ 1µ 1µ

Pre-filter cartridges Copper Ferrocyanide Combust at 400oC compress and

impregnated fill in standard counting geometry
cotton filter cartridge for gamma spectrometric analysis

Large volume in-situ extraction sampler deployed Acquisition of Spectrum of 137Cs in pre-concentrated
in field sample on HPGeSpectrometer

Figure 1: Sea water preconcentration technique for cesium radioisotopes

requirement of large volume samples, cumbersome

chemical separation from large samples size, time
constraint, financial constraint, etc., Only very limited
studies were carried out in Indian Oceans to understand
the spatial variation of 137Cs in the coastal area of India.
With the developed capability, an attempt has been
made for low‑level measurement to trace anthropogenic
137
Cs contribution due to global fallout in sea water
of Indian coastal area at the national scale. India also
actively participates in regional and international
Figure 2: Acquired gamma spectrum of Cs-137 preconcentrated on initiated activities in marine pollution studies and
copper ferrocyanide impregnated filter cartridge controls. For the marine radioactivity database, India has
participated in following international marine projects
test as depicted in Figure 3 validated the in situ namely; RAS/8/083 management of the marine coastal
pre-concentration of high volume sea water for cesium environment and its pollution (1996–1999), RAS/7/011
radioisotopes. The results also ensure the international enhancing the marine coastal environment phase II (1999–
community for the accurate and precise determination 2003), ROK/06/001 mitigation of coastal impact of natural
of radionuclide activity in sea water.[9] The laboratory disasters like tsunami, using nuclear or isotope‑based
is also regularly participating in the measurement of techniques (post tsunami environmental impact
environmental radioactivity and other intercomparison assessment) (2006–2009), RAS/7/016 establishment of
exercise conducted by national and international a benchmark for assessing the radiological impact of
agencies. Table 3 gives the results of a few participated nuclear power activities on the marine environment in
international intercomparison exercises. the Asia‑Pacific region (2007–2011) and the on‑going
RAS/7/21 marine benchmark study on the possible
Cs DISTRIBUTION IN INDIAN COASTAL
137 impact of the Fukushima radioactive releases in the
REGION COMPARED TO ASIA‑PACIFIC Asia‑Pacific region (2011–2015).
REGION
The study has helped in understanding the behavior
The absence of significant radionuclide sampling mission of existing 137Cs global fallout level and its depletion
for 137Cs concentration in the Indian coastal region was from surface seawater of Asia‑Pacific region. Figure 4
mainly due to a number of constraints which includes, gives the frequency distribution of 137Cs concentration

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Jha, et al.: Marine environmental radioactivity measurement

2.00
2.00
Ratio of reported lab value to Ratio of reported lab value to respective
1.80
respective IAEA taget value 1.80 IAEA target value

Ratio of Lab Reported Values to IAEA

1.60
Ratio of Lab Reported Values to IAEA

Target ratio 1.60 Target ratio

1.40 1.40
1.20 1.20

Target Values
Target Values

1.00 1.00
0.80 0.80
India India
0.60 0.60

0.40 0.40

0.20 0.20

0.00 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Laboratory Code
Laboratory Code Ratio of reported Lab value to respective IAEA target value
Ratio of reported Lab value to respective IAEA target value for activity of 137Cs
for activity of 134Cs

Figure 3: Results of special proficiency test conducted under RAS/7/21 “Marine Benchmark study on the possible impact of the Fukushima
radioactive releases in the Asia-Pacific Region”

Table 3: Results of QA/QC exercise participated by the laboratory

Name of proficiency test Radionuclide Matrix Activity (Bq/kg)
Target value Laboratory value
IAEA-RCA RAS/7/021 134
Cs Sea water 0.0734±0.0013 0.0707±0.004
proficiency test
137
Cs 0.1003±0.0011 0.1027±0.006
IAEA-TEL-2011–2004 137
Cs Spiked water-1 3.1±0.1 3.39±0.21
Spiked water-2 4.4±0.1 4.72±0.11
Soil 14.4±0.6 13.7±0.3
IAEA-TEL-2012–2003 137
Cs Spiked water 102.5±0.75 100.6±3.2
IAEA-TEL-2014–2003 134
Cs Spiked water-1 21.4±0.2 21.32±0.5
137
Cs 12.06±0.1 12.14±0.21
241
Am Spiked water-2 16.25±0.2 15.48±0.2
152
Eu 50.05±0.41 49.93±1.4
226
Ra 14.21±0.06 16.7±0.23
134
Cs Spiked seaweed 8.27±0.2 8.58±0.88
137
Cs 22.96±0.45 23.25±1.1
40
K 1780±150 1728±65
137
Cs Sediment 12.0±0.4 13.45±0.7
228
Ac 12.1±1.5 12.45±0.89
214
Bi 15.9±2.4 20.61±1.31
40
K 270±27 242±8
210
Pb 19.6±4.5 21.0±1.9
212
Pb 12.2±1.5 10.74±0.56
226
Ra 19.0±4.8 18.19±1.09
208
Tl 4.1±0.7 3.84±0.54
QA.QC: Quality assurance/quality control, IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency

in the Arabian Sea which indicates the maxima at range appeared in the Asia‑Pacific marine radioactivity
0.80 Bq m−3. Figure 5 shows nonuniform distribution of database 0.26–11.47 Bq m−3 [Figure 6].[11]
137
Cs concentration at the different sampling locations
covering the Indian coastal region extending from 8.09°N CONCLUSIONS
77.43°E to 22.48°N 69.07°E along the western coast and
8.06°N 77.55°E‑21.60°N 87.53°E along the eastern coast.[10] The observed concentration of 137Cs in the offshore
Mean 137Cs activity concentration in surface water was coastal environment was found to be lower as compared
found to vary from 0.09 to 1.30 Bq m−3 with an overall with the marine water of Asia‑Pacific region. The
mean of 0.69 ± 0.29 Bq m−3. The obtained value lies in the marine surveillance data also indicate no radionuclide

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Jha, et al.: Marine environmental radioactivity measurement

9 contribution from any source including the operation

8
of the nuclear power plant in East and West coast of
India. Frequent participation in intercomparison exercise
7
conducted by international agencies has increased the
6 reliability of generated data. The result will be useful as
Frequency

5
the reference source on the average level of 137Cs in the
surface water of Indian coastal environment.
4

3 Financial support and sponsorship

2 Nil.
1
Conflicts of interest
0
0.65-0.70 0.71-0.75 0.76-0.80 0.81-0.85 0.86-0.90 0.91-0.95 There are no conflicts of interest.
Cs Acitivy Concentation (Bq/m3)
137

Figure 4: Frequency distribution of 137Cs (Bq/m3) in Arabian Sea

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Figure 5: 137
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