HS1101 Communication Skills I – B.

Tech 1st year (SEM1)

Externals: 60 Marks L-T-P-C*
Internals: 40 Marks 2-0-0-1

Objectives:
1. To make the students efficient communicators via experiential learning.
2. To enhance learners' analytical and creative skills, so that they will be capable to address a wide
variety of challenges in their professional lives.
3. To help learners to improve the leadership qualities and professional etiquette
4. To expose learners to an effective communicative environments.

OUTCOMES:
Students will be able to:
1. develop interpersonal communication, small group interactions and public speaking.
2. exercise the writing assignments, precise writing for informational, persuasive and creative
purposes.
3. apply right form of structural usage of sentences in their written and oral communication.
4. develop confidence and skills related reading comprehension.
5. improve a logical framework for the critical analysis of spoken, written, visual and mediated
messages upon a diverse platforms.
6. demonstrate the ability to apply vocabulary in practical situations.

Unit I – Introduction to communication

Introduction – Importance of Communication Skills – Definition – Scope and Nature – Verbal and
Nonverbal communication
Unit II – Reading Skills
Reading Comprehension of unseen passage – Prose – News Paper Reading and Analysis (Editorial)
Unit III - Grammar
1. Parts of Speech
2. Subject and predicate
3. Articles – Determiners
 4. Conjunctions (Linkers; connectors; cohesive devices)
5. Verbs – Transitive and Intransitive - Finite and Infinite - Regular and Irregular - Modals
6. Tenses
7. Prepositions/ Prepositional verbs
8. Adverbs – types and their order in sentences
9. Adjectives
10. Including Degrees of Comparison and also Quantifiers
Unit IV – Enhancing Vocabulary
Developing Professional vocabulary – Using Dictionary: Spelling – Grammar and Usage

Unit V - Composition
Paragraph – Essay - Expansion - Describing the Pictures – Giving Directions – Situational Dialogue
writing – Social and Professional Etiquette – Telephone Etiquette

Suggested References:
1. Joseph Mylal Biswas book of English Grammar

2. R. Murphy -Cambridge Press

3. Wren and Martin

4. The Good Grammar book by OUP

5. Communication skills by M. Raman and Sangeeta Sharma

6. How to Win Friends and Influence people by Dale Carnigie

7. How to Read and Write Better by Norman Lewis

8. Better English by Norman Lewis

9. Use of English Collocations by OUP

10. www.humptiesgrammar.com

11.www.bbcenglisgh.com

12.www.gingersoftware.com

13. www.pintest.com
 Unit I – Introduction to Communication

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain what is meant by the word „communication‰ in general;

2. Identify the main elements in the communication process;
3. Differentiate between oral and written communication;
4. Highlight some basic tips on writing; and
5. List the common pitfalls to avoid in written communication.

Introduction To Communication

This topic gives you an overview of communication and introduces you to the main elements of the
communication process. It also highlights the importance of writing clear, positive messages and
offers you some basic tips and guidelines on this form of communication so that you may become
more proficient in the kind of writing needed at home as well as in the college and workplace. You
will also learn about some of the common pitfalls which may impede the effectiveness of written
communication.

Why Are Communication Skills Important?

Communication is the heart of every organization. Everything you do in the workplace results from
communication. Therefore good reading, writing, speaking and listening skills are essential if tasks
are going to be completed and goals achieved. As you develop your career you will find various
reasons why successful communication skills are important to you, for example:

To secure an interview:

You will need good communication skills to make sure your application letter is read and acted
upon.

To get the job:

You will need to communicate well during your interview if you are to sell yourself and get the job
you want.

To do your job well:

You will need to request information, discuss problems, give instructions, work in teams, interact
with colleagues and clients. If you are to achieve co-operation and effective teamwork, good human
relations skills are essential. Also, as the workplace is also becoming more global, there are many
factors to consider if you are to communicate well in such a diverse environment.

To advance in your career:

Employers want staff that can think for themselves, use initiative and solve problems, staff who are
interested in the long-term success of the company. If you are to be seen as a valued member of the
organization, it is important not just to be able to do your job well, but also to communicate your
thoughts on how the processes and products or services can be improved.

Benefits of effective communication:

The most successful organizations understand that if they are to be successful in today’s business
world, good communication at all levels is essential. Here is a useful mnemonic to remember the
benefits you and your organization can achieve from effective communication:

Stronger decision-making and problem-solving

Upturn in productivity

Convincing and compelling corporate materials

Clearer, more streamlined workflow

Enhanced professional image

Sound business relationships

Successful response ensured

What Are Communication Skills?

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another.
If someone has superb communication skills, he or she probably has an aptitude for clearly and
collectedly conveying and receiving messages to and from others both verbally and through body
language, including facial expressions, eye contact, arm movement, and posture. General
communication skills are important for everyday communication in all situations when you are
exchanging conversation with someone else. They are helpful from small talk to deep conversation.

What is Verbal Communication?

Verbal communication encompasses any form of communication involving words, spoken, written
or signed. The conversation we have with our coworker at lunch, the morning news or the sports
page we read in the morning--even the text message you send to your spouse telling him to pick up
some milk is a form of verbal communication. Our ability to communicate with a language that is
based on an organized system of words, rather than merely sounds, is what sets us apart from lower
species. Not only do we have language, but we also have the technology that enables us to
communicate with one another no matter the physical distance.

We use verbal communication for most purposes. Verbal communication may be oral or written.

a) ORAL COMMUNICATION:

Oral Communication is more natural and immediately available for responding to a comment /
statement. In natural and informal situations, we speak readily without hesitation in order to
communicate with others; but in a formal and official situation, many persons feel nervous and
cannot speak easily. It needs training, practice and skill to speak effectively in a formal situation.

Oral communication requires the presence and simultaneous attention of both the persons. Need for
personal presence makes certain demands on the skills of both; each must be able to respond to the
body language of the other, and must be able to make immediate response to what the other says.
Oral communication occurs in situations like conversations, telephone talk, interviews,
presentations, group discussions, and meetings.

FACE-TO-FACE CONVERSATION: Oral communication is best when it is face-to-face. A face-

to-face setting is possible between two individuals or among a small group of persons at an
interview, or in a small meeting, where both the sender and the receiver could see each other and
communicate. Communication can flow both ways in these situations. Here, an immediate feedback,
which gives clarification, is possible. Besides, a face-to-face setting offers a rich communication
experience owing to the presence of the living personality whose voice, tone, expressions and
movements add significance to the words

TELEPHONE TALK: Telephone talk depends entirely on the voice and its quality. It does not have
the advantage of physical presence or facial expressions since there is no option to look at others
physical appearance at live. Clarity of speech and skillful use of voice are important in this kind of
communication. There can be confusion between similar sounding words like “pale” and “bale”, or
between “light” and “like”. Names and addresses communicated on the telephone are sometimes
wrongly received. It is therefore customary in telephonic conversation to clarify spellings by saying
G for God, P for pen etc.

PRESENTATION: It has a face-to-face setting. It is a formal, well-prepared talk on a specific topic,

delivered to knowledgeable and interested audience. It looks odd and slumbers if the presentation is
not welcomed by the audience to which it is presented. At times a touch of humor always enriches
the presentation. The purpose for such kind of communication is to give / pass on the information
rather than making them dull and sleepy.

PUBLIC SPEECH: A public speech or lecture also has a face-to-face setting, but here the space
between the speaker and audience do matters. This distance increases as the audience gets larger, as
in an open air public meeting. This way of communication much depends on the speaker’s skill in
using gestures and using the microphone in the correct order.

INTERVIEW: An interview is a meeting at which one person or panel of persons, who are the
interviewers, discuss a matter with another person or ask questions of another person, who is the
interviewee. The purpose is, usually to assess, to judge whether it would be worthwhile to enter into
a relationship with the other. An interview is of structured question and answer type of
communication.

MEETING: Usually a meeting involves many persons; there is a chair person or leader who leads
and guides the communication and maintains perfect order. There is a fixed agenda, that is, a list of
issues to be discussed at the meeting. Meetings are of many types, from the small committee meeting
consisting of three or four persons to the large conference or the share holders’ meeting. This type of
oral communication is backed up by note-taking and writing up of minutes.

b) WRITTEN COMMUNICATION:

Written communication is used for many purposes. Many types of documents are required for
official work. Letters, circulars, memos, notices, reports and minutes are constantly prepared and
exchanged in and between organizations. All has a format and layout which is fixed by custom.
Letter: Letters are the most widely used form of written communication. They are used mostly for
external communication. A letter has a complex lay-out which has to be carefully followed.

Memo: Memo, short form of memorandum, is an informal message between members of an

organization and generally relates to daily work. Information or instructions can be conveyed by a
memo. A memo may or may not be signed.

Notice: A notice is used in order to communicate the same message within an organization. It is the
most common method of mass communication, within an organization. It should be short, its
language should be simple and the type should be large and well spaced for easy reading.

Circular: A circular is a detailed document giving information, instructions or orders on a specific

matter. A circular has a number and date for reference, and is signed by the authorized signatory of
the issuing office. They are generally issued by government department and other official bodies like
government departments, councils, universities and Head Offices of organizations.

Report: A report is a document prepared by an individual or a committee entrusted with the task of
collecting information on a given subject. It requires careful research, collection of data and
presentation of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. Reports are of varying length and
may be anything from two pages to a full book dived into chapters.

Minutes: Minutes are the written record of decisions taken at a meeting. Different bodies have their
own convention of recordings the discussion and the decisions. Minutes may be written by hand or
typed and pasted in minute books, or typed and filled in a minute file. Minutes are a legal document.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal methods of communication can be consciously created and used with both written and
oral communication. Graphics of all kinds can enrich the message presented in a document or in a
speech. Pictures, maps, charts, diagrams, sketches, cutouts, models, etc., communicate more
effectively quality vice and clarity vice than verbal communication. Apart from these symbols we
consciously may convey the meaning by facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, clothing, posture,
etc. These are called body language. They do communicate more than verbal communication.

Non-verbal communication occurs even when there is no verbal communication. Going by the road
side, on seeing the no parking board, we are not parking our vehicles near it. Rather a NSS volunteer
person when suggesting not to leave our vehicle in that place, often we ignore him. Thus we say that
non-verbal communication, by way of a picture here, communicates something more than what is
communicated through verbal communication. Henceforth, a good understanding of non-verbal
communication will entitle a person or persons to communicate more effectively than what is
conveyed through verbal communication.

What is Non-Verbal Communication?

Verbal communication coexists alongside non-verbal communication, which can affect people’s
perceptions and exchanges in subtle but significant ways. Non-verbal communication includes body
language, such as gestures, facial expressions, eye contact and posture. Touch is a non-verbal
communication that not only indicates a person’s feelings or level of comfort, but illustrates
personality characteristics as well. A firm handshake or warm hug indicates something very different
than a loose pat on the back or a timid handshake does. The sound of our voice, including pitch, tone
and volume are also forms of non-verbal communication. The meaning behind someone’s words is
often entirely different than the literal translation, as is seen in instances of sarcasm and mockery.
The clothing we wear and the way we design our living space are also forms of non-verbal
communication that frequently shape people’s judgments about others, regardless of whether or not
the perceptions are true.
 Unit II – Reading Skills

Outcomes:

 help your students understand the relation between reading purpose and
reading efficiency;

 give your students practice in the sub-skills of skimming for an overall

idea and scanning for specific information;
  help your students understand text structure, so that they can distinguish
between main, subordinate ideas and illustrations, and digression, if any;
and

 help your students develop their reading efficiency by modifying their

style of reading to suit the purpose for which they are reading.

What is reading comprehension?

Reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning from text. The goal of all reading
instruction is ultimately targeted at helping a reader comprehend text. Reading comprehension
involves at least two people: the reader and the writer. The process of comprehending involves
decoding the writer's words and then using background knowledge to construct an approximate
understanding of the writer's message.

What factors affect reading comprehension?

While word identification is a process that results in a fairly exact outcome (i.e., a student either
reads the word "automobile" or not) the process of comprehending text is not so exact. Different
readers will interpret an author's message in different ways. Comprehension is affected by the
reader's knowledge of the topic, knowledge of language structures, knowledge of text structures and
genres, knowledge of cognitive and Meta cognitive strategies, their reasoning abilities, their
motivation, and their level of engagement.

Reading comprehension is also affected by the quality of the reading material. Some writers are
better writers than others, and some writers produce more complex reading material than others. Text
that is well organized and clear is called "considerate text," and text that is poorly organized and
difficult to understand can be called "inconsiderate text." The more inconsiderate the text, the more
work will be required of a reader to comprehend the text. Readers who do not have the background,
abilities, or motivation to overcome the barriers presented in inconsiderate text will have more
difficulty comprehending these types of texts.

Students who had trouble learning to decode and recognize words often will have difficulty with
reading comprehension. Students who struggle with decoding rarely have a chance to interact with
more difficult text and often learn to dislike reading. As a result, these students do not have sufficient
opportunities to develop the language skills and strategies necessary for becoming proficient readers.

Readers with poorly developed language skills and strategies will not have the tools to take
advantage of the obvious structures and comprehension cues that are part of considerate text nor will
they have the extra tools needed to overcome the barriers of inconsiderate text.

The type of instruction that a student receives will also affect reading comprehension. Strategies for
improving reading comprehension must be taught directly by teachers. Simply providing
opportunities or requiring for children to read will not teach many students the comprehension
strategies they need to be proficient readers. These need to be taught directly as students learn to
read simple sentences and this direct instruction need to continue in different forms throughout a
student's elementary and secondary school experience.

Sub skills of Reading

Searching quickly for a specific piece of information or a

particular word. For example, when looking up a word in a
dictionary, an address in a directory or the flight arrival
schedule of a particular flight, we do not read entire pages or
a) Scanning: passages. We search for the keywords or ideas because we
know what we are looking for. Scanning involves moving
our eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and
phrases.
 Reading through a text quickly to get an overall idea of the
contents; that is, the gist of the passage. For example,
before buying a book we glance quickly at the cover page,
b) Skimming: the reviewer’s comments on the back cover (also called
book jacket), the contents page, etc., to get a general idea of
its contents.

Activity 1: Reading for gist: Skimming

In real life, we read a variety of materials in the languages we know
(our home language or English, for example). Some materials like
course books are read with close attention to detail as we need to use
the information in examinations.

Other materials, like magazine articles, are read for pleasure. Then
Activity there are things like billboards and hoardings that we mostly read with
1 little concentration as we really do not need to use their information in
our daily activities.

In this activity, we will deal with the sub-skill of skimming, which is

used to get an overall idea of the text.

To begin the activity, ask the class to list the different types of things
they read. They will probably come up with things like textbooks,
storybooks, magazines, comics, signboards, letters, postcards, menu
cards, labels on things they buy, phone books, instruction manuals (for
phones, TVs, cameras, etc.), subtitles of English movies, maps,
encyclopaedias and so on. Now tell them to list these different types of
texts and classify them according to the reasons for reading them given
in column 2, in the table below. Write the list on the board as the
students respond.

Your board might look like this:

Kinds of things we read Reasons for reading

 Novels, short stories, fiction  For specific information

 Non-fiction, textbooks, travel  To pass an exam

books, encyclopedias
 To pass time
 Newspapers, journals,
 magazines, maps, directories,
dictionaries

 Forms, applications,  To know details of

questionnaires something

 Brochures, catalogues,  To have an overall idea

hoardings, advertisements,
 For having a general idea
notices, labels, posters,
displays at airports, stations,
etc.

 Letters, reports, proposals

Activity 2: Reading for specific information: Scanning

Activity Another important sub-skill of reading that all efficient readers use as a
2 strategy is called scanning, or looking for specific information.

To demonstrate the use of this sub-skill, have the students work in

pairs and say which kinds of texts given in the list below they read
very quickly, and why.

 A play

 A telephone directory, to look for someone’s phone number

 The sports page in the morning newspaper

 The school notice board

 The label on a bottle of jam, to find the price

 The back cover (jacket) of a book

 A shopping list

 The questions on the question paper in an exam

 The large advertisement on the main road

 The departure announcement board in a train station

 The booklet that came with the new CD player I bought recently
 Scanning is a very important reading skill that is frequently used for real-life purposes.

Activity 3: Understanding text and distinguishing text style

The texts we read do not all deal with their topic in the same style, and
do not all present information in a uniform, step-by-step manner. An
efficient reader is one who can recognise the style of paragraphs in a
prose text and know whether it deals with a main idea, a supporting
detail, illustrations, a detour or digression.

Activity Such a reader then knows which part needs to be read with more
3 attention to detail, and which part needs less concentration. This is not
to suggest that efficient readers are careless people who do not read a
passage thoroughly — it merely means that they can vary their reading
speed and comprehension according to the purpose for which they are
reading.

In this activity, you will be able to help your students understand how
to recognise whether a paragraph is dealing with main or subordinate
points, examples or digressions (that is, things that are not directly
related to the topic). One way in which this is done is by noticing the
use of special phrases that give us the necessary clue.

For this activity, first give students the following short paragraph and
ask them to underline the most important sentence in it and say how
they recognised it:

Unlike my friend Samuel, I enjoy coming to school. Regular school

attendance is very important for the development of knowledge. For
example, we not only get to learn from our teachers, we get a chance
to chat with our friends and share jokes. My cousin has a good store of
jokes.

They should have underlined the second sentence, and the word
important would probably have helped them decide. Now have them
match the sentences in the paragraph with the headings in the second
column in the table below:

Main idea
1. Unlike my friend
Samuel, I enjoy
 coming to school.

1 For example, we not

only get to learn from
our teachers, we get a Related idea
chance to chat with
our friends and share
jokes.

1 My cousin has a good Example

store of jokes.

1 Regular school
attendance is very Unrelated
important for the idea
development of
knowledge.

(Answers: Sentence 1 — Related idea, Sentence 2 — Example,

Sentence 3 — Unrelated idea and Sentence 4 — Main idea)
Draw the students’ attention to the fact that passages usually have a
mixture of all these types of sentences or paragraphs, and so we must
recognize which ones are important to remember. These need to be
read more slowly and carefully, while a lot of time need not be spent
on the less important sections. Sum up by introducing the terms Main
Idea, Subordinate Idea (related idea), Illustration (example) and
Digression (unrelated idea).

Clues that help us identify different styles are found in expressions

like:

An important point here is.../We want to emphasise that... (main

idea)

The reason for this is.../Another idea connected to this is...

(subordinate idea)

A good example of this is.../For instance,.../I would like to

illustrate this point by... (illustration)

By the way,.../We may note in passing that.../Something interesting,

but not directly related to this is... (digression)
 For more practice, give your students the exercises in Resource 3. You
could also bring to the class interesting passages from storybooks,
newspapers or magazines and have them identify the four categories.
To make them test their reading speed and comprehension, ask them to
time themselves and read the passages on their own the first time.
Then, working with a partner, ask them to identify the main and
subordinate ideas, illustrations and digressions, and then read the
passage again. This time, they should improve in both speed and
understanding.

Resource 3: Understanding text organization:

Resource Passage 1
3
Look at the picture: What fish is it? What do you know about this
fish? Have you ever seen such a fish?

Here is a short paragraph on this fish, but the sentences are not
arranged in the proper order. Your task is to arrange the sentences
correctly and number the sentences: Write 1 over the most important
sentence, 2 over a supporting detail or subordinate idea, 3 over an
illustration and 4 over any unrelated idea.

1. Are you afraid of sharks?

2. My uncle says that sharks have a bad reputation just because

people think that all sharks are killers.

3. I haven’t taken a seaside holiday for the last three years.

4. The largest sharks like the whale shark and the basking shark
are not killers.

5. There are, of course, several other types of sharks that use their
rows of sharp teeth to tear apart everything, including human
 beings!

6. But the next time you see a shark, try not to be scared. Even if
you fall into the water, it may not attack you.

(Correct sequence: 1, 2, 4, 5, 3, 6)

Main idea (1): 2

Subordinate idea (2): 1, 5, 6

Illustration (3): 4

Digression (4): 3

Passage 2

Does your family rear cattle? What kinds of products do we get from
cattle?

Here is a passage on livestock farming in Kenya. The paragraphs are

all numbered. Discuss them with a partner, and say which paragraphs
deal with main ideas, subordinate ideas, illustrations and digressions.
(Note: Some passages may not contain all these categories. In the
passage below, for example, there is no digression. Draw the students’
attention to this during the discussion and make sure they understand
that it does not signal a weakness in the text.)

Beef and livestock farming

1. Beef farming is the rearing of cattle for meat production

whereas dairy farming is the rearing of cattle for milk
production. Kenya has a cattle population of about 10 million
herds.

2. Beef farming is widespread in Kenya but more common in drier

parts of the rift valley: North-Eastern, Eastern and Nyanza.
About 90 per cent of beef cattle in Kenya are kept by
subsistence farmers and pastoralists. There are cattle ranches in
Laikipia, Trans-Nzoia, Malindi, Molo, and Kajiando.

3. Examples of breeds are Zebu and Boran; crossbreeds include

Hereford, Aberdeen Angus and Galloway. Beef is consumed
countrywide. Canning and freezing are done in Nairobi, Thika
 and Nakuru.

1 Dairy farming is important for the following reasons:

i. It provides milk which is a source of protein

 ii. Milk is used in the production of the other products such
as chocolate, biscuits, sweets, butter and cheese

iii. The animal waste is used as manure

iv. It has also led to the establishment of industries and Kenya

Meat Commission that offers employment

1 The following are the most common dairy breeds in Kenya.

Ayrshire: White and red

Friesian: White and
in colour.
black in colour. The
forehead and the feet
are usually white.

Jersey: Brown in colour Guernsey: Brown in

and the smallest of the colour. Some are white
 four breeds. on their lower
abdomen.

c) Extensive Reading:
It is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject and includes reading longer texts for
pleasure, as well as business books. It improves our general knowledge of business procedures.
Some of the examples of extensive reading are the latest marketing strategy book, a novel you
read before going to bed and a magazine article that interest you.
d) Intensive Reading:
It is used on shorter texts in order to extract specific information. It includes very close accurate
reading for detail. Use intensive reading skills to grasp the details of a specific situation. In this
case, it is important that you understand each word, number or fact.
Some examples are a bookkeeping report, an insurance claim and a contract.
e) Guessing the meanings of Unfamiliar Words:

Good readers tackle unknown words in a text by trying to guess their meanings from the
context. It is not possible to look up the meanings of all unknown words in the dictionary. If
the reader attempts to do that the flow of reading is interrupted. However, this is possible only
when the text does not have too many difficult words.

f) Note-Making:

Note-making is a sub-skill of reading that is highly useful for study purposes. It involves
understanding the organization of the text and being able to identify the main points and the
supporting details, in skeleton or outline form.
 UNIT- 3 English Grammar

What is a sentence?
Sentence:

'A group of words with complete sense is called a sentence.'

or
"A set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a
statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one
or more subordinate clauses."

B
declarative (definition) a sentence that makes a
statement
declarative (punctuation) use a period
interrogative (definition) a sentence that asks a
question
interrogative use a question mark
(punctuation)
imperative (definition) a sentence that
 commands or requests
imperative (punctuation) use a period or
exclamation mark
exclamatory (definition) a sentence that shows
excitement
exclamatory use an exclamation mark
(punctuation)
declarative - sentence I need some new socks.
declarative - sentence A pencil is on the floor.
interrogative - sentence Do you know my phone
number?
exclamatory - sentence I won the lottery!
imperative - sentence Go clean your room.
declarative - sentence Sally decorated her house
for the holidays.
exclamatory - sentence Wow, I got a 100!
imperative - sentence Please take out the trash.
interrogative - sentence How is your mother?
declarative - sentence I like Raindew water.
declarative - sentence I like Poland Springs.
interrogative - sentence How about you?
declarative (fact) The most common type
of sentence
imperative (fact about contains an "understood"
subject) YOU as subject
imperative (fact about Often begins with an
parts of speech) action verb

Part of Speech Overview:

In the English language, words can be considered as the smallest elements that have distinctive
meanings.

Based on their use and functions, words are categorized into several types or parts of speech.

There are 8 major parts of speech in English grammar: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Adverb, Verb,
Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection.
There are thousands of words but they don't all have the same job. For example:
● some words express action
● other words express things
● other words join one word to another word

These are the "building blocks" of the language. Think of them like the parts of a house.
When we want to build a house, similarly when we want to build a sentence, we use the different
 types of word.
Each type of word has its own job.
● verb (deliver - expresses action)
● noun (computer - expresses a thing)
● adjective (yellow - tells us more about a noun)
● adverb (quickly - tells us more about a verb)
The other parts of speech are mostly small words:
● pronoun (it - replaces a noun)
● preposition (on - links a noun to another word)
● determiner (the - limits a noun)
● conjunction (and - joins words)
● interjection (ouch! - expresses feeling)

Parts of Speech Table

This is a summary of the 9 parts of speech.

part of function or example

speech "job" words example sentences

Verb action or state (to) be, have, Virat Kohili is a cricketer.

do, like,
 work, sing, I like sweets.
can, must

Noun Names pen, dog, This is my dog. He lives in

anything in the work, music, my house. We live
universe town, in Basar.
Rampur,
teacher,
Jayendra

Adjective describes a good, big, My dogs are big. I like big

noun red, well, dogs.
interesting

Determin limits or a/an, the, 2, I have two dogs and some

er "determines" a some, many rabbits.
noun

Adverb describes a quickly, My dog eats quickly.

verb, adjective silently, well, When he is very hungry, he
or adverb badly, very, eats really quickly.
really
Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, Tara is an Indian. She is a
she, some beautiful woman.

Prepositi links a noun to to, at, after, We went to school on

on another word on, but Monday.

Conjunct joins clauses or and, but, I like dogs and I like cats. I
ion sentences or when like cats and dogs. I like
words dogs but I don't like cats.

Interjecti short oh!, ouch!, Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How

on exclamation hi!, well are you? Well, I don't
used to express know.
sudden
emotions,
feelings

NOTE: Verbs may be treated as two different parts of speech:

Lexical Verbs (work, like, run)
Auxiliary Verbs (be, have, must)
Determiners may be treated as adjectives, instead of being a separate part of speech
Activity -1
 1. Identify punctuation marks in first chapter, para1,2 and 3 of Harry Potter series- book 1. Speak
to your friend reg. where and why writer JK. Rowling has used them?

2. Watch a show of Bear Grylls in English and write the subtitles with appropriate punctuation
marks.
3. Play a game of name, place, thing and animal using - all 5 kinds of nouns.
4. Re write a paragraph by identifying its parts of speech with a pencil.

TENSES:

Tense Signal use form Examples Examples Examples

words affirmativ negative interrogative
e
Every day

Sometimes 1)Something
happens Infinite I work. I don’t Do I work?
Always repeatedly work.
he/she/it:
Often 2)How often infinite He H e doesn’t Does he work?
Simple something +s works. work.
present Usually happens
 Seldom 3)One action I go. I don’t go. Do I go?
follows another
Never He goes. He doesn’t Does he go?
4)Things in go.
First…then general

5)With verbal
like(to love, to
hate, to think
etc)

6)Future
meaning:
timetables,
programs

Now 1)Something is I’m I’m not Am I working?

happening at the working. working.
At the same time of Be(am/ar
Present moment speaking or e/is) He’s He isn’t Is he working?
progressive around it +infinite working. working.
Look! + ing
2)future I’m I’m not Am I going?
Listen! meaning: when going. going.
you have already
 decided and He isn’t Is he going?
arranged to do He’s going.
it(a fixed place going.
or date)
Last…. Regular: I worked. I didn’t Did I work?
Action took Infinite + work.
….ago place in the past, ed
Simple past mostly He He didn’t Did he work?
In 1990 connected with Irregular: worked. work.
an expression of (2 nd
yesterday time(no column of I went. I didn’t go. Did I go?
connection to the table of
present) irregular He went. He didn’t Did he go?
verbs) go.
Past While 1)an action I was I wasn’t Was I working?
progressive happened in the Was/were working. working.
middle of +
another action Infinite +I He was He wasn’t Was he
ng working. working. working?
2) Someone was
doing sth. at a I was I wasn’t Was I going?
certain time(in going. going.
the past)- you
don’t know He was He wasn’t Was he going?
whether it was going. going.
 finished or not.
Just
I have I haven’t Have I
Yet worked. worked. worked?

Never 1) You say Have/has He has He hasn’t

that sth. + worked. worked. Has he
Ever has past worked?
Simple happened participle
present Already or is * I have I haven’t
perfect finished in gone. gone.
So far, the past Have I gone?
and it has a *(infinite He has He hasn’t
Up to now, connection +ed)or (3 gone. gone.
to the rd column
Since present of table Has he gone?
of
For irregular
verbs)
Recently
2) Action started
in the past and
continues up to
the present.
Present All day 1) Action I have I haven’t Have I been
perfect began in been been working?
progressive The whole the past Have/has working. working.
day and has +
stopped. been+infi He has He hasn’t Has he been
How long nite ing been been working?
2) How long working. working.
Since the action
has been I have I haven’t Have I been
For happening been been going. going?
going.
He hasn’t
Emphasis: He has been going. Has he been
length of time of been going?
an action going.

Simple past Already 1)mostly when Had + I had I hadn’t Had I worked?
perfect Just two actions in a past worked. worked.
Ever story are related participle
to each other: * He had He hadn’t Had he
the action which worked worked. worked?
had already *(infinite
happened is put + ed)or(3 I had I hadn’t
into past perfect, rd column gone. gone Had I gone?
the other action of table
 into simple past of He had He hadn’t
2)The past of the irregular gone. gone. Had he gone?
present perfect verbs)
Past perfect How long How long Had + I had I hadn’t Had I been
progressive Since something had been + been been working
For been happening infinite + working. working.
before ing
something else He had He hadn’t Had he been
Happened been been working?
working. working.

I had I hadn’t Had I been

been been going. going?
going.
He hadn’t
He had been going. Had he been
been going?
going.
Will – future 1) Predictions Will I’ll work. I won’t Will I work?
about the +infinite work.
future (you
think that He’ll He won’t Will he work?
sth will work. work.
happen)
I won’t go. Will I go?
 3) You decide I’ll go.
to do sth. He won’t
Spontaneo He’ll go. go. Will he go?
usly at the
time of
speaking.

4) Main
clause in
type I of
the
conditional
sentences.
Going to – 1) When you Be(am/ar I’m going I’m not Am I going to
future have e/is) to work. going to work?
already +going to work.
decided to +infinite
do sth. in He’s He’s not Is he going to
the future going to going to work?
work. work.
2) What you
think what I’m not Am I going to
will I’m going going to go. go?
happen to go.
He’s not
 going to go. Is he going to
He’s go?
going to
go.
Future 1) An action Will +e+ I’ll be I won’t be Will I be
progressive will be in infinite working. working. working?
progress at +ing
a certain He’ll be He won’t be Will he be
time in the working. working. working?
future.
This action has I won’t be
begun before the I’ll be going. Will I be
certain time. going. going?
He won’t be
2) Something He’ll be going.
happens because going. Will he be
it normally going?
happens.
Future Sth. will already Will+ I’ll have He won’t Will I have
perfect have happened have+ worked. have worked?
simple before a certain Past worked.
time in the participle
future *
He’ll He won’t Will he have
*(infinite have have worked?
 +ed)or (3 worked. worked.
rd column
of table I won’t Will I have
of I’ll have have gone. gone?
irregular gone.
verbs) He won’t Will he have
He’ll have gone. gone?
have
gone.
Future  will Will I’ll have I won’t Will I have
perfect already +have+ been have been been working?
progressive have Been working. working.
happened +infinite Will he have
before a +ing He’ll been working?
certain have been He won’t
time in the working. have been Will I have
future working. been going?
I’ll have
Emphasis: been I won’t Will he have
length of time of going have been been going?
an action going.
He’ll
have been He won’t
going. have been
going.
Conditional 1) that I would I wouldn’t Would I work?
simple might Would + work. work
happen infinite Would he
He would He work?
2) Main work. wouldn’t
clause in work.
type II I would Would I work?
of the go. I wouldn’t
conditio go.
nal
sentence
s
Conditional sth. that might Would I would I wouldn’t Would I be
progressive happen +be+ be be working. working?
infinite working.
Emphasis: +ing
length of time of
an action He
wouldn’t be Would he be
He would working. working?
be
working. I wouldn’t
be going. Would I be
I would going?
 be going. He
wouldn’t be Would he be
He would going. going?
be going.

Conditional 1) sth. that Would I would I wouldn’t Would I have

perfect might have +have have have worked?
happened +past worked. worked.
in the past participle
* He would He Would he have
2)main clause in have wouldn’t worked?
type III of the *(infinite worked. have
conditional +ed)or(3 worked.
sentences rd column
of table I would I wouldn’t Would I have
of have have gone. gone?
irregular gone.
verbs)
I wouldn’t Would he have
He would have gone. gone?
have
gone.
Conditional  that might Would I would I wouldn’t Would I have
perfect have +have+ have been have been been working?
progressive happened been+ working. working.
in the past infinite+
ing
Emphasis: He would He
length of time of have been wouldn’t Would he have
an action working. have been been working?
working.

I would I wouldn’t
have been have been
going. going. Would I have
been going?
He would He
have been wouldn’t
going. have been
going. Would he have
been going?

Tenses for advanced learning:

Present Simple:
"A dog’s tail is never quite straight."
The present simple is used for established facts "India imports gold."
and things in general.
"Sandeep Maheshwari gets up at five and starts
It is also used for habitual activities or routines.
work at seven."
 "Going to Delhi sounds just great because the
streets appear less crowded and the prices seem
quite reasonable."
The simple tenses are generally used with verbs
"This gulab jamun smells quite fresh, tastes
of perception: sound, seem, appear, smell, taste,
delicious, feels very soft, and looks just great."
look and feel (note, however, that look and feel can
also be used with the continuous tenses).
COMPARE: "I am not feeling very well today"
and "You are looking wonderful in that new
dress, my dear, but what happened to the
curtains?"
"I hear footsteps. Quick, someone's coming!"
The present simple is used with hear, and with see "I see you don't understand what I mean."
(except when it means "to meet"). COMPARE: "She is seeing the dentist
tomorrow."
"Some people believe in UFOs, but I think they're
The simple tenses are always used with so called misguided."
state (or stative) verbs, such as: agree, approve
of, believe, belong to, consider (hold an opinion), "Hamid regrets what he did and wishes to make
consist of, contain, cost, depend, disagree, gather amends.''
(understand), hate, have (own), know, like, loathe,
love, mean, own, need, possess, prefer, realize, "Although, of course, I don't normally approve of
regret, remember, resemble, suppose, think (hold gossip, I do like her new autobiography. It
an opinion), understand, want, wish, etc. contains a number of shocking revelations about
the world of showbiz."
The present simple is usually used with so called
performative verbs (i.e. utterances that actually "He admits he made a big mistake, acknowledges
constitute an action), such as: accept, full responsibility, accepts the consequences,
acknowledge, admit, advise, apologize, assume, apologizes from the bottom of his heart, and
deny, guarantee, hope, inform, predict, promise, promises not to do it again."
recommend, suggest, warn, etc.
"His ship sails at dawn."
It is used for schedules drawn up by others.
"The next train leaves at half-past six."
"A man wanders into a restaurant and says he can
It is often employed when telling jokes or funny
eat a horse. The waiter tells him he's come to the
stories.
wrong place."
The present simple is favored by live sports "Farah leads four games to one in the first set."
commentators for word economy, and to convey a "The crowd roars as Tyson takes a huge bite out
sense of excitement and directness. of Holyfield's ear."
The present simple is also preferred in newspaper "Iraq Invades Kuwait"
headlines for succinctness where space is at a "Man Steals Clock, Faces Time"
premium. "Fake Cardiologist Breaks Woman's Heart"

Present Continuous Tense

The present continuous is used for "The electrician is mending a fuse."

temporary actions or events going on at or "It's raining."
around the time of speaking. "In Hyderabad, Mahati is staying at the
 Hyderabad Central."
"Mohan's leaving for Bombay after lunch."
It is used for self-made schedules, generally
"Dinesh and Chandrika are getting married
for the not too distant future.
in June."
"He's studying hard to become a doctor."
It is also used for longer-term enterprises.
"Mira Kumar's running for President."
Used with adverbs of (high) frequency to "He is always complaining."
express disproval of annoying habits. "She's forever losing her keys."
The present continuous also used to set the "This guy is sitting all by himself in a bar
scene for jokes or funny stories told in the looking pretty inebriated, so the barman
present simple. refuses to serve him another drink."
"He really is being stupid" (meaning this
The present continuous of to be is used to
person is normally more sensible).
react to behavior perceived as
COMPARE: "He really is stupid" (meaning
uncharacteristic for someone.
he is stupid all the time).
"She is having another baby. (conceiving) /
The present continuous must be used with
curd rice for dinner (having/eating food) / a
have when it is an action verb.
shower / a heart attack / etc."
"She is having has a lot of money."(error)
"She is knowing knows how to fly a
Remember that so called state verbs cannot
plane"(error)
be used in continuous tense forms.
"He is preferring prefers coffee to
tea."(error)
Present Perfect Tense:

"Someone has eaten my samosa (which

The present perfect connects the recent past
explains why now the plate is empty and I'll
with the present. It explains the impact of a
have to go hungry)."
recent activity or occurrence on present
"I've lost my passport (hence I can't leave
circumstances.
the country)."
American English prefers the simple past
tense to convey personal news. It thereby
"I lost my passport." (Today? Last week?
loses the subtlety of British English to
Last year?)
clearly distinguish between recent and not
so recent events.
It is used for breaking news headlines or "Two lions have escaped from Nehru Zoo
when wishing to emphasize that something Park."
has occurred rather than exactly when it "Powerful tornadoes have hit Mississippi,
occurred. Louisiana and Arkansas"
"Samantha has already left, but Chandrika
The present perfect is used with already,
has just arrived, so I guess the party hasn't
just and yet.
finished yet."
"Samantha already left, but Chandrika just
Note that American English often uses the
arrived, so I guess the party didn't finish
simple past tense with already, just and yet.
yet."
It is used to refer to a person's entire life "Danush has traveled a great deal, but he has
experience since they were born. never been to Greenland."
It is used with ever to question a person's "Have you ever seen a straight banana?"
entire life experience of something in "Has Chuck ever done an honest day's work
particular. in his life?"
"Did you ever see a straight banana?"
American English, on the other hand,
"Did Chuck ever do an honest day's work in
prefers the simple past tense with ever.
his life?"
"Ujwala has driven 200 miles since
The present perfect is also used to quantify breakfast."
something done, or progress made so far. "Sabrina has saved 3 crores toward her new
BMW."

Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

Used to emphasize activities that were in "She has been using a computer all day (so
progress right up to or shortly before the her eyes are now bloodshot)."
time of speaking and so have a direct "Someone has been eating my sandwiches
influence on the current situation. (so half of them are missing)."
Used with for or since to say how long an "Ujwala has been driving for three hours."
ongoing or continuing activity has been in "Sabrina has been saving for her BMW
progress. since last summer."
In many other cases the present perfect "I've been living here for ten years (in other
continuous can be exchanged for the present words, I feel almost like a native)."
perfect, although when the latter is chosen "I have lived here for ten years (so perhaps
one tends to feel that change might be in the it's about time I moved on to pastures
offing. greener)."
Remember that so called state verbs cannot "I have been knowing known Samantha for
be used in continuous tense forms. 19 years."(error)

Past Simple:

The past simple is used for activities or "Manchester United thrashed Chelsea 4:1."
events completed at a specific time in the "The ice sculptures attracted many visitors."
past (which is either understood or indicated "Most of the super markets are closed at
by a time expression). midnight."
"I went into town at ten, booked my summer
holiday at the travel agent's, ate lunch at
It is used for two or more completed past
Aroma Restaurant, saw the new Bond film
activities or events that occurred in sequence
at the Asian cinema, did my shopping for
rather than in parallel.
the weekend, and arrived home in time for
tea at four."
The past simple corresponds to the
foreground in a painting. It is used for the "The rock group was performing when the
action in a story for which the past earthquake struck. Nobody noticed."
continuous sets the scene.
"Former British Prime Minister Margaret
It is used with adverbs of frequency to talk Thatcher often slept only four hours a night.
about repeated actions or events in the past; She would go to bed at one in the morning
would and used to are also used to talk about and get up at five to read the morning
past habits and routines. papers. The first thing she used to check was
what they were saying about her."
It is used with verbs of perception: sound, "The gulab jamun smelt fresh, tasted
 delicious, felt very soft and looked just
seem, appear, smell, taste, look and feel great."
(note that look and feel can also be used COMPARE: "Mahesh wasn't feeling at all
with the continuous tenses). well today. He really was looking under the
weather."
The simple tenses are always used for so
called state verbs such as agree, approve
of, believe, belong to, consider (hold an
opinion), consist, contain, cost, depend, "The minister was agreeing agreed to resign,
disagree, gather (understand), hate, have even though he wasn't thinking didn't think
(own), know, like, loathe, love, mean, own, he was needing needed to." (error)
need, possess, prefer, realize, regret,
remember, resemble, suppose, think (hold an
opinion), understand, want, wish, etc.
The past simple is usually preferred with so
called performative verbs (i.e. utterances "Although the rich oil sheik promised (was
which actually constitute an action) such as: promising) the Hollywood actress ten
accept, acknowledge, admit, advise, million dollars in cash, a brand new
apologize, assume, bet, deny, guarantee, Mercedes, and a house in Palm Beach, her
hope, inform, predict, promise, recommend, lawyer advised her not to marry him."
suggest, warn, etc.

Past Continuous Tense:

The past continuous corresponds to the "I was leaning back in my armchair staring
 up at the night sky. The moon was beaming
background in a painting. It sets the scene brightly. All the stars were twinkling. Then
for all the action reported in the past simple. it came to me: I would have to get the roof
fixed."
It is used for temporary actions or events "While I was waiting for the ferry, I ate
that were going on at or around a particular lunch in Ustad Hotel when I was wolfing
time in the past when something of shorter down my fish fry, one piece of fish started
duration occurred. moving."
It is also used for two activities of similar "I was washing the car while my wife was
duration that were going on in parallel. cleaning the house."
Remember that so called state verbs cannot "I was knowing knew Samantha very well."
be used in continuous tense forms. (error)

Past Perfect:

"I had just prepared a ppt presentation for

This tense is used to talk about the pre-past,
the class when the Director called me.”
i.e. activities or events completed before
(but relevant to) subsequent activities or
"Madhavan had studied Finnish for 3 years
events referred to in the simple past.
before he emigrated to Finland."
If, however, the second action is a direct
"When the artist had finally appeared on
result of the first, then the past simple is
stage, everyone applauded."
used for both.
 "The boss had hoped to slip off to the golf
The past perfect tense is used to report on
course for the rest of the afternoon, but head
past intentions that were sadly never
office wanted to speak to him about
realized.
disappointing sales figures."

Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

The past perfect continuous is used to report

on an activity of interest or direct
relevance that was still in progress up until
or immediately prior to a subsequent event
in the past.
“Police arrested the chief executive whose
team had been making torrents."
Remember that so called state verbs cannot "In 2007, I had already been knowing
be used in continuous tense forms. known Samantha for 10 years." (error)

Simple Future Tense:

WILL: used to express pure futurity

"The sun will rise tomorrow morning."
(i.e. without any element of willpower).
WILL: used when making predictions based "Suman will help you, I'm sure."
upon one's knowledge of a person's
character.
"Dear girl, will you post this letter for me?"
WILL: used for plain, informal requests, as
"Manoj, will you show Mr. Aanand to the
well as orders given to subordinates.
accounts department, please?"
"My husband will always invite his friends
WILL: used with emphasis to express
round for a drink just as I'm trying to put the
irritation over the bad habits of others.
kids to bed!"
"If you do decide to buy this car model, sir,
WILL/SHALL: used for spontaneous offers we'll include this sophisticated satellite
or plans made at the time of speaking, or to navigation system."
agree to something. "Okay, I'll talk to my bank manager about a
loan."
WILL/SHALL: used for promises. "Don't worry, I won't / shan't tell a soul!"
SHALL: sometimes used instead of WILL "I shall (will) be late this evening."
in the first person singular and plural in "We shan't (won't) go that nightclub
more formal style to express futurity, anymore; their prices are exorbitant."
especially in cases where the element of "We shall overcome!"
willpower is involved. "I shall succeed!"
SHALL: used when seeking others' approval "Shall I buy you a watch for your birthday?"
of offers or suggestions. "Shall we all go out to dinner?"
SHALL: used to elicit more information. "Which restaurant shall we go to?"
"I'm going to buy a new digital camera. My
GOING TO: used to talk about plans already
old one doesn't seem to produce sharp
made before the time of speaking.
enough pictures."
 "Look over there. That crazy driver's lost
GOING TO: used when forecasting what is
control. He's going to crash!"
likely or inevitable because all the signs are
"I feel awful after that raw fish. I think I'm
there.
going to throw up."
PRESENT CONTINUOUS: often used "We're having a gathering on Friday night."
instead of GOING TO for self-made plans "She's leaving home right after breakfast
and voluntary schedules, especially for the and driving all the way up to Hyderabad in
not too distant future. her grandma's old car."
"He is going to go to New York after he
PRESENT CONTINUOUS: usually
leaves Washington."
preferred to the GOING TO future with GO
" Nani is going to come home from Canada
and COME.
next spring."
PRESENT SIMPLE: used for schedules "He flies to Cairo on business at noon
decided by others. tomorrow."

Future Continuous Tense:

"The kids will be sleeping when I get

Used for actions or events forecast to be in home."
progress at or around a particular time in the "Some Japanese schoolboys will, no doubt,
future. still be donning 19th century black Prussian
military uniforms in a hundred years' time."
Used for future events that is the result of "As you know, I'll be working overtime this
 evening."
previous arrangements or decisions. "Nancy will be staying at her parents' home
over Christmas (she always does)."
The future continuous tense can be used
instead of the present continuous with future "She'll be leaving home after breakfast."
meaning.

It is also used to make extra polite enquiries "Is IBM going to be recruiting any new
about someone's future plans. personnel in the near future for CSE
internships?"
"The museum is well sign-posted, so you
Remember that so called state verbs cannot
will be knowing know which way to go."
be used in the continuous tense forms.
(error)

Future Perfect Tense:

"No matter what their academic

Used for activities or events forecast to be performance, many students at Japan's most
completed by a particular time in the future. prestigious universities will have found a
job one whole year before they graduate."
"He learns 10 new vocabularies a day, so by
Used to quantify progress forecast to have
this time next year he will have mastered
been made at a given time in the future.
3,650 vocabulary items.”

Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

Used for activities forecast still to be in "By the end of 2023, we will have been
progress at some time in the future. flying in planes for 120 years."
Remember that so called state verbs cannot "Next summer, I will have been knowing
be used in continuous tense forms. known Samantha for 20 years." (error)

Activity 3:
1. Write a short story of Akbar and Birbal, make sure of the tenses that you are implying while
developing a narrative of such kind.

2. Hope you are now clear about ‘Verb’, now go through the text
in the picture and describe adverbs and research on kinds of adverbs and their uses. For more
information see point 4 below.

3. Observe report writing style from The Reader's Digest understand and explain, what kind of tense
is used and why?
4.
Classify adverbs based on usage and re write in a chart.
_________________________________________________________________________________

ACTIVE VOICE - PASSIVE VOICE

In general we tend to use the active voice. That is when a subject does an action to an object.
 1. Somebody stole my laptop. (subject = Somebody / action(verb) = stole / object = my laptop)

The passive voice is used when we want to emphasize the action (the verb) and the object of a
sentence rather than subject. This means that the subject is either less important than the action itself
or that we don’t know who or what the subject is.

1. My laptop was stolen. (The object – now the subject = My laptop / action= was stolen)

1. Passive: Hyderabad is known for its tasty biryani.

2. Active: [Many people] know Hyderabad for its biryani.

1. Passive: Twenty civilians were killed in the bomb explosion.

2. Active: Someone killed twenty civilians in the bomb explosion.

The passive agent

When we know who the subject is, we put it at the end with by. We call this an agent.
 1. Passive: The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo Da Vinci. (agent =Leonardo Da Vinci )

2. Active: Leonaro Da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa.

Most writing instructors and editors recommend against using the passive voice, when possible. The
reason for this is that when you use the active voice, your writing is clearer and less complicated.

1. Active: While Mr. Mahesh was driving down NH 63, a police officer pulled him over and gave
him a fine slip.

2. Passive: While Mr. Mahesh was driving down NH 63, he was pulled over and given a fine slip
by a police officer.

If it’s a long sentence and you know who the subject is, it’s best to use the active voice.

The passive is often used to report something or to state a fact.

1. Highway 15 was closed yesterday due to a serious road accident.

2. A lot of soya is grown in Basara.

Converting Active Voice to Passive Voice::

The passive voice is not a tense in English. Each tense has its own passive voice which is created by
using a form of the auxiliary verb

The passive voice in each tense:

 Auxiliary verb + sample V3
Tense Examples
(past participle)
Wine is made from grapes.
Present simple am, is, are + made
Many cars are made in Japan.
The document is being sent right now.
Present
am, is, are + being + sent I am being sent to work in the IIT Kharakpur
progressive
campus.
Prof. Rama was invited to speak at the conference.
Past simple was, were + invited
We were invited to Daniel and Mary’s wedding.
The dog was being washed when I got home.
Past progressive was, were + being + washed Their cars were being washed while they were in
the mall shopping.
The contract will be signed tomorrow.
Future (will) will be + signed
The documents will all be signed by next week.
A IIIT campus at Warangal is going to be built
Future (going am, is, are + going to be + within the next two years.
to) built New houses are going to be built in our
neighborhood.
That antique piece has been sold for rupees 5
million.
Present perfect has, have + been + sold
The rights to his software have been sold for rupees
250,000.
Past perfect had + been + hired The new manager had been hired before Laxman
left the company.
 Auxiliary verb + sample V3
Tense Examples
(past participle)
All the employees had hired before the store
opened.
The lorry will have been loaded by the time he gets
Future perfect will + have been + finished home.
The crates will have been loaded by then.
A passport can only be issued at the embassy.
Modals:
can, could + be + issued He said the documents could be issued within the
can/could
week.
A babysitter has to be arranged for this evening.
have to, has to, had to + be +
Modal: have to Raheem’s travel plans have to be arranged by
arranged
December.
Criminals must be stopped before they commit
Modal: must must + be + stopped
crimes.

All of the rules for passive negatives and questions are the same as for the active voice.

Note: Verbs that have no object (no one to “receive” the action) cannot be put into the passive, such
as, arrive, come, die, exist, go, happen, have, live, occur sleep, etc.

Activity:

Fill in the correct passive form of the verb in parentheses.

1. After the earthquake, aid was sent to the people of Haiti. (sent)
 2. The electricity was cut off because the bill hadn’t been paid. (not pay)

1. Penicillin ______ by Alexander Fleming in 1928. (discover)

2. Statements ______ from all the witnesses at this moment. (take)

3. Whales ______ by an international ban on whaling. (must protect)

4. Both weddings _______ by Good Taste. (cater)

5. A Picasso ____ from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.(steal)

6. ____ this washing machine ______in Germany? (make)

7. Tea _____ in China. (grow)

8. When we reached the airport, we found that all the flights____ due to the storm. (cancel)

9. The fax _____ until tomorrow morning. (not send)

10. The soundtrack of a movie _____ always _____ after the filming is finished. (is/add)

Answers:

1. was discovered

2. are being taken

 3. must be protected

4. were catered

5. was stolen

6. Was/made

7. is grown

8. had been cancelled

9. won’t be sent

10. is/added

DIRECT SPEECH – INDIRECT SPEECH

1. Direct Speech / Quoted Speech:

We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use
direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech.

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)

Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.

For example:

Teacher said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."

or

"Today's lesson is on presentations", teacher said.

 2. Indirect Speech / Reported Speech:
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the
person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.

When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we
are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally
spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.

For example:

Direct speech Indirect speech

"I'm going to the cinema", he said. He said he was going to the cinema.

Tense change
As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left
changes to the tense on the right):

Direct speech Indirect speech

Present simple Past simple
›
She said, "It's cold." She said it was cold.

Present continuous › Past continuous

She said, "I'm teaching English online." She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple Past perfect simple
›
She said, "I've been on the web since 2010." She said she had been on the web since 2010.
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, "I've been teaching English for › She said she had been teaching English for seven
seven years." years.
Past simple Past perfect
›
She said, "I taught online yesterday." She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
›
She said, "I was teaching earlier." She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect Past perfect
She said, "The lesson had already started › NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already
when he arrived." started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, "I'd already been teaching for five › NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching
minutes." for five minutes.
Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

Direct speech Indirect speech

 would
will
› She said she would teach English online
She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow."
tomorrow.
can could
›
She said, "I can teach English online." She said she could teach English online.

must had to
She said, "I must have a computer to teach › She said she had to have a computer to teach
English online." English online.
shall should
›
She said, "What shall we learn today?" She asked what we should learn today.
may might
›
She said, "May I open a new browser?" She asked if she might open a new browser.
Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.

Direct speech Indirect speech

"I might go to the cinema", he said. He said he might go to the cinema.
You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true.
 Direct speech Indirect speech
He said his name was Naman.

"My name is Naman", he said. or

He said his name is Naman.

You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.

Direct speech (exact quote) Indirect speech (not exact)

"Next week's lesson is on reported She said next week's lesson will be on reported
speech", she said. speech.

Time change
If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of
reporting.

For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the
time and place of reporting.

Now + 24 hours - Indirect speech

"Today's lesson is on presentations." She said yesterday's lesson was on
 presentations.

or

She said yesterday's lesson would be on

presentations.

Expressions of time if reported on a different day

this (evening) › that (evening)
Today › yesterday ...
these (days) › those (days)
now › then
(a week) ago › (a week) before
last weekend › the weekend before last / the previous weekend
here › there
next (week) › the following (week)
tomorrow › the next/following day
In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you
must change the place (here) to the place (there).
For example:-

At work At home
"How long have you worked here?" She asked me how long I'd worked there.

Pronoun change
In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.

For example:

Me You
"I teach English online." Direct Speech

She said, "I teach English online."

"I teach English online", she said.

Reported Speech

She said she teaches English online.

or
 She said she taught English online.

Reporting Verbs
Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech.

We use asked to report questions:-

For example: I asked Sambodhi what time the lesson started.

We use told with an object.

For example: Sambodhi told me she felt tired.

Note - Here me is the object.

We usually use said without an object.

For example: Sambodhi said she was going to teach online.

If said is used with an object we must include to.

For example: Sambodhi said to me that she'd never been to China.

Note - We usually use told.

For example: Sambodhi told me (that) she'd never been to China.

There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked.

These include:-

accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained,

denied, explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and
thought.
Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.

For example:

He asked me to come to the party:-

He invited me to the party.

He begged me to come to the party.
He ordered me to come to the party.
He advised me to come to the party.
He suggested I should come to the party.
Use of 'That' in reported speech:
In reported speech, the word that is often used.

For example: He told me that he lived in Godavarikhani.

However, that is optional.

For example: He told me he lived in Godavarikhani.

Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.

For example: He asked me if I would come to the ppt presentations on English Grammar.

Usage of Comma:
We usually follow British English, so we tend to place the comma inside quotation marks when it's
part of the sentence being quoted.

"I didn't notice that the comma was inside the quotation marks," Manoj said.
Activity:

1. Play a role play using Direct and Indirect Speech.

2. I identify Direct and Indirect Speech in The Hindu Editorial and convert them into respective
speech.

_________________________________________________________________________

SIMPLE – COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES

There are mainly three kinds of sentences in English: Simple, Complex and Compound.

Simple sentence
Definition
A simple sentence consists of just one clause. Examples are given below.

 The dog barks.

 The kettle boils.

 Birds live in nests.

 The boys are singing.

In its simplest form, a simple sentence consists of a subject and a verb.

We can add more meaning to the sentence by including qualifiers, objects, complements etc.

 Sitting on a branch, the monkey gibbered.

 The little girl was carrying a basket of toddy fruit on her head.

Compound sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses.

 The old women sang and the young girls danced batukamma.

This compound sentence consists of two simple clauses connected by the coordinating conjunction
and.

Another example is given below.

 Men may come and men may go, but I go on forever.

This compound sentence consists of three independent clauses.

We make compound sentences by joining independent clauses with the help of coordinating
conjunctions.
More examples of compound sentences are given below.

 You may watch TV or you can go out to play.

 You should either sit quietly or go out.

 The old man could neither see nor hear.

 Mr. Bean took the test several times but he couldn’t pass.

 Bill Gates is famous, yet he is very humble.

 Shivani was angry, still she kept her cool.

 The thieves not only robbed the man of his possessions, but also inflicted injuries on him.

Note:

The words however, therefore and nevertheless are not conjunctions. They cannot be used to
connect two independent clauses.

 My car broke down on the way; therefore, I hired a taxi. (NOT My car broke down on the
way, therefore I hired a taxi.)

 He lost all his money; nevertheless, he is cheerful.

Two independent clauses need to be connected with a coordinating conjunction or separated with a
full stop or a semicolon.

Definition:
A complex sentence is made up of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

Before we arrived at university, we met up at the coffee day across the street.
We met up at the coffee day across the street [independent]
+ before we arrived at university (dependent)
= complex sentence
(Before we arrived at university),[we met up at the coffee day across the street.]

Charan, who has an incredible voice, was asked to sing the school song.
Charan was asked to sing the school song [independent]
+ who has an incredible voice (dependent)
= complex sentence
[Charan, (who has an incredible voice), was asked to sing the school song.]

The book that I had found disappeared after Seeta returned it to me.
The book disappeared [independent]
+ I had found that (dependent)
+ after Seeta returned it to me (dependent)
= complex sentence
[The book (that I had found) disappeared] (after Seeta returned it to me.)
Definition:
A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

My father and I went to the movie that I had been wanting to see, and then we went to the
restaurant near the theater.
My father and I went to the movie [independent]
+ then we went to the restaurant near the theater [independent]
+ I had been wanting to see that (dependent)
= compound-complex sentence
[My father and I went to the movie] (that I had been wanting to see), and [then we went to the
restaurant near the theater.]

Before they were friends, Lata and Jaya knew Anita, but they didn't realize that they knew her
until they met.
Before they were friends (dependent)
+ Lata and Jaya knew Anita [independent]
+ They didn't realize [independent]
+ that they knew her (dependent)
+ until they met (dependent)
= compound-complex sentence
[(Before they were friends), Lata and Jaya knew Anita], but [they didn't realize (that they
knew her) (until they met).]
DEGREES of COMPARISION:

Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another.
There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.

They are:
1. Positive degree.
2. Comparative degree.
3. Superlative degree.

Positive Degree
When we speak about only one person or thing, We use the Positive degree.
Ex:
• This house is big.
• He is a tall student.
• This flower is beautiful.
• He is an intelligent boy.
Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun.
Comparative degree
1.When we compare two persons or two things with each other.
2. We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree.

Ex:1. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree)

This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree)

The term “bigger" is comparative version of the term “big". Both these sentences convey the same
meaning.

When we compare more than two persons or things with one another,
We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees.

Ex: (Model 1)
A. Jaya is as clever as Sita.
B. Sita is not clever than Jaya.

C. Bharath is at least as tall as Joseph.

D. Joseph is not taller than Barath.

E. Muzeeb is not as intelligent as Madina.

 F. Madina is more intelligent than Muzeeb.
Ex:[ Model 2]
A. Mt. Everest is taller than Mt. K2.
B. Mt. K2 is not so tall as Mt. Everest.
Ex: [Model 3]
A. Jagan is the richest man in Hyderabad.
B. Jagan is richer than any other man in Hyderabad.
C. No other man in Hyderabad is as rich as Jagan.
Ex: [Model 4]
A. Delhi is one of the biggest cities in India
B. Delhi is bigger than most other cities in India.
C. Very few cities in India are so big as Delhi.
Ex: [Model 5]
A. Shakespeare is the greatest of all dramatists in the world.
B. Shakespeare is greater than all other dramatists in the world.
C. No other dramatist is so great as Shakespeare.
Ex: [Model 6]
A. Manoj is stronger than Nitin.
 B. Nitin is not less strong than Manoj.
Ex: [Model 7]
A. Bholu is not the most intelligent boy in our class.
B. Some boys in our class are not intelligent than Bholu.
C. Some boys in our class are at least as intelligent as Bholu.

Please practice all the above and try transforming few more sentences.

Activity:

1. Observe the below picture and try few more examples of such kind.
2. Read the below table to frame your own example with similar comparative notions.
3. Observe the picture and identify the part of speech in it,
present yourself in front of the dais to talk about other such kinds.
4. Identify the eight wonders of the world and write the degrees of comparison for each one.
PREPOSITION
Definition:
A word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to
another word or element in the clause, as in ‘the man on the platform’, ‘she
arrived after dinner’, ‘what did you do it for?’.

SOME COMMON PREPOSITIONS

PLACE POSITION DIRECTION TIME OTHER

above beyond on after except

across by opposite before as
along down out (of) at like
among from outside by about
at in over for with
away from in front of around during without
behind inside through from by
below into to in for
beside near towards
between off under
 up

Preposition is always followed by a noun or noun group or a pronoun, but never by a verb except
gerund.
(Gerund is a kind of noun with –ing form)

Subject + Verb Preposition "noun"

The pen is On the table.

He lives In India.

Henry is looking For you.

The newspaper is Under your green book.

Pascal is used To English people.

 She isn't used To working.

We ate Before coming.

At/On/In – Prepositions of Place and Time

At In On

At 4:30 pm in March on Monday

At 3 o'clock In Winter On 6 March

At noon In the summer On 22 Dec.2012

At dinnertime In 1990 On Christmas Day

At bedtime In the next century On your birthday

At the moment In the future On New Year's Eve

At/On/In - Places

At In On

At the bus stop In Aandhra Pradesh On the wall

At the corner In the garden On the ceiling

At the entrance In a box On the floor

At the crossroads In a building On the carpet

At the top of the page In a car On a page

At/On/In:

At In On

At home In a car On a bus

At work In a taxi On a train

At school In a helicopter On a plane

At university In an elevator On a bicycle

At the top In the sky On the radio

At the bottom In the street On the left

At the side In a row On a horse

At reception In a boat On a boat

More Prepositions:

Prepositions Use Example

during the movie, during the flight,

During while in
during my stay

For for two days, for an hour

from Saturday to Monday, from 5

from / to
to 9

the time period from one between 1986 and 2012, between
Between
to another Saturday and Monday

until/till before a certain time until/till Sunday,5 o'clock

by Tuesday, by next month, by

By at the least
tomorrow
 To movement towards to school, to work, to the station

movement towards
Into into the cinema, into the car
inside something

out of to leave a place/a thing out of the theater, out of the car

By near/next to/beside stand by me, by the lake

through the tunnel, through the

Through
room

Across opposite ends across the river, across the street

Against against the wall, against the door

movement towards
Into into the cinema, into the car
inside something

Activity:
 1. Draw many more pictures of such kind to remember prepositions
better.

2. What are phrasal verbs? Draw a chart of phrasal verbs with their meaning.

Unit IV – Enhancing Vocabulary

Developing Professional vocabulary

Using Dictionary:
First, get hold of an up-to-date dictionary for English learners. You’ll need this to build your
vocabulary. The dictionary should be one of the most often used books in your home. (We'll allow
room for sacred texts here.) Place the dictionary somewhere so that you can find it immediately and
use it often. If you do your reading and homework in the kitchen and the dictionary is on a shelf in
the den or bedroom, it's too tempting to say "I'll look it up next time."
The home dictionary should be large enough to contain much more than just spellings. It should
contain extensive definitions, word origins, and notes on usage. Carrying in your purse or backpack
a pocket dictionary with more concise definitions is also a good idea. Get in the habit of turning to it
often. A well worn dictionary is a beautiful thing.

Think carefully about the best way to learn your vocabulary. Try to learn at least 5 new words every
day, and learn several words that go with them, like articles, prepositions and adjectives. It’s a good
idea to make up your own examples of sentences using your new words, as this is what you’ll have
to do in an exam!

Tips:

 Never learn a word in isolation.

 When you learn a new word and the prepositions that go with it, write down 2 or 3 sentences of
your own using the word.

 Try to use your new vocabulary when you speak English.

Know the roots:

At least half of the words in the English language are derived from Greek and Latin roots. Knowing
these roots helps us to grasp the meaning of words before we look them up in the dictionary. It also
helps us to see how words are often arranged in families with similar characteristics. For example –

Some common Greek and Latin roots:

Root (source) Meaning English words

aster, astr (G) star astronomy, astrology
audi (L) to hear audible, auditorium
bene (L) good, well benefit, benevolent
bio (G) life biology, autobiography

Learning Prefixes and Suffixes

Knowing the Greek and Latin roots of several prefixes and suffixes (beginning and endings attached
to words) can also help us determine the meaning of words

Prefixes showing quantity

Meaning Prefixes in English Words
Half semiannual, hemisphere
One unicycle, monarchy, monorail
Prefixes showing negation
without, no, not asexual, anonymous, illegal, immoral, invalid, irreverent, unskilled
 not, absence of, nonbreakable, antacid, antipathy, contradict
opposing, against

Prefixes showing time

Before antecedent, forecast, precede, prologue
After Postwar
Again rewrite, redundant
Prefixes showing direction or position
above, over supervise, supererogatory
across, over transport, translate

Suffixes, on the other hand, modify the meaning of a word and frequently determine its function
within a sentence. Take the noun nation, for example. With suffixes, the word becomes the adjective
national, the adverb nationally, and the verb nationalize.

See what words you can come up with that use the following suffixes.

 Typical noun suffixes are -ence, -ance, -or, -er, -ment, -list, -ism, -ship, -ency, -sion, -tion,
-ness, -hood, -dom

 Typical verb suffixes are -en, -ify, -ize, -ate

 Typical adjective suffixes are -able, -ible, -al, -tial, -tic, -ly, -ful, -ous, -tive, -less, -ish, -ulent
  The adverb suffix is -ly (although not all words that end in -ly are adverbs—like friendly)

SPELLING EXERCISES:

EXERCISE 1: In each of the groups of words below, one word may be misspelled or no words
may be misspelled. If a word is misspelled, write it correctly to the right of each group. If none
of the words in the group is misspelled, write "none."
1. fuzzes, laundrys, sufficient
2. turkeys, trophies, arrival, armies
3. acrage, analysis, dosage
4. acompaniment, played, interviewed
5. privilege, excelling, eighth
6. adolescence, contemporary, ninty
7. athletic, conscious, mathmatics
8. performence, fiery, recede
9. leisure, familiar, proffessor
10. undoubtly, experience, succeed
11. seize, acceptance, grammer
12. pleasant, slyly, watches
13. accidentally, embarass, intelligence
14. prejudice, preferred, lieutenant
15. payed, characteristic, intelligence
16. sergeant, noticable, deceit
17. particuler, arbitrarily, attorneys
18. neither, acknowledge, goverment
19. permmit, referring, foreign
20. halves, accross, attendant
21. subtle, judgement, ancient
22. said, envirement, interest
23. realize, alleys, acheive
24. preference, convenient, releif
25. awkward, considerably, neccessasry
26. activity, aproach, familiar
27. quantity, couragous, niece
28. irresponsible, concuring, vein
29. accumulate, benefit, fourty
30. surprize, audience, proceed
31. acquire, condemm, interpret
32. recommend, required, conscience
33. forfiet, appreciate, extremely
34. protein, accomplish, fasinate
35. seperate, diaries, receipt
36. athlete, careful, marriage
37. analyze, decision, occurence
38. sophmore, supersede, conceit
39. thieves, agressive, occasion

EXERCISE 2: Correct the spelling mistakes in the paragraph below:

George new that he shouldn't drink alchohol on a Wedsday night, especially since his
govermnet proffesor had schedualed an important exam on Thrusday. However, he beleived he
would loose his friends if he didn't go out with them. The pressure to fit in with his peers was
worst then the fear of bad grades. To be popular among his friends, one had to be either a
musclar athelete or a wild and crazy drinker. George realy could not concieve how it was
posible for a student to consume huge quanities of liquor and still suceed in school. Maybe the
drinkers were just more briliant than he was. He didn't even enjoy the passtime of spending ours
in a bar trying to persue a temperary feeling of excitement and "fun." Somehow he expected the
cheif of campus security to catch him and the university administration to expell him. But
George didn't posses enough courage to express his opion to his friends. He was certian they
would tell him to mind his own buisness. Also, he did't want to be seperated from his friends.
So he planed to meet them at a local restaraunt, have a few drinks, leave early, take some asprin,
and spend a few ours studing for the exam

Unit V - Composition
Paragraph Writing:

Most texts - for example, letters, reports or stories - need an introduction, a middle and an end.
Text in one long run can put the reader off and is difficult to read, so it’s best to split it up into
paragraphs.

What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that share the same idea. You use paragraphs to structure
your writing, and to make it easier for the reader to follow. When you plan a piece of writing, you
decide on the different ideas to include in your writing. You can use paragraphs to develop each of
these points. When you start a new paragraph you write on a new line. If you’re using a word
processor there’s usually a one-line gap between paragraphs. There’s more information about
paragraphs in the factsheet Using paragraphs.
Will I need to use headings?
It’s a good idea to write down a heading for each paragraph before you start writing sentences.
You may not want to keep the headings in your final version, but they will help you to stick to your
plan in the first draft. Some writing, such as an information leaflet, needs headings. For an
example, see the factsheet Using headings. If you’re writing a story about your life, you need to
start a new paragraph for each key point. For example, you might start with a paragraph about your
childhood, followed by a paragraph about your teenage years, then a paragraph about your first job
or relationship, and end with a paragraph about what your life is like now.

What is a topic sentence?

A topic sentence gives you the main idea in a paragraph. It’s often the first sentence in a
paragraph. For example, if you’re writing about your family, the topic sentence in your first
paragraph could be My large family are very close. You could then write more sentences to add
to this idea in the paragraph.

Linking paragraphs
When writing paragraphs, it’s helpful to use linking words or phrases to help the reader make
sense of your whole text. If you’re writing about something that’s happened in the past, you can
use phrases to link ideas over a period of time. For example, if you’re writing about starting a
course in college, your first paragraph could begin When I started…. If you want to write about
what you’ve achieved, you could start your next paragraph Since then…. These linking words
make it easier for the reader to follow your story.
Using paragraphs in stories

Your first paragraph should be used to grab the readers’ attention and to set the scene.

Paragraphs can also be used in stories to:

 Introduce new characters

 Introduce a new speaker or new dialogue

 Add suspense or change the mood

 Introduce a new theme

 Move between time / flashbacks

Using paragraphs in non-fiction

Paragraphs in nonfiction are usually used to introduce a new piece of information or a new point of
view. In non-chronological reports, newspapers, biographies / autobiographies and instructions, new
paragraphs are used to introduce a new piece of information. In these types of text, new paragraphs
usually have a subheading. A subheading is a short title that tells the reader what information in the
paragraph will be about. In letters, arguments, persuasive writing and recounts, new paragraphs are
used to introduce a new point of view. In these types of text, new paragraphs don't usually have sub
headings and they will use connectives at the beginning of the first sentence instead. Common
connectives in these texts are:
  As a result

 On the other hand

 Firstly

 Secondly

 Finally

Describing pictures
1. Introduction

 The photo/picture shows ...

 It was taken by/in ...

 It's a black-and-white/coloured photo.

2. What is where?

 In the foreground/background you can see ...

 In the foreground/background there is ...

 In the middle/centre there are ...

  At the top/At the bottom there is ...

 On the left/right there are ...

 Behind/In front of ... you can see ...

 Between ... there is ...

3. Who is doing what?

Here you describe the persons in the picture or you say what is happening just now. Use the Present
Progressive.

4. What I think about the picture

 It seems as if ...

 The lady seems to ...

 Maybe ...

 I think ...

 ... might be a symbol of ...

 The atmosphere is peaceful/depressing ...

  I (don't) like the picture because ...

 It makes me think of ...

Useful English Phrases for Giving Directions

If you're in a new town or city and you want to know where a place or building is, these are useful
phrases for asking for directions. There are also phrases for giving directions to other people who ask
you for help.
How you can ask for directions
Say "Excuse me" before you ask a person. To make it sound like a question, make your voice go up
on "me".

"Excuse me. How do I get to (the railway station) please?"

"Excuse me. Where's the nearest (post office) please?"

"Excuse me. I'm looking for the Number 6 bus stop."

Giving directions
The person who helps you often says how near or far the place is:
"It's about five minutes from here."
"It's about a ten-minute walk."
"It's easier if I can show you on the map…"

Specific instructions

Here are some useful words and phrases for giving directions on the street. Maybe you're helping a
driver, or someone who stops you to ask for directions.

"Turn left / right."

"Go straight on at the lights / when you come to the crossroads." (Lights = traffic lights; crossroads =
where two roads cross)

"Go across the roundabout." (Roundabout = where all the cars go round a circle in the middle of the
road)

"Take the first turning / road / street on your left / right." (Turning = road that goes left or right)

"You'll see / You'll come to a (bank). Then …"

"Don't take the first road."

"Go on for about (2 minutes / 100 metres)."

Landmarks:
We often make reference to landmarks when we give directions to help the other person. These can
be places in a town, such as cinema, bank, bus stop, etc. They can also be parts of the road system.
Here are some common terms:

taxi rank = a place where taxis queue for passengers

level crossing = where the road and railway meet. There are barriers that go up and down to signal
when a train is coming

underpass = a walkway that goes under a busy road so pedestrians can get to the other side safely

overpass / flyover = a road that goes over another road (or railway)

zebra crossing = black and white markings in the road for pedestrians to cross the road (the
markings look like a zebra's stripes)

pedestrian crossing = a place in the road where pedestrians can cross. Often there are traffic lights.

tunnel = a road under (or through) mountains

crossroads = where two roads cross each other

junction = where one road meets another, and you can either go left or right

fork in the road = where the road divides, and you decide to go left or right

turning = a road off to your left or right

main road = a big road where there is lots of traffic

lane = a small road, or a part of a road (the left-hand lane / the right-hand lane; the bus lane)

Use prepositions of direction:

Go past = continue past something so that is is now behind you

Go across = cross something, like a road or crossroads

Go along = continue down a road

Go straight on = don't turn left or right

Go up = walk / drive up a hill

Go down = walk or drive down a hill or a road

Go through = pass through something, such as a tunnel or a town

Go out of = exit (i.e. a railway station)

It's in front of you = you can see it facing you

It's opposite the bank = it faces the bank

It's on the corner = it's where two roads meet at a 90° angle

Business Etiquette

Your academic knowledge and skills may be spectacular, but do you have the social skills needed to
be successful in the workplace? Good professional etiquette indicates to potential employers that you
are a mature, responsible adult who can aptly represent their company. Not knowing proper etiquette
could damage your image, prevent you from getting a job and jeopardize personal and business
relationships.

Meeting and Greeting:

Etiquette begins with meeting and greeting. Terry Cobb, human resource director at Wachovia
Corporation in South Carolina’s Palmetto region, emphasizes the importance of making a good first
impression—beginning with the handshake. A firm shake, he says, indicates to employers that you’re
confident and assertive. A limp handshake, on the other hand, sends the message that you’re not
interested or qualified for the job. Dave Owenby, human resources manager for North and South
Carolina at Sherwin Williams, believes, “Good social skills include having a firm handshake,
smiling, making eye contact and closing the meeting with a handshake.”

The following basic rules will help you get ahead in the workplace:

 Always rise when introducing or being introduced to someone.

 Provide information in making introductions—you are responsible for keeping the

conversation going. “Joe, please meet Ms. Crawford, CEO at American Enterprise, Inc., in
Cleveland.” “Mr. Jones, this is Kate Smith, a senior majoring in computer information systems
at Northwestern University.”

 Unless given permission, always address someone by his or her title and last name.

 Practice a firm handshake. Make eye contact while shaking hands.

FINE DINING SKILLS:

Shirley Willey, owner of Etiquette & Company in Carmichael, Calif., reports that roughly 80% of
second interviews involve a business meal. Cobb remembers one candidate who had passed his
initial interview with flying colors. Because the second interview was scheduled close to noon, Cobb
decided to conduct the interview over lunch. Initially, the candidate was still in the “interview” mode
and maintained his professionalism. After a while, however, he became more relaxed—and that’s
when the candidate’s real personality began to show. He had terrible table manners, made several
off-color remarks and spoke negatively about previous employers. Needless to say, Cobb was
unimpressed, and the candidate did not get the job.

Remember that an interview is always an interview, regardless of how relaxed or informal the
setting. Anything that is said or done will be considered by the interviewer, cautions Cobb.

In order to make a good impression during a lunch or dinner interview, make sure you:

 Arrive on time.

 Wait to sit until the host/hostess indicates the seating arrangement.

 Place napkin in lap before eating or drinking anything.

 When ordering, keep in mind that this is a talking business lunch. Order something easy to eat,
such as boneless chicken or fish.

 Do not hold the order up because you cannot make a decision. Feel free to ask for suggestions
from others at the table.

 Wait to eat until everyone has been served.

 Keep hands in lap unless you are using them to eat.

 Practice proper posture; sit up straight with your arms close to your body.
  Bring food to your mouth—not your head to the plate.

 Try to eat at the same pace as everyone else.

 Take responsibility for keeping up the conversation.

 Place napkin on chair seat if excusing yourself for any reason.

 Place napkin beside plate at the end of the meal.

 Push chair under table when excusing yourself.

Eating:

Follow these simple rules for eating and drinking:

 Start eating with the implement that is farthest away from your plate. You may have two
spoons and two forks. The spoon farthest away from your plate is a soup spoon. The fork
farthest away is a salad fork unless you have three forks, one being much smaller, which would
be a seafood fork for an appetizer. The dessert fork/spoon is usually above the plate.
Remember to work from the outside in.

 Dip soup away from you; sip from the side of the spoon.

 Season foods only after you have tasted it.

  Pass salt and pepper together—even if asked for only one.

 Pass all items to the right. If the item has a handle, such as a pitcher, pass with the handle
toward the next person. For bowls with spoons, pass with the spoon ready for the next person.
If you are the one to reach to the center of the table for an item, pass it before serving yourself.

 While you are speaking during a meal, utensils should be resting on plate (fork and knife
crossed on the plate with tines down).

 Don’t chew with your mouth open or blow on your food.

The interviewer will usually take care of the bill and the tip. Be prepared, however, if this doesn’t
happen and have small bills ready to take care of your part, including the tip. Never make an issue of
the check.

Dressing for Success

Social skills can make or break your career. Kenitra Matheson, human resource director with
Dellinger and Deese in Charlotte, N.C., emphasizes, “Etiquette and social skills are a must! Our
employees have to exhibit a certain level of professionalism and etiquette, given that we constantly
interact with our clients.” Be one step ahead— practice the social skills necessary to help you make a
great first impression and stand out in a competitive job market.

GIVING DIRECTIONS:

Language for giving directions

Left
go left
turn left
it's on the left
take a left
take the second (turning) on the left
Right
go right
turn right
it's on the right
take a right
take the second (turning) on the right
Ahead
go ahead
go straight ahead
go straight on

Telephone Etiquettes to Improve Communication

What are Telephone Etiquettes?

Telephone is an important device with the help of which people separated by distance can easily
interact and exchange their ideas. Got a brilliant idea and want to convey it to your friend staying out
of the country, use the telephone. Telephone is one of the easiest and cheapest modes of
communication.

Telephone etiquettes - An individual needs to follow a set of rules and regulations while
interacting with the other person over the phone. These are often called as telephone etiquettes. It
is important to follow the basic telephone etiquettes as our voice plays a very important role in
creating an impression of our personality, education, family background as well as the nature of job
we are engaged in. The person giving the information is called the sender and the second party is the
recipient.

Let us now study the various telephone etiquettes. Please find below the various telephone etiquettes.

 Always remember your voice has to be very pleasant while interacting with the other person
over the phone. Don’t just start speaking, before starting the conversation use warm greetings
like “good morning”, “good evening” or “good noon” depending on the time.

 Never call any person at odd hours like early morning or late nights as the person will
definitely be sleeping and will not be interested in talking to you.

 In any official call, don’t use words like” Any guess who I am? “as the person on the other
side might be occupied with something and can get disturbed. Always say “Is it Ted?”, and do
ask him, “Is it the good time to talk to you?” and then start communicating. If the person
sounds busy always wait for the appropriate time.
 Make sure your content is crisp and relevant. Don’t play with words, come to the point
directly and convey the information in a convincing manner. First prepare your content
thoroughly and then only pick up the receiver to start interacting.

 After dialing, always reconfirm whether the person on the other side is the desired person
whom you want to interact with. Always ask “Am I speaking to Mike?” or “Is this Jenny?”
before starting the conversation.

 Always carefully dial the numbers, never be in a rush or dial the numbers in dark as it would
lead to a wrong call. If by mistake you have dialed a wrong number, don’t just hang up, do say
sorry and then keep the phone courteously.

 Never put the second party on a very long holds. Always keep the information handy and
don’t run for things in between any call as the listener is bound to get irritated.

 While interacting over the phone, don’t chew anything or eat your food. First finish your food
and then only dial the number. If you are reading, please leave the book aside, first concentrate
what the other person wishes to convey and then continue with the book.

 After completing the conversation, don’t just hang up. Reconfirm with the receiver whether he
has downloaded the correct information or not and do end your conversation with pleasant
words like “Take care”, “nice speaking with you” and a warm bye. Never say Goodbye.

 Always speak each and every word clearly. The person on the other hand can’t see your
expressions so remember your tone should be apt to express your feelings in the correct form.
  Don’t take too long to pick up any call. If you miss the call, make sure you give a call back
as the other person might have an important message to convey. Avoid giving missed calls at
work places as it irritates the other person.

 In professional talks, never keep the conversation too long as the other person might be busy.
Always keep the content crisp and relevant and do come to the point after formal greetings.

 If you are not the correct person and the speaker needs to speak to your fellow worker always
say “one moment please- I will call him in a minute”. If the colleague is not in the office
premises, always take a message on his behalf and don’t forget to convey him when he is back.

 Decrease the volume of the television or turn off the speakers while speaking over the phone as
noise acts as a hindrance to effective communication

 If there is any disturbance in the network, don’t just keep speaking for the sake of it; try to call
after sometime with a better line.

Remember all the above telephone etiquettes must be practiced for an effective and healthy
telephonic discussion and smooth flow of information.