CSS830

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIAFACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF CRIMINOLOGY & SECURITY STUDIES (CSS)
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: CSS 830
COURSE TITLE:
VICTIMOLOGY AND CRIME STATISTICS
CSS830 Victimology and Crime Statistics
Course Guide
CSS 830: VICTIMOLOGY AND CRIME STATISTICS
Course Developer/Writer IKUOMOLA,AdediranDaniel (Ph.D)

Department of Sociology/Criminology &
Security Studies
AdekunleAjasin University, Akungba-
Akoko.
Ondo State-Nigeria
Course Coordinator Prof. Sam Obadiah Smah

CSS, FSS NOUN.
Course Editor Dr. Dickson Ogbonnaya Igwe

CSS, FSS NOUN
Programme Leader Dr. Dickson Ogbonnaya Igwe

CSS, FSS NOUN
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CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction
What you will learn in this Course
Course Aims
Course Objectives
Working through this Course
Course Materials
Study Units
Textbooks and References
Assignment File
Assessment
Self-Assessment Exercise
Final Examination and Grading
Course Marking Scheme
Course Overview
Presentation Schedule
How to get the Most from this Course
Reading Section
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
Summary
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INTRODUCTION
CSS 830Victimology and Crime Statistics is a 3-credit unit course. It is a course for postgraduate
students in the field of Criminology and Security Studies of the University. The course is also
recommended to any other student(s) particularly those in the Faculty of Social Sciences and
other affiliates, who may have interest in the study crime beyond the conventional offenders to
the victims, thus the need to be well grounded in the field of Victimology and Crime Statistics.
The course can also be taken as an elective or required course by other students whose main field
of interest is not in the discipline of Criminology and Security Studies. However the course shall
consist of 24 units, which include: Introduction and background to victimology, consequence of
victimization, theoretical explanation of victimisation and recurring victimisation, characteristics
and risk factors engendering recurring victimisation, measurement and history of crime and
crime victimisation, introduction to crime statistics, scope and state of nationally compiled crime
statistics with emphasis on uniform crime reporting (UCR) program and national incident-based
reporting system (NIBRS), crime statistics: the benefits and risks,international classification of
crime for statistical (ICCS) purposes and principles among others.
The course has no compulsory prerequisite for it to be registered for. The course guide informs
us on what this course is all about, what students should appreciate in each unit, what text
materials we shall be using and how we can make the best use of the compiled materials and
referral sources. This course guide also emphasises the need for students to take self-assessment
exercise seriously. However, necessary information on self-assessment exercise shall be made
known to students in a separate file, which will be sent to each of them at the appropriate time.
This course is also supported with periodic tutorial classes.
What You Will Learn In This Course

CSS830: Victimology and Crime Statistics as a course in the field of Criminology and Security
Studies at the National Open University of Nigeria focuses on a wide range of victimological
issues and crime statistics that bother on understanding and incorporating victims perspectives,
narratives in the broader aspect in the criminal justice system, knowing quite well that issues
upon issues relating to the victim, the offender, crime victim are better understood behaviourally
and statistical regarding occurrence, trend and pattern of engagement. The relevance of crime
statistics in the form of data generated, analysed, and disseminated for use for research and
government agencies for policy making is unrivalled in the 21st century where quantification of
behavioural and social events are computerised with the aid of science and technology. In this
course we will carefully examine, highlight, analyse and assess some victim-crime nexus,
theoretically and in principle vis-à-vis crime statistical issues bordering on international
standardisation of crime measurement and categorisation. Issues on victimology and crime
statistics are by nature dynamic for which we must keep ourselves abreast with development on
and off the field and the radar of criminology and the criminal justice system in general.
Nevertheless, the essence of victimology and crime statistics is at least to provide the students
with key issues beyond the traditional emphasis on the offender and the offender alone to the
victim as agitated by notable scholars in the field of victimology. It is important to state here that
the support by crime statisticians and agencies from which reliable data are derived regarding
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cannot be overemphasised in ensuring that data gotten through victim survey and crime reports
are understood. The course explores the strategic principles and procedures of gathering reliable
statistics and the best way to disaggregate and explain results in the simplest manner possible
amidst the complexity, scope, and challenges of crime data gathering. This course covers a wide
range of issues often not detailed in criminology texts.
Course Aims
The overall aim of CSS 830: Victimology and Crime Statistics as a course is to introduce you to
victimology as ―the science of victims and victimity. Or simply put the scientific study of crime
victims. Victimity, as used means the general concept, the specific common phenomenon which
characterizes all categories of victims, whatever the cause of their situation‖ Similarly, the need
to know the occurrence, nature, trend, patterns, and characteristics of crime (offenders) and
victims brought about the second part of this module to capture crime statistics, the progress and
development of universal categorisation and usage of crime statistics. Undoubtedly, the way the
course draws its references from the analysis of various international standards makes it
astounding and thought provoking for students and scholars in the field of criminology and
security studies to help engender analytical and critical thinking. The course is also aimed at
understanding:
 Victimology
 Key concepts in victim‘s role in crime Victim Precipitation, Victim Facilitation, and
Victim Provocation
 the Victim Crime
 Consequence of victimization
 Theories of victimisation I (understanding the genesis of crime, and victim crime)
 Theories of victimisation II (understanding the genesis of crime, and victim crime)
 How to Measure Victimization
 Recurring Victimisation
 Theoretical Explanations of Recurring Victimization
 Extent and consequences of Recurring victimisation
 Characteristics of Recurring Victimization
 Risk Factors for Recurring Victimization
 Measuring Crime and Crime Victimization
 Historical development of methods for Measuring Crime
 Crime Statistics
 Users (and Uses) of Crime Statistics
 Scope and State of Nationally Compiled Crime Statistics: UCR Program and National
Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
 Basic Structure and Crime Coverage of the Base NCVS
 The Wider Field of ―Crime‖ Data
 National Self-Report Surveys of criminal offending
 Statistics: The Benefits and Risks
 Data confidentiality methods for statistical disclosure limitation and methods for
assessing privacy
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 International Classification of Crime for Statistical (ICCS) Purposes (An Overview)

 Principles used in the International Classification of Crime for Statistical (ICCS)
Purposes
Course Objectives
With utmost desire to achieve the aims set out above, the course has some set of objectives as
demonstrated in all the units of the course. Each unit has its own objectives. Objectives are
always included at the beginning of every unit to assist the student in appreciation of what he or
she will come across in the study of each unit to facilitate his or her better understanding of the
course CSS 830: Victimology and Crime Statistics. Students are therefore advised to read these
objectives before studying the entire unit(s). Thus, it is helpful to do so. You should always look
at the unit objectives after completing a unit. In this way, you can be sure that you have done
what was required of you by the unit. Stated below are the wider objectives of this course as a
whole. By meeting these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole.
At the end of the course, you should be able to:
 Understand the meaning, nature and scope of victimology

 Discuss the key concepts of victims‘ precipitation, facilitation and provocation in the
analysis of victimization
 Understand Victim Crime and consequence of victimization
 Theoretically engage victimisation and Recurring Victimization
 Examine the Risk Factors for Recurring Victimization
 Explain the historical development of methods for Measuring Crime
 Understand the Scope and State of Nationally Compiled Crime Statistics: UCR Program
and National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
 Highlight the Basic Structure and Crime Coverage of the Base NCVS
 Examine the National Self-Report Surveys of criminal offending
 Appraise the Principles used in the International Classification of Crime for Statistical
(ICCS) Purposes
Working through this course

To complete this Course, students are advised to check the study units, read the recommended
books as well as other course materials provided by the NOUN. Each unit contains Self-
Assessment Exercise (SAE) and Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAS) for assessment purposes.
There will be a written examination at the end of the course. The course should take students
about 14 weeks to complete. You will find all the components of the course listed below.
Students need to allocate time to each unit to finish the course successfully.
Course Materials
Major component of the course include:

1. Course Guide
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2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignments Files
5. Presentations Schedule
It is incumbent upon every student to get his or her own copy of the course material. You are
also advised to contact your tutorial facilitator if you have any difficulty in getting any of the text
materials recommended for your further reading.
Study Units
In this course there are twenty-four units, divided into four modules, (five in each module).
Below are the units:
MODULE 1
Unit 1. Introduction and Background to Victimology
Unit 2.Key concepts in victim‘s role in crime: Victim Precipitation, Victim Facilitation, and
Victim Provocation
Unit 3. Understanding the Victim Crime
Unit 4. Consequence of victimization
MODULE 2
Unit 1: Theories of victimisation I (understanding the genesis of crime, and victim crime)
Unit 2: Theories of victimisation II (understanding the genesis of crime, and victim crime)
Unit 3: Measuring Victimization
Unit 4: Recurring Victimisation
MODULE 3
Unit 1.Theoretical Explanations of Recurring Victimization
Unit 2. Extent and consequences of Recurring victimisation
Unit 3. Characteristics of Recurring Victimization
Unit 4.Risk Factors for Recurring Victimization
MODULE 4
Unit 1. Measuring Crime and Crime Victimization
Unit 2 Historical development of methods for Measuring Crime
Unit 3Introduction to Crime Statistics
Unit 4Users (and Uses) of Crime Statistics
MODULE 5
Unit 1. Scope and State of Nationally Compiled Crime Statistics: UCR Program and National
Unit 2.Basic Structure and Crime Coverage of the Base NCVS
Unit 3.The Wider Field Of ―Crime‖ Data
Unit 4.National Self-Report Surveys of criminal offending
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MODULE 6
Unit 1.Statistics: The Benefits and Risks
Unit 2.Data confidentiality: methods for statistical disclosure limitation and methods for
assessing privacy
Unit 3.International Classification of Crime for Statistical (ICCS) Purposes (An Overview)
Unit 4.Principles used in the International Classification of Crime for Statistical (ICCS)
Purposes
Assignment File
In this file you will find the necessary details of the assignments you must submit to your tutor
for assessment. The marks you get from these assignments will form part of your final
assessment in this course,
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. First is the tutor-marked assignment;
second there is the written examination. In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply
information and knowledge acquired during this course. The assignments must be submitted to
your tutor for assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the Assignment file. The
work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total course work. At
the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final three-hour examination. This will also count
for 70% of your total course mark.
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAS)

In this course, you will be required to study fifteen (15) units, and complete tutor marked
assignment provided at the end of each unit.
The assignments carry 10% mark each. The best four of your assignments will constitute 30% of
your final mark. At the end of the course, you will be required to write a final examination,
which counts for 70% of your final mark. The assignments for each unit in this course are
contained in your assignment file. You may wish to consult other related materials apart from
your course material to complete your assignments. When you complete each assignment, send it
together with a tutor marked assignment (TMA) form to your Tutor. Ensure that each assignment
reaches your tutor on or before the dead line stipulated in the assignment file. If, for any reason
you are unable to complete your assignment in time, contact your tutor before the due date to
discuss the possibility of an extension.
Note that extensions will not be granted after the due date for submission unless under
exceptional circumstances.
Final examination and grading

The final examination of CSS 830 shall be of three hours duration and have a value of 70% of
the total course grade. The examination shall consist of questions which reflect the type of self-
testing/Self-Assessment Exercises. Practice exercises you have come across. All areas of the
course will be assessed. You are advised to revise the entire course after studying the last unit
before you sit for the examination. You will find it useful to review your self-assessment
exercises and the comments of your tutor on them before the final examination.
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Course Marking Scheme

This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down.
Assessment Marks
Assignment Four assignments are to be submitted, out of which
the three best shall be considered at 10% each,
making 30% of the overall scores
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks.
Table 1: Course Marking Scheme
Course Overview
The table brings together the entire units contained in this course, the number of weeks you
should take to complete them, and the schedule for assignments that follow them.
Course overview and Presentation Schedule
Unit Title Week‘s Assessment

Activity (end of unit)
1. Introduction and Background to 1.
Victimology
2. Key concepts in victim‘s role in crime 2.
Victim Precipitation, Victim
Facilitation, and Victim Provocation
3. Understanding the Victim Crime 3.
4. Consequence of victimization 4.
5. Theories of victimisation I 5.
(understanding the genesis of crime,
and victim crime)
6. Theories of victimisation II 6. Assignment 1
(understanding the genesis of crime,
and victim crime)
7. Measuring Victimization 7.
8. Recurring Victimisation 8.
9. Theoretical Explanations of Recurring 9.
Victimization
10. Extent and consequences of Recurring 10.
victimisation
11. Characteristics of Recurring 11.
Victimization
12. Risk Factors for Recurring 12. Assignment 2
Victimization
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13. Measuring Crime and Crime 13.

Victimization
14. Historical development of methods for 14.
Measuring Crime
15. Introduction to Crime Statistics 15.
16. Users (and Uses) of Crime Statistics 16.
17. Scope and State of Nationally 17.
Compiled Crime Statistics UCR
Program and National Incident-Based
Reporting System (NIBRS)
18. Basic Structure and Crime Coverage of 18. Assignment 3
the Base NCVS
19. The Wider Field Of ―Crime‖ Data 19.
20. National Self-Report Surveys of 20.
criminal offending
21. Statistics The Benefits and Risks 21.
22. Data confidentiality methods for 22.
statistical disclosure limitation and
methods for assessing privacy
23. International Classification of Crime 23.
for Statistical (ICCS) Purposes (An
Overview)
24. Principles used in the International 24. Assignment 4
Classification of Crime for Statistical
(ICCS) Purposes
25. Total 17weeks
The presentation schedule included in your course material gives you the important dates for the
completion of tutor-marked assignments and attending tutorials. Remember you are required to
submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guard against falling behind in your
work.
HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

In distance learning, your course material replaces the lecturer. The course material has been
designed in such a way that you can study on your own with little or no assistance at all. This
allows you to work, and study at your place, and at a time and place that best suits you. Think of
reading your course material in the same way as listening to the lecturer. However, you are
advised to study with your course master in the same way a lecturer might give you some
reading to do, the study units give you information on what to read, and these form your text
materials. You are provided exercise to do at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you
an in-class exercise.
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Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the unit,
and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to
this, is a set of learning objectives; these objectives let you know what you are required to know
by the time you have completed the unit. These learning objectives are meant to guide your
study. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check whether you have achieved
the objectives. If you make this habit, it will improve your chances of passing the course
significantly. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other
sources.
This will usually be either from the reference books or from a reading section. The following is a
practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into difficulties, telephone your
tutor. Remember that your tutor‘s job is to help you when you need assistance, do not hesitate to
call and ask your tutor for help or visit the study centre.
Reading Section
Remember that your tutor‘s job is to assist you. Whenever you need help, do not hesitate to call
and ask your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.
2. Organise a Study Schedule. Refer to the ‗Course Overview‘ for more details. Note the time
you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments related to the units.
Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on and write in your own dates for
working on each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The
major reason why students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get into
difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the
‗Overview‘ at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the study unit
you are working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same time.
6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence
for you to follow. As you work through the units you will be instructed to read sections from
your set books or other materials. Use the unit to guide your reading.
7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. if you feel
unsure about any of the objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.
8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit‘s objectives, you can then start on the
next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep
yourself on schedule.
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9. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return
before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned pay
particular attention to your tutor‘s comments, both on the tutor-Marked Assignment form and
also on what is written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have
any questions or problems.
10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of
each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course-Guide).
TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are 15 hours of tutorials provided to support this course. Tutorials are for problem solving
and they are optional. You need to get in touch with your tutor to arrange date and time for
tutorials if needed. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch
on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you
during the course. You must submit your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the
due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and
returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board. The following
might be circumstances in which you will find necessary contact your tutor if:
 You do not understand any part of the study units or the designed readings.
 You have difficulties with the exercises.
 You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor‘s comments on an
assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
To gain maximum benefits from this course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending
them. You will learn quite a lot from participating in the discussions.
Summary
 CSS: 830 aims to expose you to issues, ideas about victims and victimology, crime and
statistics and the nexus between them. Similarly the various international standard,
measurement techniques and procedure will further give an insight into the crux and
relevance of statistics to both crime and victimisation. As you complete this course, you
should be able to answer and discuss reasonably the following:
 Key concepts in victimizations debate

 Theories of victimisation and recurring victimisation
 Modes of Measuring Victimization
 Recurring Victimisation
 Theoretical Explanations of Recurring Victimization
 Historical development of methods for Measuring Crime
 Introduction to Crime Statistics
 Users (and Uses) of Crime Statistics
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 Scope and State of Nationally Compiled Crime Statistics UCR Program and National
 The Wider Field Of ―Crime‖ Data
 National Self-Report Surveys of criminal offending
 Principles used in the International Classification of Crime for Statistical (ICCS)
Purposes
Finally, you are advised to read the course material appreciably well in order to prepare fully and
not to be caught unprepared by the final examination questions. So, we sincerely wish you
success in your academic career as you will find this course, CSS 830 very interesting. You
should always avoid examination malpractices! We wish you success with the course and hope
you will find it both engaging and practical!
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Andrew Hancock (2013), Best Practice Guidelines for Developing International Statistical
Classifications. United Nations Department for Economic and Social Affairs.Statistical
Division. ESA/STAT/AC.267/5 of 6 May 2013. Available at:
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/class/intercop/expertgroup/2013/AC267-5.PDF.
Clevenger, Shelly, Navarro, Jordana N., Marcum, Catherine D., &Higgins,G. E.
(2018).Understanding Victimology: An active learning approach. Routledge, New York.
Daigle, L. E., &Muftić, L. R. (2015).Victimology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Daigle, Leah E. (2018.)Victimology: A Text/Reader. SAGE Text/Reader Series in Criminology
and Criminal Justice. Craig Hemmens,(Ed). Second Edition, Sage Publication, Washington
DC.
Fattah, E. A. (2000). Victimology: Past, present and future. Criminologie, 17–46.
Fisher, B.S., and F.T. Cullen 2000 Measuring the Sexual Victimization of Women: Evolution,
Current Controversies, and Future Research.
Geneva Conventions (1947).International Humanitarian Law prohibits wilful killing of parties to
the conflict that are hors de combat, as well as treacherous killing of parties to the conflict.
Lessler, J.T., and J.M. O‘Reilly 1997 Mode of interview and reporting of sensitive issues: Design
and implementation of audio computer-assisted self-interviewing. Pp. 366-382 in The
Validity of Self-Reported Drug Use: Improving the Accuracy of Survey Estimates, L.
Harrison and A. Hughes, eds. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
Mendelsohn, B. (1976). Victimology and contemporary society‘s trends.Victimology: An
InternationalJournal, 1(1), 8–28.
Mugge, R., 1983. Issues in protecting confidentiality in national health statistics.Proceedings of
the Section on Survey Research Methods.
Schneider, H. J. (2001). Victimological developments in the world during the past three
decades(I): A study of comparative victimology. International Journal of Offender
Therapy and ComparativeCriminology, 45(4), 449–468.
Skogan, W. 1981 Issues in the Measurement of Victimization.Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice
Statistics.
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Viano, E. C. (1976). Victimology and its pioneers.Victimology: An International Journal,

1(2),189–192.
Von Hentig, H. (1940). Remarks on the interaction of perpetrator and victim.Journal of
CriminalLaw and Criminology, 31(3), 303–309.
Von Hentig, H. (1948). The criminal & his victim: Studies in the sociobiology of crime.
NewHaven, CT: Yale University Press.
Walklate, S. (2015).Jock Young, left realism and critical victimology.Critical Criminology,
23,179–190.
MODULE 1
Unit 1. Introduction and Background to Victimology

Unit 2.Key concepts in victim‘s role in crime: Victim Precipitation, Victim Facilitation, and
Victim Provocation
Unit 3. Understanding the Victim Crime
Unit 4. Consequence of victimization
Unit 1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO VICTIMOLOGY
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Exercise
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Benjamin Mendelsohn, is often referred to as the father of victimology. In 1947, he described
victimology as ―the science of victims and victimity. Or simply put the scientific study of crime
victims. Victimity, as used means the general concept, the specific common phenomenon which
characterizes all categories of victims, whatever the cause of their situation‖ (1976, p. 9). That is
the events, people, places, circumstances or anything surrounding/relating to the cause of
victimisation. In other words, Mendelsohn continues, ―it [victimology] must take into account all
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phenomena which causes victims, to the extent that society takes an interest in them‖ (1976, p.
9). Taking into account these statements, victimology is the study of victimization that includes
the analysis of the victim-offender relationship as well as the victim‘s experiences with the
criminal justice system during the administration of justice (Mendelsohn, 1976; van Dijk, 1999;
Viano, 1983). Ultimately, the field of victimology includes two overarching goals:(1) to prevent
victimization from happening in the first place and (2) to minimize the harm post-victimization
(aftermath of victimisation) as well as prevent repeat victimizations (Mendelsohn, 1976).
It is very important to note here that the term victimologyis not new and that it has always been a
subfield of the mother discipline of ‗‘criminology‘, though in recent times it has gradually gained
momentum as an independent discipline because historically scholars and the criminal justice
system have placed too much emphasis on offenders. Thus the two fields do share much in
common. Just as criminology is the study of offenders/criminals—what they do, why they do it,
and how the criminal justice system responds to them—victimology is the study of victims.
Victimology, then, is the study of the etiology (or causes) of victimization, its consequences,
how the criminal justice system accommodates and assists victims, and how other elements of
society, such as the media, deal with crime victims. Victimology is a science; victimologists use
the scientific method to answer questions about victims. For example, instead of simply
wondering or hypothesizing why younger people are more likely to be victims than are older
people, victimologists conduct research to attempt to identify the reasons why younger people
seem more vulnerable. It is in this regard that Frederick Wertham‘s (1949) stated that ―One
cannot understand the psychology of the murderer if one does not understand the sociology of
the victim. What we need is a science of victimology‖ (as cited in Fattah, 1989).
This unit aims at giving you a clear understanding of key points in:
 The concept and definition of victimology
 Factors responsible for the emergence of victimology
 Founding fathers‘ contributions to victimology
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3.0 Main Content
Victimology: An overview
The holistic understanding of victims vis-à-vis victimology as study came to be championed in

no other century than at the 20th century (especially from the 1970s). This implies that prior to
this time emphasis was more on criminals and the treatment of the offenders than on victims
(Mendelsohn, 1976; Schneider, 2001; van Dijk, 1999; Viano, 1983, 1976). Interestingly, as
Fattah (2000) notes, some of the earliest works examining crime victims were outside academia
and are found in literature and poetry. To understand the state of victimology then, it is important
to visit the work of its pioneers, and learn how the field progressed.
Pioneers of Victimology
As earlier mentioned in the introduction, victimology came to be in the middle of the 19 th
century (precisely coined by Benjamin Mendelsohn, the father of victimology in 1947). Prior to
this time crime was, of course, occurring; thus, people were being victimized long before the
scientific study of crime victims began (victimology). Even though they were not scientifically
studied, victims were recognized as being harmed by crime, and their role in the criminal justice
process has evolved over time. Before and throughout the Middle Ages (about the 5th through
the 16th century), the burden of the justice system, informal as it was, fell on the victim. When a
person or property was harmed, it was up to the victim and the victim‘s family to seek justice.
This was typically achieved via retaliation. The justice system operated under the principle of
lextalionis, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth (Mosaic Law). A criminal would be punished
because he or she deserved it, and the punishment would be equal to the harm caused.
Punishment based on these notions is consistent with retribution. During this time, a crime was
considered a harm against the victim, not the state. The concepts of restitution and retribution
governed action against criminals. Criminals were expected to pay back the victim through
restitution. During this time, a criminal who stole a person‘s cow likely would have to
compensate the owner (the victim) by returning the stolen cow and also giving him or her
another one. Early criminal codes incorporated these principles. The Code of Hammurabi was
the basis for order and certainty in Babylon. In the code, restoration of equity between the
offender and victim was stressed. Notice that the early response to crime centred on the victim,
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not the state. This focus on the victim continued until the Industrial Revolution, when criminal
law shifted to considering crimes violations against the state rather than the victim. Once the
victim ceased to be seen as the entity harmed by the crime, the victim became secondary.
Although this shift most certainly benefited the state—by allowing it to collect fines and monies
from these newly defined harms—the victim did not fare as well. Instead of being the focus,
thecrime victim was effectively excluded from the formal aspects of the justice system as
emphasised by early pioneers of victimology (Benjamin Mendelsohn (1900–1998) Frederick
Wertham, Sara Margery Fry (1874–1958) Stephen Schafer (1911–1976)These pioneers in
victimology made lasting impacts on the field, and, interestingly, many began their careers in the
legal profession.
Benjamin Mendelsohn (1900–1998)

Benjamin Mendelsohn (1900–1998) was an Israeli criminal law scholar (van Dijk, 1999) who
coined the term victimologyin a paper presentation in Bucharest, Romania, in 1947 and used it in
a paper entitled ―A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social Science: Victimology‖ in 1946
(Mendelsohn, 1963; The Victimologist, 1998). As a criminal defenselawyer,Mendelsohn, like
many victimologists of the day, was interested in understandinghow victims‘ actions contributed
to criminal activity (van Dijk, 1999; Viano, 1976). Mendelsohn continued to shape the field with
his writings until his death in January 1998 (The Victimologist, 1998). Indeed, one of his lasting
contributions to the field was the creation of a typology (see Table 1.1) delineating the
responsibility of the victim versus the offender in criminal events, which ranged from completely
innocent to completely guilty.`
Table 1.1 Mendelsohn’s (1956) Victim Culpability Spectrum With Examples
Level of Victim Culpability Examples

Completely Innocent An individual killed while sleeping at
home
Victim With Minor Guilt An individual robbed after displaying
money
Victim as Guilty as Offender An individual killed during a drug
transaction
Victim More Guilty than Offender An individual killed after initiating a
physical altercation
17
Most Guilty Victim An individual killed while committing a

robbery
Imaginary Victim An individual who pretends that he/she
was victimized
(As cited in Schafer, 1977) * for more examples see unit 2
Hans von Hentig (1887–1974)

Hans von Hentig began his career as an academic and scholar with a keen focus on the role of
victims in criminal activity (Viano, 1976). In his pursuit to understand the etiology of
victimization, von Hentig was especially concerned about the interaction between victims and
offenders and the exchanges that led to criminal events (Mendelsohn, 1963). Von Hentig‘s
interest resulted in one of the most influential works in the field, The Criminal and His Victim
(1948), in which he identified several victim risk factors that were important for understanding
the genesis of crime (as shownTable 1.2). His seminal work, along with similar works of other
victimologists of the period (e.g., Fattah, Mendelsohn)
Table 1.2 Von Hentig’s Thirteen (13) Victim Risk Factors
Victim Characteristics Proneness to Crime Stems From

1. The Young Emotional and Physical Vulnerability
2. Females Physical Vulnerability
3. The Old Mental and Physical Vulnerability; Access to

Wealth
4. The Mentally Defective Vulnerability From Defect or

or Deranged Through Substance Use
5. Immigrants Challenges in Assimilation into a New Culture

6. Minorities Discrimination and Prejudice From Inequality
7. Dull Normal Lack of Awareness and General Naïvete
8. The Depressed Failing to Exercise Due Care
9. The Acquisitive Greed and Recklessness
10. The Wanton Lack of Appropriate Sensibilities
11. The Lonesome and Desire for Companionship and Recklessness
Heartbroken
12. Tormentor An Abusive That Often Spans Years
Environment
13. The Blocked, Exempted, The Inability to Defend Against Attacks
Fighting
18
(Von Hentig, 1948; Schafer, 1977)
Ezzat A. Fattah (b. 1929)
Similar to Mendelsohn, and Hentig, Ezzat A. Fattah (b. 1929) began his career as a lawyer. In
that capacity he witnessed the inhumane treatment of incarcerated offenders. It was through this
position, and the reading of notable works like von Hentig‘s. The Criminal and His Victim that
Fattah realized that systemic change in terms of crime prevention would occur only after
researchers developed a holistic understanding of the origins of criminal activity. This holistic
understanding required the consideration of the interactions and relationships between offenders
and victims as well as the contributions of each to the criminal event itself. In pursuit of this
goal, Fattah studied homicides committed during robberies in order to understand what
contributed to the criminal event—including the victim‘s own actions. He, like many other
eminent victimologists, also attempted to construct a way of understanding victimization risks
along a type of continuum (see Table 1.3).
Table 1.3 Fattah‘s Victim Classification Scheme

Victim Classes Characterised by
Non-Participating Victims
A lack of contribution or participation in the
crime
Latent or Predisposed Presence of risk factors that increase the
Victims likelihood of crime
Provocative Victims Engaging in actions that lead to the genesis of
a crime
Participating Victims Engaging in actions that facilitate the genesis
of a crime
False Victims The lack of actual victimization perpetrated by
another individual
(as cited in Schafer, 1977)
Sara Margery Fry (1874–1958)

Sara Margery Fry was particularly progressive for the period in which she lived. Similar to
Fattah, her passion stemmed from witnessing the inhumane treatment of incarcerated offenders,
and she worked throughout her life to improve the criminal justice system for both offenders and
victims (Viano, 1976). Perhaps most importantly, Fry advocated for improved treatment of
19
offenders without de-emphasizing the harm victims experienced in the aftermath of crime. After
experiencing a crime herself, Fry worked tirelessly in England to encourage the establishment of
a compensation fund for crime victims, which ultimately occurred in 1964. Additionally, her
efforts led to the development of similar programs around the world—including in the United
States (Viano, 1983; Dussich, 2006).
Koichi Miyazawa
As victimology gained much more awareness and acceptance of victims as important
components of criminal events across the globe, especially in Asia as a continent. This interest
eventually led to the founding of the Institute for Victimology at Keio University (Tokyo, Japan)
in 1969, which was largely the result of efforts by Koichi Miyazawa (b. 1930) (Viano,
1976).Miyazawa‘s interest in victimology originated during his early studies in criminology,
when he realized that the role of victims in the genesis of criminal events was an under-
researched area ripe for investigation (Viano, 1976). However, at that time, many of the works
by early victimologists in Europe and America were not accessible to Japanese and other Asian
scholars. Therefore, Miyazawa‘s text Basic Problems and Concepts in Victimology, in which he
synthesized the essential and important victimological works of the time in Japanese, was
particularly significant (Viano, 1976). Aside from creating this accessibility, Miyazawa‘s Basic
Problems also presented a theoretical framework for understanding victimization (Viano, 1976).
Stephen Schafer (1911–1976)

Stephen Schaferalso began his career as a lawyer and pivoted toward academia after escaping
persecution during World War II. His interest in victimology first arose during late adolescence,
when he noticed that victims were largely overlooked in the administration of justice despite the
harm these individuals experienced. Years later, he spent considerable time parsing out the
―functional responsibility‖ victims had in criminal events (Viano, 1976, p. 224). Indeed, in his
seminal work, Victimology: The Victim and His Criminal, Schafer (1977) criticized
victimization studies for the lack of attention placed on the criminal-victim relationship, which
he emphasized should be a central line of inquiry in the field. Aside from calling attention to the
perceived misdirection in the field, Schafer (1977) also proposed a typology that sought to
overcome some of the challenges associated with previous frameworks that he noted were
largely ―speculative guesswork‖ (p. 45).
20
Table 1.4 Schafer‘s Victim Responsibility Typology
Unrelated Victims Criminal is solely responsible; there is no

relationship to the victim
Provocative Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and

victim because of victim‘s provocation
Precipitative Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and
victim because of victim‘s carelessness
Biologically Weak Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and
larger society, which failed to protect the
victim despite his/her inherent
vulnerabilities
Socially Weak Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and
larger society,
which failed to protect the victim despite
his/her socially vulnerable position
Self-victimizing Victims The victim is completely responsible and is
considered a criminal-victim
Political Victims Victim is not responsible, because of his/her
lack of socio-political capital
 More explanation in unit 2
In contrast to previous frameworks, Schafer‘s (1977) typology (as shown above in Table 1.4)
accounted for both behavioural and social characteristics that contributed to the genesis of crime.
Moreover, he sought to ensure that his framework was applicable and transferable to various
types of crimes. According to Schafer (1977), his ultimate goal in constructing this typology was
to provide an instrument by which the responsibility of both the offender and the victim could be
assessed in the criminal-victim relationship.
4.0 Conclusion
These scholars have contributed in no small measures to the development and the rapid evolution
of victimology, over time, helping the mother discipline (criminology) in expanding its frontiers
and research capacity, by implication a new branch of knowledge. Nevertheless, the typologies
drawn by these scholars appreciable as they were generated substantial criticism and debate
given the too much emphasis on victim-blaming and the nature of their typologies. In order to
understand the origin of this debate and how these discussions continue to shape the field today,
the next section of this chapter discusses the different areas of victimological thought beyond any
21
particular scholar‘s work. In this discussion, we also explain and explore important concepts
regarding the victim‘s role in criminal events (e.g., victim-precipitation, victim-provocation, and
victim-facilitation) that largely developed because of these scholars‘ works.
5.0 Summary
This unit introduced you to the branch of criminology called victimology, its founding father
(Benjamin Mendelsohn, 1947) and the earlier scholars (Hans von Hentig (1887–1974); Ezzat A.
Fattah (b. 1929; Sara Margery Fry (1874–1958'); Koichi Miyazawa (b. 1930) ; Stephen Schafer
(1911–1976)) that contributed to the development of the discipline. it is clearly stated that in
1947, Mendelsohn, defined victimology as ―the science of victims and victimity. Or simply put
the scientific study of crime victims. Victimity, as used means the general concept, the specific
common phenomenon which characterizes all categories of victims, whatever the cause of their
situation may be‖. Finally a common narrative and success story of these earlier scholars was
evident in their ability to come out with several typologies of risk factors: Mendelsohn’s (1956)
Victim Culpability Spectrum ( 6 in number); expanded upon by Von Hentig’s to Thirteen (13),
Victim Risk Factors. SimilarlyEzzat Fattah came up with the idea of latent and manifest
characteristics of Victim Classification as a way to enhance the understanding not only the those
who are more likely to bethe susceptibility but also in furthering the knowledge of the neglected
aspects of victims in the broader discipline- criminology.

1. What is victimology?
2. What does the term Victimity

3. Using Mendelsohn’s (1956) schema, explain with examples the concept of Culpability
4. What is the background of the founding fathers of victimology?
5. Account for at least three (3) reasons towards the progress of victimology as an
independent discipline.
6. Who is well known as the pioneer of victimology in the Asian continent?
7. Identify at least three pioneers in the field of victimology
22

Clevenger, Shelly, Navarro, Jordana N., Marcum, Catherine D., &Higgins,G. E.
(2018).Understanding Victimology: An active learning approach. Routledge, New
York.
Daigle, L. E., &Muftić, L. R. (2015).Victimology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Daigle, Leah E. (2018.)Victimology: A Text/Reader. SAGE Text/Reader Series in Criminology
and Criminal Justice. Craig Hemmens,(Ed). Second Edition, Sage Publication, Washington
DC.
Fattah, E. A. (1989). Victims and victimology: The facts and the rhetoric. International Review
ofVictimology, 1, 43–66.
Fattah, E. A. (2000). Victimology: Past, present and future. Criminologie, 17–46.
Mendelsohn, B. (1976). Victimology and contemporary society‘s trends.Victimology: An
InternationalJournal, 1(1), 8–28.
Schneider, H. J. (2001). Victimological developments in the world during the past three
decades(I): A study of comparative victimology. International Journal of Offender
Therapy and ComparativeCriminology, 45(4), 449–468.
Van Dijk, J. J. (1999, August). Introducing victimology.Caring for crime victims: selected
proceedingsof the Ninth International Symposium on Victimology. Monsey, NY: Criminal
JusticePress/Willow Tree Press.
Viano, E. C. (1976). Victimology and its pioneers.Victimology: An International Journal,
1(2),189–192.
Viano, E. C. (1983). Victimology: The development of a new perspective. Victimology: An
InternationalJournal, 8(1–2), 17–30.
Von Hentig, H. (1940). Remarks on the interaction of perpetrator and victim.Journal of
CriminalLaw and Criminology, 31(3), 303–309.
Von Hentig, H. (1948). The criminal & his victim: Studies in the sociobiology of crime.
NewHaven, CT: Yale University Press.
Walklate, S. (2015).Jock Young, left realism and critical victimology.Critical Criminology,
23,179–190.
Wertham, F. (1949).The show of violence. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
23
Unit 2.
Key concepts in victim‘s role in crime: Victim Precipitation, Victim Facilitation, and Victim
Provocation
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The field of victimology has come to realise through several research that most crime are not just
committed freely all the time by criminals without the victims‘ role in them. In other words, the
extent to which a crime is successfully or unsuccessfully executed to a large extent can be traced
to the victims‘ activities, exposure or carelessness. And that is why sometimes victims regret and
say to themselves. I should have known; I should have been prepared for it, I should have seen it
coming or I saw it coming, had I know, while other times victims tend to blame themselves for
the occurrence of the crime, making themselves vulnerable. Thus a new lens of looking at crime
from the victims‘ role came to be in discipline of victimology. This will aid students in
understanding the crime, the criminal and the victim in a more comprehensive manner. Often
than not victimologists ask directly or indirectly questions to unravel victims role in crime,
because it is very important not only in counselling the victim, but as a learning curve to the
victim and victimologists especially with new cases; and to future victims ultimately to nip in the
bud future occurrences. Thus you can see that understanding these aspects sounds interesting, of
which core criminologist often do not delve into. It is also important here to say that the study
of victimology has largely moved away from simply investigating how much a victim
contributes to his or her own victimization, the first forays into the study of crime victims were
24
centered on such investigations. In this way, the first studies of crime victims did not portray
victims as innocents who were wronged at the hands of an offender. Rather, concepts such as
victim precipitation, victim facilitation, and victim provocation developed from these
investigations. These are clearly discussed in the main contain of this unit.

This unit is set to introduce students to the three major concepts of (1) victim precipitation, (2)
provocation, and (3) facilitation. It is expected that it will further give an insight and buttress
victimology as a behavioural science. Students are expected to grab the idea that individuals can
become a victim in their roles towards being victimised and also understanding victims‘ role in
crime.
3.0 Main Content

Victimologists have come to realised, that victims can also a role in criminal activities. For
which they have come up with three elementary but key concepts that practitioners, researchers
and students must be abreast with. These concepts are: (1) victim precipitation, (2) victim
facilitation, and (3) victim provocation. These concepts came to be as a result of several years of
victimologists investigations.
1. Victim precipitation
Victim precipitation is defined as the extent to which a victim is responsible for his or her own
victimization. The concept of victim precipitation is rooted in the notion that, although some
victims are not at all responsible for their victimization, other victims are. In this way, victim
precipitation acknowledges that crime victimization involves at least two people—an offender
and a victim—and that both parties are acting and often reacting before, during, and after the
incident. Identifying victim precipitation does not necessarily lead to negative outcomes. It is
problematic, however, when it is used to blame the victim while ignoring the offender‘s role.
Similar to victim precipitation is the concept of victim facilitation.
25
2. Victim facilitation
Victim facilitation occurs when a victim unintentionally makes it easier for an offender to
commit a crime. A victim may, in this way, be a catalyst for victimization. A woman who
accidentally left her purse in plain view in her office while she went to the restroom and then had
it stolen would be a victim who facilitated her own victimization. This woman is not
blameworthy—the offender should not steal, regardless of whether the purse is in plain view. But
the victim‘s actions certainly made her a likely target and made it easy for the offender to steal
her purse. Unlike precipitation, facilitation helps understand why one person may be victimized
over another but does not connote blame and responsibility. Contrast victim facilitation with
victim provocation.
3. Victim provocation
Victim provocation occurs when a person does something that incites another person to commit
an illegal act. Provocation suggests that without the victim‘s behaviour, the crime would not
have occurred. Provocation, then, most certainly connotes blame. In fact, the offender is not at all
26
responsible. An example of victim provocation would be if a person attempted to mug a man

who was walking home from work and the man, instead of willingly giving the offender his
wallet, pulled out a gun and shot the mugger. The offender in this scenario ultimately is a victim,
but he would not have been shot if not for attempting to mug the shooter. The distinctions
between victim precipitation, facilitation, and provocation, as you probably noticed, are not
always clear-cut. These terms were developed, described, studied, and used in somewhat
different ways in the mid-1900s by several scholars.
Hans von Hentig: The Criminal and His Victim: Studies in the Sociobiology of Crime,
In his book The Criminal and His Victim: Studies in the Sociobiology of Crime, Hans von Hentig
(1948) recognized the importance of investigating what factors underpin why certain people are
victims, just as criminology attempts to identify those factors that produce criminality. He
determined that some of the same characteristics that produce crime also produce victimization.
In studying victimization, then, von Hentig looked at the criminal-victim dyad, thus recognizing
the importance of considering the victim and the criminal not in isolation but together. He
attempted to identify the characteristics of a victim that may effectively serve to increase
victimization risk (see Unit 1). He considered that victims may provoke victimization—acting as
agent provocateurs—based on their characteristics. He argued that crime victims could be placed
into one of 13 categories based on their propensity for victimization: (1) young; (2) females; (3)
old; (4) immigrants; (5) depressed; (6) mentally defective/deranged; (7) the acquisitive; (8) dull
normals; (9) minorities; (10) wanton; (11) the lonesome and heartbroken; (12) tormentor; and
(13) the blocked, exempted, and fighting. All these victims are targeted and contribute to their
own victimization because of their characteristics. For example, the young, the old, and females
may be victimized because of their ignorance or risk taking, or may be taken advantage of, such
as when women are sexually assaulted. Immigrants, minorities, and dull normals are likely to be
victimized due to their social status and inability to activate assistance in the community. The
mentally defective or deranged may be victimized because they do not recognize or
appropriately respond to threats in the environment. Those who are depressed, acquisitive,
wanton, lonesome, or heartbroken may place themselves in situations in which they do not
recognize danger because of their mental state, their sadness over a lost relationship, their desire
27
for companionship, or their greed. Tormentors are people who provoke their own victimization
via violence and aggression toward others. Finally, the blocked, exempted, and fighting victims
are those who are enmeshed in poor decisions and unable to defend themselves or seek
assistance if victimized. An example of such a victim is a person who is blackmailed because of
his behaviour, which places him in a precarious situation if he reports the blackmail to the police
(Dupont-Morales, 2009).
Benjamin Mendelsohn Victim Culpability Spectrum

As a lawyer, he became interested in the relationship between the victim and the criminal as he
conducted interviews with victims and witnesses and realized that victims and offenders often
knew each other and had some kind of existing relationship. This was what led to his typology
(see Unit 1, Table 1.1). He then created a classification of victims based on their culpability, or
the degree of the victim‘s blame (Victim Culpability Spectrum). His classification entailed the
following:
1. Completely innocent victim: a victim who bears no responsibility at all for victimization;
victimized simply because of his or her nature, such as being a child
2. Victim with minor guilt: a victim who is victimized due to ignorance; a victim who
inadvertently places himself or herself in harm‘s way
3. Victim as guilty as offender/voluntary victim: a victim who bears as much responsibility
as the offender; a person who, for example, enters into a suicide pact
4. Victim more guilty than offender: a victim who instigates or provokes his or her own
victimization
5. Most guilty victim: a victim who is victimized during the perpetration of a crime or as a
result of crime
6. Simulating or imaginary victim: a victim who is not victimized at all but, instead,
fabricates a victimization event.
Mendelsohn‘s classification emphasized degrees of culpability, recognizing that some victims
bear no responsibility for their victimization, whereas others, based on their behaviours or
actions, do.
Stephen Schafer: The Victim and His Criminal: A Study in Functional Responsibility
28
In his article titled ‗‘The Victim and His Criminal: A Study in Functional Responsibility’’ (1968),
much like von Hentig and Mendelsohn, Schafer also proposed a victim typology. Using both
social characteristics and behaviours, his typology places victims in groups based on how
responsible they are or were for their own victimization. In this way, it includes facets of von
Hentig‘s typology based on personal characteristics and Mendelsohn‘s typology rooted in
behaviour. He argued that people have a functional responsibility not to provoke others into
victimizing or harming them and that they also should actively attempt to prevent that from
occurring. He identified seven categories and labeled their levels of responsibility as follows:
1. Unrelated victims—no responsibility
2. Provocative victims—share responsibility
3. Precipitative victims—some degree of responsibility
4. Biologically weak victims—no responsibility
5. Socially weak victims—no responsibility
6. Self-victimizing—total responsibility
7. Political victims—no responsibility
Marvin Wolfgang’s revelations from his Homicides Study
Marvin Wolfgang has been recognised as one of the most influential criminologists in the
English-speaking world (Kaufman, 1998) and the first person to have empirically investigate
victim precipitation in his 1957classic study of homicides occurring in Philadelphia from 1948 to
1952. He examined some 558 homicides to see to what extent victims precipitated their own
deaths. In those instances in which the victim was the direct, positive precipitator in the
homicide, Wolfgang labeled the incident as victim precipitated. For example, the victim in such
an incident would be the first to brandish or use a weapon, the first to strike a blow, and the first
to initiate physical violence. He found that 26% (slightly above a quarter) of all homicides in
Philadelphia during this period were victim precipitated. Even though the first study examining
victim precipitation and homicide was published in 1957, this phenomenon is being examined in
contemporary times as well. In recent research examining 895 homicides that occurred in Dallas,
Texas, Muftić and Hunt (2013) found that 48.9% (n = 438) were victim precipitated. They
29
further found that homicides in which the victim had a previous history of offending were more
likely to be victim precipitated than homicides in which the victim had no such history.
Beyond simply identifying the extent to which homicides were victim precipitated, Wolfgang
also identified those factors that were common in such homicides. He determined that often in
this kind of homicide, the victim and the offender knew each other. He also found that most
victim-precipitated homicides involved male offenders and male victims and that the victim was
likely to have a history of violent offending himself. Alcohol was also likely to play a role in
victim-precipitated homicides, which makes sense, especially considering that Wolfgang
determined these homicides often started as minor altercations that escalated to murder. Since
Wolfgang‘s study of victim-precipitated homicide, others have expanded his definition to include
felony-related homicide and subintentional homicide. Subintentional homicide occurs when the
victim facilitates his or her own demise by using poor judgment, placing himself or herself at
risk, living a risky lifestyle, or using alcohol or drugs. Perhaps not surprising, a study of
subintentional homicide found that as many as three-fourths of victims were subintentional
(Allen, 1980).
Menachem Amir’s rape study (Evidential but controversial)
Menachem Amir, a student of Wolfgang‘s, conducted an empirical investigation into rape

incidents reported to the police. Like Wolfgang, he conducted his study using data from
Philadelphia, although he examined rapes that occurred from 1958 to 1960. He examined the
extent to which victims precipitated their own rapes and identified common attributes of victim-
precipitated rape. Amir labelled almost 1 in 5 rapes as victim precipitated. He found that these
rapes were likely to involve alcohol and that the victim was likely to engage in seductive
behaviour, wear revealing clothing, use risqué language, and have a bad reputation. What Amir
also determined was that it is the offender‘s interpretation of actions that is important, rather than
what the victim actually does. The offender may view the victim—her actions, words, and
clothing—as going against what he considers appropriate female behaviour. In this way, the
victim may be viewed as being ―bad‖ in terms of how women should behave sexually. He may
then choose to rape her because of his misguided view of how women should act, because he
30
thinks she deserves it, or because he thinks she has it coming to her. Amir‘s study was quite
controversial—it was attacked for blaming victims, namely women, for their own victimization.
4.0 Conclusion
The relevance of the three concepts of victim precipitation, provocation, and facilitation cannot
be over emphasised in victimology/criminology as a behavioural discipline. Understanding these
concepts as tools in criminal investigation and in preventing and curbing future occurrences of
criminality and victimisation are hallmarks of their potency. Though the field of victimology has
moved beyond the early typologies put forth by von Hentig and others, victimology is very much
still concerned with victim precipitation, provocation, and facilitation.
5.0 Summary
This unit basic introduced the students to the three major concepts of victim precipitation,
provocation, and facilitation in furthering their horizons about the scope of the definition of
victimology. Through the articles of Menachem Amir‘s; Marvin Wolfgang‘s, Stephen Schafer,
Benjamin Mendelsohn and Hans von Hentig: The Criminal and His Victim,Victim precipitation
is defined as the extent to which a victim is responsible for his or her own victimization. The
concept of victim precipitation is rooted in the notion that, although some victims are not at all
responsible for their victimization, other victims are. Victim facilitation occurs when a victim
unintentionally makes it easier for an offender to commit a crime. A victim may, in this way, be
a catalyst for victimization. And that victim provocation occurs when a person does something
that incites another person to commit an illegal act. Provocation suggests that without the
victim‘s behaviour, the crime would not have occurred. Provocation, then, most certainly
connotes blame. These definitions suggest that victims behaviourally can influence directly or
indirectly, knowingly or unknowingly activities of criminality and may be need to see their
hands in their own victimisation.
1. What are the contributions of Wolfgang and Amir to the knowledge of victims role in
crime and in becoming victims
31
2. List and briefly explain the three concepts therein in the discourse of victims role in
criminal activities?
3. What do understand by the term subintentional homicide?
4. On a particular day, four armed robbers entered a departmental store, stole cash and
jewelleries. They got more than they bargained for! After leaving the store with their loot,
a friend of the owner of the store confronted them, and the four robbers then raised their
guns at him. In response, the man then pulled out his own weapon and shot the robbers in
the chest. All robbers were pronounced dead at the scene (Adapted and modified from:
Bayliss& Chang (2013).
a) What do you think about this incident?
b) Was the man justified in shooting the robbers?
c) Was this victim facilitation? Precipitation? Provocation?
d) What do you think about one of the friends of the robbers who said, ―They should
have thought about this before going‖?

Allen, N. H. (1980). Homicide: Perspectives on prevention. New York, NY: Human Sciences
Press.
Bayliss, K., & Chang, D. (2013, November 5). Man shoots, kills 2 armed robbers: Police.
Retrieved from http://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/2-Shot-Killed-in-Attempted-
Robbery-230539261.html
Dupont-Morales, T. (2009).Von Hentig‘s typologies.In J. K. Wilson (Ed.), Praeger handbook of
victimology (pp. 308–309). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
Kaufman, M. T. (1998, April 18). Marvin E. Wolfgang, 73, dies; leading figure in
criminology.New York Times. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/18/us/marvin-e-wolfgang-73-dies-leadingfigure-in-
criminology.html
Schafer, S. (1968). The victim and his criminal: A study in functional responsibility. New York,
NY: Random House.
vonHentig, H. (1948). The criminal and his victim: Studies in the sociobiology of crime.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wolfgang, M. E. (1957). Victim precipitated criminal homicide. Journal of Criminal Law,
Criminology, and Police Science, 48(1), 1–11.
32
Unit 3
Understanding the Victim Crime
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Recent happenings have come to victimology as a discipline broadly speaking cuts across a wide
range of topics, most especially crime-victims, causes of victimization, consequences of
victimization, interaction of victims with the criminal justice system, interaction of victims with
other social service agencies and programs, and prevention of victimization. These topics are
designed with the sole intension to see victims as integral part of the criminal justice system
rather than on the offenders. Thus the nexus between the victim and crime becomes handy to
victimologists. One of the first things victimologists needed to know was who was victimized by
crime. To determine who victims were, victimologists looked at official data sources (crime
statistics. This will be elaborated upon in subsequent units/modules)—namely, the Uniform
Crime Reports (UCR)—but found them to be imperfect sources for victim information because
they do not include detailed information on crime victims. As a result, victimization surveys
were developed to determine the extent to which people were victimized, the typical
characteristics of victims, and the characteristics of victimization incidents. The most widely
cited and used victimization survey is the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), which
is discussed in detail in other units. From the NCVS and other victimization surveys,
victimologists discovered that victimization is more prevalent than originally thought. Also, the
―typical‖ victim was identified—a young male who lives in urban areas. This is not to say that
other people are not victimized. In fact, children, women, and older people are all prone to
33
victimization. In addition, victimologists have uncovered other vulnerable groups. Homeless

individuals, persons with mental illness, disabled persons, and prisoners all have been recognized
as deserving of special attention given their victimization rates (Clarke, 1997). Thus
understanding victims as people who are vulnerable or likely to be or people as potential victims
come with a cost of not knowing the causes of victimisation alone but also the costs of
victimisation to the victim, the society and the criminal justice system. These are well captured
in the main content section.

In this unit students are expected to understand basically the
1. The construction of victimisation through the records of the National Crime
Victimization Survey (NCVS.
2. The causes and cost of victimisation
3. Ordeals of victims, victimisation and re-victimisation
4. Reasons for low reportage of victimisation and lastly
5. The implication of support systems available to victims
3.0 Main Content

The Causes of Victimization
It is difficult to know why a person is singled out and victimized by crime (Tseloni, & Pease,
2003). Is it something he did? Did an offender choose a particular individual because she seemed
like an easy target? Or does victimization occur because somebody is simply in the wrong place
at the wrong time? Perhaps there is an element of ―bad luck‖ or chance involved, but
victimologists have developed some theories to explain victimization (some of these theories will
be discussed later). Theories are sets of propositions that explain phenomena. In relation to
victimology, victimization theories explain why some people are more likely than others to be
victimized. As you have seen in the typologies in the previous units and you will also come
across later in other module. The most widely used theories of victimization are routine activities
theory and risky lifestyles theory. In the past two decades, however, victimologists and
criminologists alike have developed additional theories and identified other correlates of
34
victimization both generally and to explain why particular types of victimization, such as child
abuse, occur.
Costs of Victimization
Victimologists are particularly interested in studying victims of crime because of the mass costs
they often incur. These costs of victimization can be tangible, such as the cost of stolen or
damaged property or the costs of receiving treatment at the emergency room, but they can also
be harder to quantify. Crime victims may experience mental anguish or other more serious
mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Costs also include monies
spent by the criminal justice system preventing and responding to crime and monies spent to
assist crime victims (Duborg, Hamed& Thorns, 2005). An additional consequence of
victimization is fear of being a victim. This fear may be tied to the actual risk of being a victim,
with the other consequences of victimization. Similarly an additional significant cost of
victimization is the real risk of being victimized again that many victims face. Unfortunately,
some victims do not suffer only a single victimization event but, rather, are victimized again and,
sometimes, again and again. In this way, a certain subset of victims appears to be particularly
vulnerable to re-victimization (Farrell, 2005). Research has begun to describe which victims are
at risk of recurring victimization. In addition, theoretical explanations of recurring victimization
have been proffered.Two main theories used to explain recurring victimization are state
dependence and risk heterogeneity theories.
The Crime Victim and the Criminal Justice System
Another experience of crime victims that is important to understand is how they interact with the
criminal justice system. Though, it has been revealed that many persons who are victimized by
crime do not report their experiences to the police, for various reasons. The reasons victims
choose to remain silent, at least in terms of not calling the police, are varied but often include an
element of suspicion and distrust of the police. Often than not victim‘s worry that police will not
take them seriously or will not think what happened to them is worth the police‘s time. Others
may be worried that calling the police will effectively invoke a system response that cannot be
erased or stopped, even when the victim wishes not to have the system move forward. An
example of such a victim is one who does not want to call the police after being hit by her
35
partner because she fears the police will automatically and mandatorily arrest him. Whatever the
reason, without a report, the victim will not activate the formal criminal justice system, which
will preclude an arrest and may preclude the victim from receiving victim services explicitly tied
to reporting. When victims do report, they then enter the world of criminal justice, a world in
which they are often seen as witnesses rather than victims, given that the various criminal
justice system recognize crimes as harms against the state. This being the case, victims do not
always find it palatable with the treatment netted on them, by way of disrespects and loss of
dignity in the attention given to cases rather to them as victims (humans). The police are not the
only ones with whom victims must contend. If an offender is apprehended and charged with a
crime, the victim will also interact with the prosecutor and perhaps a judge. The experience of
the crime victim after the system is put into motion is an area of research ripe for study by
victimologists. It is important to understand how victims view their interactions with the criminal
justice system so that victim satisfaction can be maximized and any additional harm caused to
the victim can be minimized especially in cases involving rapes and traumatic harm, thus
different victim types have unique experiences with the police the criminal justice in general.
The Crime Victim and Social Services

The criminal justice system is not the only organization with which crime victims may come into
contact. After being victimized, victims may need medical attention. As a result, emergency
medical technicians, hospital and doctor‘s office staff, nurses, doctors, and clinicians may all be
persons with whom victims interact. Although some of these professionals will have training or
specialize in dealing with victims, others may not treat victims with the care and sensitivity they
need. To combat this, sometimes victims will have persons from the police department or
prosecutor‘s office with them at the hospital to serve as mediators and provide counsel. Also to
aid victims, many hospitals and clinics now have sexual assault nurse examiners, who are
specially trained in completing forensic and health exams for sexual assault victims. In addition
to medical professionals, mental health clinicians also often serve victims, for large numbers of
victims seek mental health services after being victimized. This is often not the case in Africa
and other developing nations. Beyond mental health care, victims may use the services of social
workers or other social service workers. But not all persons with whom victims interact as a
consequence of being victimized are part of social service agencies accustomed to serving
36
victims. Crime victims may seek assistance from religious groups, and colleagues at work. Crime
victims may need special accommodations from their employers or schools. In short, being
victimized may touch multiple aspects of a person‘s life, and agencies, businesses, and
organizations alike may find themselves in the position of dealing with the aftermath, one to
which they may not be particularly attuned. The more knowledge people have about crime
victimization and its impact on victims, the more likely victims will be satisfactorily treated.
4.0 Conclusion
Knowing the extent to which people are victimized, who is likely targeted, and the reasons why
people are victimized can help in the development of prevention efforts. To be effective,
prevention programs and policies need to target the known causes of victimization. Although the
offender is ultimately responsible for crime victimization, it is difficult to change offender
behaviour. Reliance on doing so limits complete prevention because victimization involves at
least two elements—the offender and the victim—both of which need to be addressed to stop
crime victimization. In addition, it is easier to reduce the opportunity than the motivation to
offend.
5.0 Summary
This unit is basically explains the interactions, actions of victim crime as a construction which
highlights the causes and costs of victimization, from victims are defined with the help of a
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS. Buttressing further much emphasis was placed
on how victims navigate their ordeals pre and post victimisation experiences. From the
offenders, the criminal justice system, colleagues at workplace, and other agencies in society that
are expected to give support to the victim. However as it has been observed through research and
documentations of the plights of victims, many a time victims in the quagmire of not reporting
their ordeals and may often decide to keep it to themselves because of suspicion, fear and distrust
of the criminal justice systems.

1. Highlight at least three (3) major reasons for low reportage of victimisation in the
criminal justice system.
37
2. Do you think the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is necessary? Write in
support for or against its relevance?
3. What are the causes and cost of victimisation?
4. Highlight at least three (3) support systems available to victims in society

Clarke, R. V. (1997). Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies. Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press.
Farrell, G. (2005). Progress and prospects in the prevention of repeat victimization.In N. Tilley
(Ed.), Handbook of crime prevention and community safety (pp. 143–170).Collumpton,
UK: Willan.
Duborg, R., Hamed, J., & Thorns, J. (2005).The economic and social costs of crime against
individuals. London: Home Office.
Tseloni, A. M., & Pease, K. (2003). Repeat personal victimization: ―Flags‖ or ―boosts‖? British
Journal of Criminology, 43, 196–212.
38
Unit 4: Consequences of victimization
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The consequences of victimisation in all ramifications create a state of sympathy, empathy,

commiseration and compassion for victims, especially for those in distress or suffering great
hardship thereafter their victimisation. Thus these feelings are undoubtedly among the most
noble human sentiments victimologists share. According to Garofalo (1889), the universality of
these feelings has led some to suggest that they are innate and natural. Garofalo (1889), for
example, identified what he believed to be the two basic altruistic moral sentiments: pity and
probity. He defined pity as the revulsion we feel against the deliberate infliction of pain and
suffering on others. The more helpless and defenceless the victim, be it an infant, a child, one of
the elderly or even an animal, the stronger is the sense of indignation at the victimizer and the
pity we feel for the object of victimization. This is because many crimes cause enormous pain
and suffering to those who are victimized: death, physical injury, psychological trauma,
degradation, humiliation, fear, financial loss and so forth.

In this unit, you are expected to understand:
1. What the consequences of victimisation are, from the economic, social and
psychological points.
39
2. The pain associated with victimisation, in what has been termed the consequences of
victimisation.
3. Also to note the cost implications of victimisation beyond the victims.
3.0 Main Content

Physical Injury
Clearly, when people suffer personal victimizations, they are at risk of physical injury. These
injuries can include bruises, soreness, scratches, cuts, broken bones, contracted diseases, and stab
or gunshot wounds. Some of these injuries may be temporary and short-lived, whereas others can
be long-lasting or permanent. In the United States of America (where data is very much available
and reliable compare to any other developed country) data from the National Crime
Victimization Survey (NCVS) in 2008, revealed that 21% of assault victims sustained physical
injuries. Those who experienced robbery were more likely to be injured; 37% of robbery victims
suffered physical injury. In available data on assault admissions to hospitals show that, for the 12
months ending April 2015, there were 28,992 hospital admissions for assault (Office for National
Statistics, 2015/Crime Survey for England and Wales).The most serious physical injury is, of
course, death.
Mental Health Consequences and Costs
People differentially respond to trauma, including victimization. Some people may cope by
internalizing their feelings and emotions, whereas others may experience externalizing
responses. It is likely that the way people deal with victimization is tied to their biological
makeup, their interactional style, their coping style and resources, and the context in which the
incident occurs and in which they operate thereafter. Some of the responses can be quite serious
and long-term, whereas others may be more transitory. Three affective responses that are
common among crime victims are depression, reductions in self-esteem, and anxiety. The way in
which depression manifests itself varies greatly across individuals. It can include symptoms such
as sleep disturbances (insomnia), changes in eating habits (anorexia), feelings of guilt and
worthlessness, and irritability. Generally, depressed persons will experience a decline in interest
in activities they once enjoyed, a depressed mood, or both. For youth, depression is a common
outcome for those who are victimized by peers, such as in bullying Victimization is powerful
40
enough to alter the way in which a crime victim views himself or herself. Selfesteem and self-
worth both have been found to be reduced in some crime victims, particularly female
victims. (Logan, Walker, & Hoyt,2011; Miller et., 1996).
Mental Health Care Costs
When victims seek mental health care, this also adds to their total cost. It is estimated that
between 10% and 20% of total mental health care costs in the United States are related to crime
(Miller et al., 1996). Most of this cost is a result of crime victims seeking treatment to deal with
the effects of their victimization. Between one-quarter and one-half of rape and child sexual
abuse victims receive mental health care. As a result, sexual victimizations, of both adults and
children, result in some of the largest mental health care costs for victims all over the world. The
average mental health care cost per rape and sexual assault is $2,200, and the average for child
abuse is $5,800 in the United States. Victims of arson who are injured incur about $10,000 of
mental health care expenditures per victimization.
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
One of the recognized disorders associated with a patterned response to trauma, such as
victimization, is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Commonly associated with individuals
returning from war and combat, PTSD is a psychiatric condition that recently has been
recognized as a possible consequence of other traumatic events, such as criminal victimization.
A person must have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event that involved actual or
threatened death or serious injury to oneself or others, or threat to the physical integrity of
oneself or others. The person must have experienced fear, helplessness, or horror in response to
the event and then re-experienced the trauma over time via flashbacks, nightmares, images,
and/or reliving the event. The person must avoid stimuli associated with the traumatic event and
experience numbness of response, such as lack of affect and reduced interest in activities.
Finally, PTSD is characterized by hyperarousal. In order for PTSD to be diagnosed, symptoms
must be experienced for more than 1 month and must cause clinically significant distress or
impairment in social, occupational, or other functional areas (American Psychiatric Association,
2000). As you may imagine, PTSD can be debilitating and can impact a victim‘s ability to heal,
41
move on, and thrive after being victimized. About 8% of Americans will experience PTSD,
although women are more likely than men to experience this disorder. The traumatic events most
likely to lead to PTSD for men are military combat and witnessing a serious injury or violent
death. Women, on the other hand, are most likely to be diagnosed with PTSD related to incidents
of rape and sexual molestation (Kessler, 200).
Although it is difficult to know how common PTSD is among crime victims, some studies
suggest that PTSD is a real problem for this group. Research has shown that victims of sexual
assault and aggravated assault and persons whose family members were homicide victims are
more likely than other crime victims to develop PTSD. In support of this link, the occurrence of
PTSD in rape victims has been estimated to be almost 1 in 3 (Ullman, & Peter- Hagene, 2016).
The effects of victimization on PTSD and how PTSD may influence other outcomes such as
revictimization.
Self-Blame, Learned Helplessness, and the Brain
Victims of crime may blame themselves for their victimization. One type of self-blame is
characterological self-blame, which occurs when a person ascribes blame to a non-modifiable
source, such as one‘s character. In this way, characterological self-blame involves believing
that victimization is deserved. Another type of self-blame is behavioural self-blame, which
occurs when a person ascribes blame to a modifiable source—behaviour (Janoff-Bulman, 1979).
When a person turns to behavioural self-blame, a future victimization can be avoided as long as
behaviour is changed. In addition to self-blame, others may experience learned helplessness
following victimization. Learned helplessness is a response to victimization in which victims
learn that responding is futile and become passive and numb. In this way, victims may not
activate to protect themselves in the face of danger and, instead, stay in risky situations that
result in subsequent victimization experiences. Although learned helplessness as originally
proposed by Seligman is not alone sufficient in explaining victimization, research on animals
shows that exposure to inescapable aversive stimuli (such as shocks to rats‘ tails) is related to
behavioural changes that are likely related to fear—changes in eating and drinking, changes in
sleep patterns, and not escaping future aversive stimuli when possible. These behavioural
42
changes are linked to changes in brain chemistry, and researchers have hypothesized that these
are similar to the neurochemical and behavioural changes seen in humans who suffer from major
depressive disorders. In this way then, it is possible that people who have been exposed to
serious trauma and who interpret this trauma as being unavoidable may become depressed and
experience behavioural changes that are then linked to future risk of victimization.
Economic Costs
Not only are victimologists concerned with the impact that being a crime victim has on an
individual in terms of health, but they are also concerned with the economic costs incurred by
both the victim and the public. In this sense, victimization is a public health issue. Economic
costs can result from:
1. property losses;
2. monies associated with medical care;
3. time lost from work, school, and housework;
4. pain, suffering, and reduced quality of life; and
5. legal costs.
In the United States of America for instance, the 2008 NCVS estimated the total economic loss
from crimes at $17.4 trillion. It also shows that the median dollar amount of loss attributed to
crime was $125 (Harrell, 2011). Although this number may appear to be low, it largely
represents the fact that the typical property crime is a simple larceny-theft.
Direct Property Losses
Crime victims often experience tangible losses in terms of having their property damaged or
taken. Generally, when determining direct property losses, the value of property that is damaged,
taken, and not recovered, and insurance claims and administration costs are considered.
According to the NCVS, in 2008, 94% of property crimes resulted in economic losses. In one of
the most comprehensive reports on the costs of victimization—sponsored by the American
National Institute of Justice—T. R. Miller, Cohen, and Wiersema (1996) estimated the property
loss or damage experienced per crime victimization event. They found that arson victimizations
resulted in an estimated $15,500 per episode. Motor vehicle theft costs about $3,300 per incident.
43
Results from the NCVS show that personal crime victimizations typically did not result in as
much direct property loss. For example, only 18% of personal crime victimizations resulted in
economic loss. Rape and sexual assaults typically resulted in $100 of property loss or property
damage. It is rare for a victim of a violent or property offense to recover any losses. Only about
29% of victims of personal crime and 16% of victims of property crime recover all or some
property (Logan, Robert Walker, & Hoyt, 2012).
Medical Care
To be sure, many victims would gladly suffer property loss if it meant they would not experience
any physical injury. After all, items can be replaced and damage repaired. Physical injury may
lead to victims needing medical attention, which for some may be the first step in accumulating
costs associated with their victimization. Medical care costs encompass such expenses as
transporting victims to the hospital, doctor care, prescription drugs, allied health services,
medical devices, coroner payments, insurance claims processing fees, and premature funeral
expenses (Harrell, 2011; Miller et al., 1996). Costs vary across types of victimization. For
example, the annual cost of hospitalizations for victims of child abuse in the United States of
America is estimated to be $6.2 billion (Prevent Child Abuse America, 2000). Medical treatment
for battered women is estimated to cost $1.8 billion annually (Wisner, Gilmer, Saltman, & Zink,
1999). Per-criminalvictimization medical care costs also have been estimated. Assaults in which
there were injuries cost $1,470 per incident. Drunk-driving victims who were injured incurred
$6,400 in medical care costs (Miller et al.,1996).Gun violence is associated with substantial
medical costs for victims. Although most crime victims do not require hospitalization, even if
they are treated in the emergency room, a report on gun violence published by the Office for
Victims of Crime showed that gunshot victims make up one-third of those who require
hospitalization and are likely to face numerous re-hospitalizations and incur medical costs
throughout their lifetimes. In cases where the victim is not having any health insurance policy
(uninsured)the burden falls on the state (this is also referred to as system cost in victimology),
thus public resources are often depleted as a result of victimisation emanating from crime
(Bonderman, 2001; Howell et al., 2014).
Losses in Productivity
44
Research has shown that persons who are victimized may experience an inability to work at their
place of employment, complete housework, or attend school. Not being able to do these things
contributes to the total lost productivity that crime victims experience. In 2008, about 7% of
persons in the NCVS who said they were violently victimized lost some time from work. About
the same percentage of victims of property offenses lost time from work. Some victims are more
prone to miss work than others. For example, almost one-tenth of burglary victimizations cause
victims to miss at least one day of work. Data from the NCVS show that 9% of robbery
victimizations resulted in victims missing more than 10 days of work (Bureau of Justice
Statistics, 2011), whereas victims of intimate partner violence lost almost 8 million paid days of
work annually (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003). Employers also bear some
costs when their employees are victimized; victimized employees may be less productive, their
employers may incur costs associated with hiring replacements, and employers may experience
costs dealing with the emotional responses of their employees. Parents also may suffer costs
when their children are victimized and they are unable to meet all their job responsibilities as a
result of doing things such as taking the child to the doctor or staying home with the child (Miller
et al., 1996).
Pain, Suffering, and Lost Quality of Life
The most difficult cost to quantify is the pain, suffering, and loss of quality of life that crime
victims experience. When these elements are added to the costs associated with medical care,
lost earnings, and programs associated with victim assistance, the cost to crime victims increases
4 times. In other words, this is the largest cost that crime victims sustain (Miller et al., 1996).
Another cost that crime victims may experience is a change in their routines and lifestyles.
Many victims report that after being victimized, they changed their behaviour. For example,
victims of stalking may change their phone numbers, move, or change their normal routines.
Others may stop going out alone or start carrying a weapon when they do so. Although these
changes may reduce risk of being victimized again, for victims to bear the cost of crime seems
somewhat unfair.
Vicarious Victimization/ Secondary victimization
45
Victimologists have come to note that not only the victims bear the cost of victimisation, but also
his relatives, significant others and the society at large. While the victim primarily is affected
directly, others and the system also are saddled with costs, economically, emotionally and as the
case may be (secondary coast). The effects that victimization has on those close to the victim are
critical in understanding the total impact of crime. The effects that victimization has on others
are collectively known as vicarious victimization. Vicarious victimization has been most widely
studied in regard to homicide survivors—people whose loved ones have been murdered—given
the profound effect that homicide has on family members, even when compared with non-
homicide deaths. Homicide deaths are almost exclusively sudden and violent. Surviving family
members often experience guilt about not being able to prevent the death. The involvement of
the criminal justice system also adds an element to the response family members have, and there
is often a feeling that others view the death as at least partly the victim‘s fault. For instance,
research have shown that homicide survivors largely experience many of the same posttrauma
symptoms that crime victims themselves experience (Applebaum& Burns, 1991).
Fear of Crime
Another cost associated with victimization is fear. Fear is an emotional response to a perceived
threat. Physiologically, when people experience fear, their body activates to alert them to danger.
These bodily responses are associated with the autonomic nervous system being activated—heart
rate increases, pupils dilate, digestion slows, blood supply to muscles increases, breathing rate
increases, and sweating increases. These physiological changes occur so that in the face of
danger, a person can fight or flee. Fear of crime is different than perceived risk of being a victim.
Perceived risk is the perceived likelihood that a person feels that he or she will become a crime
victim. Perceptions of risk are related to fear in that those people who perceive their risk to be
high generally have higher levels of fear of crime than those who do not perceive their risk of
victimization to be high (May, Rader, &Goodrum, 2010). As you may imagine, fear is difficult
to measure. How do you know whether someone is more fearful of crime than another person?
Would you simply ask someone, or do you think looking for other indications of fear would be
better? One of the most common ways to measure fear of crime is by asking individuals on
46
surveys,―How safe do you feel or would you feel being out alone in your neighborhood?‖
(Ferraro, 1995; 1996).
4.0 Conclusion
The overall understanding of victimisation and its consequences on the victims primarily bearer
of the cost and also secondarily on the society in general cannot be overemphasised. One cannot
understand the plights of victims if one does not understand the specifics in terms of the various
types and consequences of victimisation, the economic, social and psychological impact, for
which many are unquantifiable monetarily, and also the fact that some consequences are more
enduring than others. In all, irrespective of the consequences victims are expected to seek help
wherever possible to alleviate these overarching consequences
5.0 Summary
This unit examine the consequences of victimisation as creating a state of sympathy, empathy,
commiseration and compassion for victims, especially for those in distress or suffering great
hardship thereafter their victimisation. It further highlights the consequences of victimization
ranging from physical injury, mental health consequences, PTSD, Self-Blame, Learned
Helplessness, Economic cost, property lost, medical care, loss in productivity, secondary
victimization and fear of crime as well as their costs primarily to the victims and the society at
large in real terms with economic data from United State survey.

1. What are the three affective responses that are common among crime victims?
2. How can these responses be ameliorated?
3. Identify four consequences of victimisation
4. What does the abbreviation PTSD connote?
5. How does it relate to victimisation?
Applebaum, D. R., & Burns, G. L. (1991). Unexpected childhood death: Posttraumatic stress
disorder in surviving siblings and parents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 114–
120.
47
Ferraro, K. F. (1996). Women‘s fear of victimization: Shadow of sexual assault? Social Forces,
75, 667–690.
Harrell, E. (2011). Workplace violence, 1993–2009. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice
Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from
https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/wv09.pdf
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1979). Characterological versus behavioural self-blame: Inquiries into
depression and rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1798–1809.
Kessler, R. C. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The burden to the individual and to society.
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61(Suppl. 5), 4–12.
Logan, T., Walker, R., & Hoyt, W. (2011).The victim and societal costs of stalking.Unpublished
manuscript.
May, D. C. (2010).Victimization of school teachers/staff.In B. S. Fisher & S. P. Lab (Eds.),
Encyclopedia of victimology and crime prevention (Vol. 2, pp. 833–835). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.Ferraro, K. F. (1995). Fear of crime: Interpreting victimization risk. Albany:
State University of New York Press.
Miller, T. R., Cohen, M. A., &Wiersema, B. (1996). Victim costs and consequences: A new
look. Washington, DC: United States National Institute of Justice.
Ullman, S. E., & Peter-Hagene, L.C. (2016).Longitudinal relationships of social reactions,
PTSD, and revictimization in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,
31, 1074–1094.
48
MODULE 2
Unit 1: Theories of victimisation I (understanding the genesis of crime, and victim crime)
Unit 4: Recurring Victimisation
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
Unit 1: Theories of victimisation I (understand the genesis of crime, and victim crime)
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The introduction to victimology, the link between victim crime and victimisation as explained in
unit 1, with regards to the pioneers of the disciple and their contributions, an idea of the causes
and factors that create victimisation are already established however not in-depth. This module
and subunits will highlight and explain some of the dominant theories in the discipline. The
49
concept of theory needs to be explained. It is important first and foremost for us to know its
meaning, usage and implication in reading, in doing research and in everyday usage. According
to the dictionary, theory is ―a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of
principles offered to explain phenomena‖ (Theory [Def. 1],n.d.). In this module, we present
several perspectives in victimology, some of which focus on the offender and victim selection
while others focus purely on victim behaviours.
This unit seeks to introduce the students to various explanations therein in the crime-victim
puzzle with the help of theories. Students are expected to know what theories, different types are
and their applicability to situations differently, moving away from mere speculations to facts
through scholastic and established victimisation (understand the genesis of crime, and victim
crime).
3.0 Main Content

Now that you have an idea about who the typical crime victim is, you are probably wondering
why some people are more likely than others to find themselves victims of crime. Is it because
those people provoke the victimization, as von Hentig and his contemporaries thought? Is it
because crime victims are perceived by offenders to be more vulnerable than others? Is there
some personality trait that influences victimization risk? Answers to all these questions may play
at least some role in in understanding (the why), why victimization occurs to particular people.
Before discussing several theoretical perspectives utilized to understand the genesis of crime,
victim crime, it is important to note that no one framework (theory) is universally agreed upon
by all scholars. Each perspective noted below has strengths as well as weaknesses.
Biosocial Criminology Theory
One of the earliest pioneers of biosocial criminology theory was Dr. Lee Ellis, who utilizedthis
perspective in the understanding of rape (1991). According to the BiosocialCriminology
Association, biosocial criminology seeks to ―understand the biologicaland environmental
influences on the development of antisocial behaviour.‖ In otherwords, biosocial criminologists
50
investigate the perpetration and/or experiencing ofcriminal activity from a vantage point that
accounts for biological as well as social factors. As mentioned, some of the earliest work
utilizing this perspective focused on rape. In his seminal (1991) article entitled ―A Synthesized
(Biosocial) Theory of Rape,‖Ellis attempted to integrate and merge other perspectives on the
topic into one all-inclusiveframework. At the time, many scholars utilized the following
approaches to understand this crime: (1) feminist perspective, (2) evolutionary theory, and (3)
social learning theory (Ellis, 1991). In order to understand Ellis‘ attempt to integrate andmerge
these theories into a biosocial criminology framework, it is necessary to discusseach of these
perspectives separately.In terms of the feminist perspective, scholars in this field theorize that
violenceagainst women, including rape, is ultimately an expression of power and control
originatingfrom a system of oppression and patriarchy (Ellis, 1991). From this perspective, rape
is a symptom of the larger systemic issue of gender inequality—it is not grounded in sexual
attraction or gratification (Ellis, 1991). From an evolutionary theory perspective, rape stems from
an internal motivation among males to ensure the production of offspring (Ellis, 1991). Finally,
from a social learning theory perspective, rape is the result of individuals internalizing sexist
attitudes and beliefs, such as those depicted through mass media, and then acting on those
antisocial norms (Ellis, 1991). Given that these perspectives speak to both biological (e.g.,
evolutionary theory) and social (e.g., feminist perspective; social learning theory) causes of
violence, Ellis (1991) leveraged each of their respective strengths in his construction of a
biosocial theory of rape. From Ellis‘ (1991) biosocial criminology perspective, rape occurs as a
result of the following four biosocial factors: (1) men‘s biological drive as well as social drive to
―possess‖ another person; (2) men‘s desire to continue their lineage through the production of
multiple offspring, which for men generally does not require the same level of investment as it
does for women; (3) men‘s learned and internalized attitudes and beliefs about sexual activity
perpetrated through mass media; and (4) men‘s hormonal differences compared to women‘s.
This theory also can be used to explain sexual violence related victimisation. The main criticism
of this theory is that it is used to justify sexism. Biosocial criminology has since evolved to take
into account both the biological and social roots of crime.
Control Balance Theory CBT)
51
Charles Tittle proposed control balance theory (CBT) in 1995 and asserted that deviance resulted
from an imbalance in control among individuals and, specifically, controldeficits and control
surpluses (Tittle, 2004). According to Tittle (2004), control is thedegree to which individuals can
influence a course of action or outcome. All individualsseek control, but are also subjected to it
as well (Tittle, 2004). Those experiencinga control balance can influence outcomes, but are
subjected to control themselves in proportional measure. In contrast, those experiencing a control
deficitexperience more control than they exert, whereas those experiencing a control surpluscan
exert great control over outcomes. In terms of the latter twosituations of control, if someone is
given the opportunity to engage in deviance, Tittle(2004) notes, criminal activity becomes more
likely.In instances of a control imbalance, Tittle (2004) theorized engagement in crime was more
likely but that the type of crime would differ. For individuals experiencing a lack of control (i.e.,
control deficit), crimes of a repressive nature would dominate their criminal activity such as
violence and sexual assault (Braithwaite, 1997) after there was recognition within the individual
of their position (Tittle, 2004). Braithwaite (1997) provides the example of an individual who,
upon recognizing his/her lack of autonomy, experiences humiliation and engages in deviance.
Contrasting to the former, individuals experiencing great control are likely to engage in crimes of
an autonomousnature such as bribery, extortion, and price-fixing. A typical example, is a
powerful individual who, upon sensing dissensionwithin his/her social circle, experiences anger
and engages in deviance.
Feminist pathways theory (FPT)
Feminist pathways theory (Pasko& Chesney-Lind, 2016) essentially frames

women‘sengagement in crime as stemming from the negative impacts of prior victimizationas
well as their interactions with the criminal justice system. Similar in thought to the life course
development perspective, which is discussed below, feminist pathways theory asserts that one
cannot understand the origins of female-perpetrated crimes unless the impact of prior life
experiences is also taken into account (Sharp, 2009). This theory explains further that young girls
are often punished more harshly than their male counterparts for status offenses, which forces
them into the criminal justice system at a pivotal time of their development. Utilizing the FPT
52
perspective, it can be argued that this early interaction between the female youth and the criminal
justice system likely increases the chances of her engaging in later criminal activity.
Life Course Development (LCD)

Scholars in the life course development (LCD) field, championed by Gluecks (1930), asserted
that this framework addresses a long-standing dearth of understanding within the academic
community of how an individual‘s development and experiences from childhood to death affect
their decisions. Through a longitudinal surveys research methodology Glueck (1930) followed
the lives of 500 Boston youth for extended periods to monitor onset, persistence, and desistance
from criminal activity to discover a social pathway. To put the theory in broad terms, LCD
scholars are concerned with how normative social pathways are altered by life events, referred to
as transitions that then lead to different trajectories (i.e., a long-term change in roles and
expectations). For example, the development and progression of a young man‘s life may
dramatically change if he is diagnosed with a serious illness (change in trajectory) that requires
him to completelychange his life (transition). In another example more specific to criminology,
the developmentand progression of a young woman‘s life may dramatically change if she
isarrested on a serious charge (change in trajectory) that results in her incarceration(transition).
In his discussion of LCD, Elder and his colleagues (2003; pp. 10–14) identifiedfive general
principles that drove this field of inquiry:
1. Human development and aging are lifelong processes
2. Individuals construct their own life course through the choices and actions they take
within the opportunities and constraints of history and social circumstance
3. The life course of individuals is embedded in and shaped by historical time and places
they experience over a lifetime
4. The developmental antecedents and consequences of life transitions, events, and
behavioural patterns vary according to their timing in a person‘s life
5. Lives are lived interdependently and socio-historical influences are expressed through
this network of shared relationships.
53
Thinking back to earlier discussionon the feminist pathways theory (FPT), LCD scholars are also
concerned with the effectvictimization has on the onset of crime. For example, violent
victimization has a profound, lasting impact on an individual‘s life. And this profound impact
stems from victimizations challenging an individual‘s sense of autonomy, safety, and security.
Lifestyle Exposure Theory (LET)
Unlike previous theoretical frameworks, lifestyle exposure theory (LET) centers on theactions
and behaviours of potential victims that increase their vulnerability to experiencinga crime. LET
was proposed by Hindelang, Gottfredson, and Garofalo in 1978and is very similar to routine
activities theory (RAT), which is the work of Cohen andFelson (1982). In fact, scholars have
claimed that RAT is ―merely an expansion‖ of LET (Choi, 2008, p. 308). In terms of its
applicability tounderstanding victimization, LET essentially asserts that the risk of experiencing
crime varies across society given the differences in how individuals are structurally situated(e.g.,
age, class, gender, race) (Choi, 2008). This theory is devoted to understanding whycertain
segments of the population, such as young men, are more vulnerable to experiencingcrime versus
other groups. It also important in explaining the fact that individuals‘activities and lifestyles are
intertwined with the roles and expectations they holdin society. Thus, a young bachelor is likely
at greater risk of experiencing a crime by thesheer nature of leading a more active lifestyle that
exposes him to potential offenders.In another example, a woman who engages in survival sex as
a means to acquire life‘snecessities is at greater risk of experiencing crime by the sheer nature of
that role.LET is also one of theperspectives that is applicable to victimization. Another example
is the exposure to online activities (risky online behaviour) and the cases of cyber-stalking and
online bullying.
Low Self-Control (LSC)
Low self-control (LSC) theory also referred to as ―self-control theory‖ or as the ―general theory
of crime,‖ is unique in the sense that it is argued to be a general explanation of why individuals
engage in crime regardless of the type of incident or surrounding cultural background.
Gottfredson&Hirschi, (1990) are key proponents of this theory. The essential premise of the
theory is that individuals engage in criminal activity because they cannot resist the opportunity
54
for immediate gratification that it provides and they lack the barrier of self-control that law-
abiding individuals develop during childhood (Gottfredson&Hirschi, 1990). This lack of self-
control, which could be demonstrated by a volatile personality and/or substance use, is alleged to
stem from inadequate parenting during childhood.Not only is LSC a unique perspective in that it
is an alleged universal explanation for crime engagement (Gottfredson&Hirschi, 1990), but
scholars have used this framework to explain victimization as well (Schreck, 1999).
Routine Activities Theory
Cohen and Felson introduced routine activities theory (RAT) to academia in the 1970s at
approximately the same time as LET (discussed earlier). Much like LET, RAT is an opportunity-
driven theoretical understanding of victimization. According to Cohen and Felson (1979), crime
likely results from a convergence in time and space of the following three factors: a potential
offender, a suitable target, and the lack of a capable guardian. This perspective, like LSC, is
applicable across personal and property offenses; moreover, it has informed cybercrime research
as well (Navarro et al., 2015; Navarro &Jasinski, 2012, 2013). While scholars conceptualize
RAT‘s main components slightly differently across studies, the essential premise underlining
each remains largely the same. According to RAT scholars, potential offenders, formerly
referred to as motivated offenders, are omnipresent in society (Mustaine& Tewksbury, 2009).
The second component of RAT is akin to the main premise of LET and takes into account target
vulnerability to victimization. The target can be a person or property (Cohen &Felson, 1979),
and vulnerabilities broadly range across studies. For example, in their 2015 study of
cyberbullying on social networking sites (SNS), Navarro and colleagues assessed what
behaviours on social media platforms like Facebook make users vulnerable to
cybervictimization. Ultimately, the scholars found that using SNS daily increased the risk of
experiencing cyberbullying (Navarro et al., 2015). Additionally, bullying others, posting status
updates, and using private messages all increased the odds of experiencing cyberbullying
(Navarro et al., 2015).
The third component, a capable guardian, counteracts the chance of victimization occurring
(Cohen &Felson, 1979). Although scholars‘ conceptualization of the capable guardian widely
55
varies across studies, this component was envisioned as someone who could keep a crime from
happening by keeping ―an eye on the potential target# of crime‖ (Felson, 2006, p. 80). In other
words, using an alarm system or bright lights may deter a burglary, but these items are not
capable forms of guardianship in terms of understanding RAT. Instead, capable forms of
guardianship are parents, police officers, teachers, and others who are in positions to both
monitor potential targets of crime and act if a crime is likely to occur. Taking this into account,
Cohen and Felson (1979) theorized that the lack of a capable guardian contributed to the genesis
of# crime when a potential offender and suitable target converged in time and space.
4.0 Conclusion
It is quite evident that the causes of criminality have a lot to dowith victimisation insofar as both
emphasisehuman actions and inactions that are capable of harming individuals and the society at
large. However it also very clear that understanding the causes of victimisation is very complex,
with diverse ways of explaining events, circumstances and impactthat are linked to victimisation.
Thus the theories in this unit do not represent an inclusive list, as new ways of understanding
crime and victimization are constantly proposed by scholars in the field.
5.0 Summary
The theoretical perspectives discussed in this chapter represent a large swath of the frameworks
utilized in criminological and victimological research today. This unit introduce the student to
the following specific theories: Biosocial Criminology Theory, Control Balance Theory,
Feminist Perspective,Life Course Development Theory,Lifestyle Exposure
Theory,Low Self-control Theory, Routine Activities Theory,Social Disorganization
Theory, Social InteractionistPerspective,Social Learning Theory, Strain

Theory,Structural Choice Theory, and Subculture of Violence Theory. These
theories can be broadly explained ranging from the biological, social and subcultural view
standpoints.
56
1. What theory critically discussed the idea of a potential offender, a suitable target, and the
lack of a capable guardian?
2. Explain the concepts and link between low self esteem and victimization.
3. Which of the theory/theories is/are better focused in the debate of why certain segments of
the population are more vulnerable to experiencing crime versus other groups?
4. Which theory is specifically interested in understanding how normative social pathways are
altered by life events, transitions and trajectories?
5. How does the Biosocial Criminology Theory captures rape as a crime and the rape victim?
Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory.Journal of Research

in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319–361.
Akers, R. L. (1973). Deviant behaviour: A social learning approach. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Braithwaite, J. (1997). Charles Tittle’s control balance and criminological theory.
Theoretical Criminology, 1(1), 77–97.
Choi, K. (2008). An empirical assessment of an integrated theory of computer crime
victimization.International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 2(1), 308–333.
Clevenger, S., Navarro, J. N., &Jasinski, J. L. (2014).A matter of low self-
control?Exploring differences between child pornography possessors and child
pornography producers/distributers using self-control theory.Sexual Abuse: A
Journal of Research and Treatment, online first.
Cohen, L. E., &Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity
approach. American Sociological Review, 44, 588–608.
Elder Jr., G. H., Johnson, M. K., &Crosnoe, R. (2003). The emergence and development of
life course theory. In Handbook of the life course (pp. 3–19). New York: Springer.
Ellis, L. (1991). A synthesized (biosocial) theory of rape.Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 59(5), 631–642.
Felson, M. (2006).Crime and nature. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Felson, R. B., &Tedeschi, J. T. (1993). A social interactionist approach to violence: Cross-
cultural applications. Violence and Victims, 8(3), 295–310.
Gottfredson, M. R., &Hirschi, T. (1990).A general theory of crime. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford
University Press.
Meier, R. F., &Miethe, T. D. (1993).Understanding theories of criminal victimization.Crime
and Justice, 17, 459–499.
Mustaine, E. E., & Tewksbury, R. (2009). Transforming potential offenders into motivated
ones: Are sex offenders tempted by alcohol and pornography? Deviant Behaviour,
30(7), 561–588.
57
Pasko, L., & Chesney-Lind, M. (2016).Running the gauntlet: Understanding commercial

sexual exploitation and the pathways perspective to female offending.Journal of
Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 2(3), 275–295.
Sutherland, E. H. (1939). Principles in criminology (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
Theory [Def. 1].(n.d.).Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved May 9, 2017, from
www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/theory
.
58
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The capacity of any theories to aid understanding of social events is always overwhelming. As a
continuation from Unit 1, this unit further introduces seven more theories: Social
Disorganization Theory,SocialInteractionistPerspective,Social Learning Theory,
differential association theory,Strain Theory, Structural Choice Theory,
andSubculture of Violence Theory. These theories are not peculiar tovictimology,
but to the mother disciple of sociaology and criminology. They explain further the link between
victim crime and victimisation as explained in unit 1, with regards to the pioneers of the
discipline and their contributions, an idea of the causes and factors that create victimisation in-
depth. This unit with exemplification highlight and explain the structural aspect of causes of
victimisation from the structural and learning perspectives. As a guiding principle theories are
continuous and dynamic in nature, for which no one theory often explains it all in victimisation
studies. In doing research and in everyday usage, the best theory is often that which explains aa
situation better. In many instances the combination of theories to explain event(s) are also very
welcome. At the end a theory is expected to be plausible in terms of its logic to explain
phenomena. The theories are presented in section 3 below
59
This unit is a continuum from unit 1 in which students are expected at the end to further enrich
their capacity to think and explain victimisation and criminal activities. Specifically to be able to
make use of theories in explaining
1. the victim-offender overlap

2. formation, activities and the victimisation by gang members
3. concepts in strain, differential and learning theories among others
4. structural and causative agents to victim crime
3.0 Main Content

Drawing from the Unit 1 above it is now clearer that there are reasons beyond speculations about
the ‗why‘ of victimisation and crime in society. Now that you have an idea about who the typical
crime victim is, you are probably wondering less, why some people are more likely than others to
find themselves victims of crime. Is it because those people provoke the victimization, as von
Hentig and his contemporaries thought? Is it because crime victims are perceived by offenders to
be more vulnerable than others? Is there some personality trait that influences victimization risk?
Answers to all these questions may play at least some role in in understanding (the why), why
victimization occurs to particular people. Thus the following theories were discussed below as a
continuation from Unit 1: Social Disorganization
Theory,SocialInteractionistPerspective,Social Learning Theory, differential
association theory,Strain Theory, Structural Choice Theory, andSubculture of
Violence Theory
Social Disorganization Theory
Social disorganization theory (SDT) is perhaps one of the most influential theoretical
perspectives in criminology. First introduced by Shaw and McKay (1942), the framework argues
that victimization at the individual level is a product of disorganization at the community level.
Indeed, the main premise of SDT is that all social problems that plague a community are
ultimately a reflection of ecological factors. When first introduced, SDT centered on the
following three broad concepts: ―physical status, economic status, and population status‖. Many
studies have evaluated the utility of SDT in urban locations (Vélez, 2001) and rural locations
60
(Osgood & Chambers, 2000) with interesting results. Broadly speaking, SDT scholars have
found that various community-level factors, such as residential instability, family disruption, and
ethnic heterogeneity affect juvenile delinquency (Osgood & Chambers, 2000; Sampson &
Groves, 1989). More specifically, a community with residents frequently moving in and out (i.e.,
residential instability), that has unstable family dynamics (i.e., family disruption), and a
population including individuals of various backgrounds and cultures (e.g., ethnic heterogeneity)
is less likely to forge the collective bonds that curb juvenile delinquency and exposure to
victimisation for population that are more stable less mobile and sedentary. SDTis a macro-level
theory that takes into account community-level factors rather than individual-level factors this
perspective has framed various types of victimization.
Social Interactionist Theory (SIT)
Social interactionist (SI) theory, proposed by Felson and Tedeschi(1993), explains that victimization is
the result of a conscious choice by offenders to utilize violence, or some other type of coercive action
(e.g., bodily force, threat, or punishment), in order toachieve an important objective. SI argues that
perpetrators use violence in an instrumental and purposeful way (Felson &Tedeschi, 1993).
According to Felson and Tedeschi (1993, p. 295), instrumental violence is often perpetrated with
one or more of the following three goals in mind:
―(1) gain compliance,
(2) redress grievances, or
(3) promote or defend valued identities.‖
Perhaps what is most disturbing about this decision-making process, as Felson and Tedeschi
(1993) note, is the fact that perpetrators of violence likely feel justified in their utilization of it.
Taking this into account, SI is easily applicable to various sorts of offenses, but particularly interpersonal
abuse like domestic violence and sexual assault. Imagine an abuser who arrives home and finds dinner
is not on the table yet (i.e., a perceived slight): the batterer may feel the need to reassert who
controls the household and decide to physically assault the partner to redress this grievance. In
another example, imagine a woman is trapped in a room with an aggressive male who is
61
attempting to engage her in sexual activity. The male may decide to threaten her with great
physical bodily harm unless she complies with his demands. Finally, imagine a group of young people is
out at a social event. In the midst of having a good time, one individual hurls an insult at another. The
targeted individual, feeling his very identity has just been challenged by the insult, may decide to
defend himself by violent means.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory (Akers, 1973) argues that social behaviour, regardless of whetherit is prosocial
or antisocial, is a learning process. Akers (1973) proposed SLT several decades ago and it has come
to be referred to as a general theory of crime because, much like (Low self-control theory) LSC, it
has wide applicability across various offense types. As noted by Akers (1973), SLT comprises four
important concepts:
(1) differential association (e.g., association with deviant peers),
(2) definitions (e.g., positive or negative beliefs about crime),
(3) differential reinforcement (e.g., punishments or rewards), and
(4) imitation.
Depending on the effects of these four concepts, SLT theorists argue, individuals are
socialized toward a path of prosocialbehaviour or antisocial behaviour. To gain a greater
understanding of SLT, the criminological theory of Differential association helps out as a way
of further explanation of its key components.
Differential association theory (DAT)
Differential association, sometimes considered as part of SLT, is an important stand-alone concept in

criminology first introduced by Sutherland (1939). The term essentially describes an association with
deviant peers (Sutherland, 1939), which could then influence one‘s own engagement in deviance.
Definitions are an important component of SLT, because engagement in delinquency is reliant
on an individual believing criminal behaviours are acceptable. Next, differential
reinforcement is critical for the potential replication of behaviour. According to SLT, a
behaviour that is reinforced—either positively (e.g., something is added of value) or
62
negatively (e.g., something is removed that is unwanted)—likely leads to a continuance of

that behaviour. In contrast, a behaviour that results in punishment—either positively (e.g.,
something negative is added) or negatively (e.g., something of value is removed)—likely
deters a continuance of that behaviour. Finally, imitation occurs when the behaviour is
learned and repeated.
Strain Theory
Robert Agnew‘s general strain theory greatly expanded the understanding of criminal offending.
According to Agnew (2001), engagement in criminal behaviour ultimately stems from an
individual encountering a source of adversity (i.e., strain), experiencing a negative emotion as a result
(i.e., anger, frustration), and then reacting in an antisocial manner. In terms of sources of strain,
Agnew identified three broad groups:
1. ―loss of positive valued stimuli,

2. presentation of negative stimuli, and
3. goal blockage‖ (p. 319).
Assessing whether an individual will react to strain or not is also dependent on whether:
(1) these are seen as unjust,
(2) are seen as high in magnitude,
(3) are associated with low self-control, and
(4) create some pressure or incentive to engage in crime‖ (Agnew, 2001, p. 320).
Agnew‘s (2001) sources of strain are easily applicable in the understanding of both offending and
victimization. To consider the first source of strain, loss of positively valued stimuli, imagine a domestic
abuser who becomes enraged after his partner threatens to terminate the relationship (i.e., loss of
positively valued stimuli). The abuser may engage in or threaten violence to the partner in order
to prevent the termination of the relationship, thus resolving the source of strain. Next, consider
the second source of strain (i.e., the presentation of negative stimuli) and imagine the same
situation as described above. After reconciling their relationship, the couple described above
experience several horrific violent altercations. The partner, who fears for her life as her abuser
63
continues to escalate in his violence (i.e., presentation of negative stimuli), kills him in a fit of
rage. By killing her abuser, the victim resolved the source of strain confronting her. Finally,
consider the final source of strain (i.e., goal blockage) and once again imagine the same couple
as before, but with a different outcome. After reconciling their relationship, the abuser continues
to escalate in his violence, because he blames his partner for his lack of success in his
professional career (i.e., goal blockage). As a result, he becomes increasingly frustrated and kills
his partner. While the aforementioned are gruesome examples, they illustrate how flexible
general strain theory is in the application of criminal activity to understand why individuals
perpetrate crime as well as experience it.
Structural Choice Theory

In order to leverage the strengths associated with lifestyle exposure theory and routineactivities theory,
Meier and Miethe (1993) proposed an integrated perspective referred to as structural choice
theory. In their words, ―proximity to motivated offenders, exposure to high-risk environments,
target attractiveness, and absence of guardianship. . . [are] necessary conditions for predatory crime‖
(p. 475). According to the scholars, structural choice theory (SCT) is uniquely suited to explain both
offending and victimization, because it accounts for structural factors as well as micro-level factors
(Meier &Miethe, 1993). Put another way, SCT asserts that risk of crime offending and
victimization derives from patterned behaviour that is both structurally driven (e.g., exposure to
offenders and potentially risky situations) as well as offender ―choice‖ driven (e.g., assessment
of vulnerability of victim and presence of guardians) (Meier &Miethe, 1993).
Subculture of Violence Theory
The subculture of violence theory (SVT) is one of the few theoretical perspectives that explains both
offending and victimization from a broad perspective. The theory originated from the work of
Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967) and is based on the premise of the existence of a violent
subculture in which antisocial behaviour becomes a normative response to certain affronts
that, in turn, perpetuates the cycle. SVT does not claim that violence is always the reaction in
this type of subculture, but rather, that individuals in this subculture encounter situations in
which violence is their normative response, in contrast to those socialized in the dominant
64
culture. In this situation, adhering individuals likely experience praise for their conformity to
these subculture norms, while those who fail to conform risk ostracisation from the
community. SVT is therefore a useful perspective for understanding both why individuals engage in
deviance as well as why individuals experience deviance. Examining various theoretical
perspectives, not just SVT, shows that one of the most salient risk factors for experiencing
victimization is the victim engaging in deviant activity. This is often referred to as the victim-
offender overlap. It is easily applicable to SVT in the sense that individuals socialized to utilize
violence as part of the normative culture are likely to also be met with violence, which can result in
their own victimization. For example, imagine a gang member who engages in violence in order to
maintain his/her status in the surrounding community and consider the likelihood of that gang
member eventually experiencing violence him/herself.
4.0 Conclusion
The causality of victimisation and its relationship with crime is further explained with much
emphasis this time on the structural problems inherent in society that can spur criminality and by
so doing victimisation. It is important to note that theories are ever progressive and dynamic with
the changes in society as emphasised by the various technological knowhow and characteristics
of modern society.
5.0 Summary
This unit is a continuum from unit 1 with theoretical perspectives that deal with the
social/community influence on crime and victimisation. Specifically the following theories were
discussed:Social Disorganization Theory, Social InteractionistPerspective,Social
Learning Theory, differential association theory, Strain Theory, Structural Choice
Theory, and Subculture of Violence Theory.

5. What theory can better explain the formation, activities and the victimisation by gang
members?
6. What are the highlights of the strain theory?
65
7. Which of the theoretical perspective is associated with Sutherland (1939)? With relevant examples
discuss three relevance of his theory.
8. What are Akers (1973), four important concepts in the highlight of the social learning theory
(SLT)?
9. What do you understand by the construct ―victim-offender overlap‖?
10. In what theory did Shaw and McKay (1942) feature?
Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory.Journal of Research

in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319–361.
Akers, R. L. (1973). Deviant behaviour: A social learning approach. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Felson, M. (2006).Crime and nature. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Felson, R. B., &Tedeschi, J. T. (1993). A social interactionist approach to violence: Cross-
cultural applications. Violence and Victims, 8(3), 295–310.
Meier, R. F., &Miethe, T. D. (1993).Understanding theories of criminal victimization.Crime
and Justice, 17, 459–499.
Sutherland, E. H. (1939). Principles in criminology (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (1942).Juvenile delinquency and urban areas.
Chicago, IL: TheUniversity of Chicago Press.
Vélez, M. B. (2001). The role of public social control in urban neighborhoods: A
multi-level analysis of victimization risk. Criminology, 39(4), 837–864.
Osgood, D. W., & Chambers, J. M. (2000). Social disorganization outside the
metropolis: An analysis of rural youth violence. Criminology, 38(1), 81–115
Wolfgang, M. E., &Ferracuti, F. (1967).The subculture of violence. London,
England: Tavistock.
Sampson, R. J. (1992). Family management and child development: Insights from
social disorganization theory. In J. McCord (Ed.), Facts, frameworks, and
forecasts: Advances in criminologicaltheory(pp. 63–93). Piscataway, NJ:
Transaction Publishers.
Sampson, R. J., & Groves, W. B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing
social-disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94(4), 774–
802.
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Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
It is axiomatic that accurate and valid data and research information on both crime and
victimization are critical for an understanding of crime world over and for any assessment
of the quality of the activities and programs of the criminal justice system. It is in this
regard that research, routine formation of committees on Law and Justice and on National
Statistics of Research Council regularly convene to examine an array of measurement
issues in the area of crime victimization and offending and to explore possible areas for
future research to improve not only measurement methods but also the prevalence and
statics of victimisation for the betterment of the victims and the society at large. This unit
provides information that are very relevant in understand issues in victimisation
measurement.
In this unit students are expected to know the

1. two major sources of measuring victimisation
2. relevance of measuring victimisation alongside crime, as well
3. problems and challenges in uniform crime reporting (UCR) and the National
Crime and Victimisation Survey (NCVS).
3.0 Main Content
67
Having been exposed to victimology and theories in the previous modules and units, measuring
victimisation is a further step to understanding why some people are the victims of crime and
others are not or simply put why are some people in the statistics and others are not, who
most likely and those who are not etc, before we can these can be unravelled, it is important
for us know how often victimization occurs. Also important is to know who the typical
crime victim is. Luckily, these characteristics of victimization can be readily gleaned from
existing data sources. These sources are usually two:
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS),
TWO MAJOR DATA SOURCES
Most measurement of crime in any country emanates from two major data sources. In
America like in other countries, for instance over the years, the FBI’s (1) Uniform Crime
Reports (UCR) has collected information on crimes known to the police and arrests from
local and state jurisdictions throughout the country. (2)The National Crime Victimization
Survey (NCVS), a general population survey designed to discover the extent, nature, and
consequences of criminal victimization, has been conducted annually since the early 1970s.
Other national surveys that focus on specific problems, such as delinquency, violence
against women, and child abuse, also provide important data on crime, victims, and
offenders.
These data collection systems utilize different methods of measuring criminal behaviour.
The UCR relies on official data that have been collected and reported by law enforcement
agencies. The NCVS and other surveys discussed in this unit are large-scale social surveys
that rely on self-reports of offenses or victimization.
Although these data collection systems do many things right, they are, like any such system,
beset with the methodological problems of surveys (the use of questionnaire in data
gathering) in general as well as particular problems associated with measuring illicit,
deviant, and deleterious activities. Such problems include:
1. nonreporting and false reporting,
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2. nonstandard definitions of events,

3. difficulties associated with asking sensitive questions,
4. sampling problems such as coverage and nonresponse, and
5. an array of other factors involved in conducting surveys of individuals and
implementing official data reporting systems.
Compounding these problems are the recent interest in rare crime events, such as violent
crimes committed by youth and hate crimes; the need for attention to vulnerable
subpopulations, such as very young and school-age children and disabled, elderly, and
immigrant populations; and a focus on small- or local-area estimates of crime and
victimization. In Nigeria just like any other developed country the Senate or congress
periodically requires the security agencies such as the Nigeria Police and the Department of
State Services (DSS), Ministry cum Department of Justice to develop new research or data
collection efforts to measure crime victimization in specific populations and for small areas.
Understanding victimization and offending in these subgroups, however, can be
particularly difficult.
In general, criminal victimization is a relatively rare event—that is, in any given reference
period, the majority of respondents do not report any victimization. Very large general
population samples are therefore required to accurately characterize the population of
offenders and victims, and detailed subgroup analyses can be problematic. Some important
subgroups may not be covered at all (e.g., homeless people), and smaller research studies of
crimes against these subgroups often have problems of statistical power because of small
sample sizes in most cases. For many hard-to identify subpopulations, such as people with
disabilities and abused children, there is no large, well-defined group from which to draw a
sample for measuring victimization—in other words, a sampling frame. This, as well as
more conventional problems associated with interviewing crime victims, presents
substantial design and analytical difficulties. Official data such as UCR arrest data have a
different set of problems. Foremost among them is that most crimes are not reported to the
police, and only a small proportion of those that are reported result in an arrest. Increases
or decreases in reports or in arrests for certain offenses, such as burglary or auto theft, can
69
therefore result in large differences in outcomes and misleading conclusions about crime
trends. The accuracy of official data is also compromised by differences in the definitions of
crimes and reporting protocols. Most national-level official data are compiled through the
voluntary reporting of local-level security agencies—for example the collection of data of
arrest made from the Nigeria Police, nationwide; a sample from prosecutors’ offices
nationwide for prosecution data and other times from local vigilante groups. However,
these agencies do not always file reports as called for in the reporting protocol.
As developed the American system is, a review of the 1999 UCR data posted on the FBI’s
web site indicates that six states out the 50 States—Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine,
Montana, and New Hampshire—report only limited data. In Illinois, for example, only six
cities with populations of 10,000 or more report arrest data. Rape data were unavailable
for two states because the state reporting agencies did not follow the national UCR
guidelines (available: <http://www.FBI.gov/ucr/
99cius.htm> [15/8/20).
4.0 Conclusion
There has been a significant lack of governmental and private interest and investment in
research aimed at solving the problems associated with measuring crime and victimisation.
Over the years the inclusion of research questions as part of the structure of the NCVS has
made it not only lengthy but more complex. A major research effort undertaken as part of
the redesign of the NCVS addressed many important sampling questions, but for social and
political reasons, much of this information did not make it into the survey. Today, in fact,
the problems may be growing worse because of eroding federal investment and funding in
data systems and social science research on crime and victimization). The promise of
improvements in data on reported crimes through conversion to an incident based
reporting system has not been realized because of a lack of funding to support the
necessary changes at the state and local levels. Lastly support for longitudinal or
methodological studies for the most part simply is not there.
5.0 Summary
70
This unit highlights the relevance of measuring victimisation alongside crime, as well as the two
major data sources of victimisation measurements: The uniform crime reporting (UCR)
and the National Crime and Victimisation Survey (NCVS). The problems and challenges
were discussed as it pertained to each of the measurement system.

1. Why is criminal victimization often referred as generally and relatively rare event?
2. What are the peculiar problems associated with the Uniform Crime Reporting
(UCR)?
3. What is voluntary reporting?
4. How are most national-level official crime and victimisation data compiled?
Blackmore, J. 1974 The relationship between self reported delinquency and official
convictions amongst adolescent boys. British Journal of Criminology 14:172-176.
Elliott, D.S., and S.S. Ageton 1980 Reconciling race and class differences in self-reported
and official estimates of delinquency.American Sociological Review 45:95-110.
Hindelang, M.J., T. Hirschi, and J.G. Weis 1979 Correlates of delinquency: The illusion of
discrepancy between self-report and official measures. American Sociological Review
44:995-1014.
Hindelang, M.J., T. Hirschi, and J.G. Weis 1981 Measuring Delinquency. Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage.
Hirschi, T. 1969 Causes Erickson, M. and L.T. Empey 1963 Court records, undetected
delinquency and decision-making. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police
Science 54:456-469.
Lehnen, R.G., and A.J. Reiss 1978 Response effects in the National Crime
Survey.Victimology: An International Journal 3:110-124.
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Unit 4: Recurring victimisation

Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
I. Introduction
Another cost of victimization often not discussed or known is the real possibility that a person who is
victimized once will be victimized again. In fact, persons who have been victimized are more likely
to be victimized again than others who have not experienced any victimization. For example, a
home that has been burgled is 4 times more likely to be burgled a second time than a home that
has not experienced any burglary(Forrester, Chatterton, & Pease, 1988). At first, this reality probably
does not make sense. After all, if you were victimized, you may be likely to implement crime
reduction strategies. For example, if you had your car broken into because you had valuables in
plain view, would you keep items in your car again? You probably are shaking your head no. So,
why then are some people prone to being victimized not once but again and sometimes, again
and again and again? Before we can address that question, let us first define terms related to
recurring victimization and find out the extent to which people are victimized more than once.

This unit is expected to inform the students that people are faced with multiple victimization even
though it is expected that one re-strategies after initial victimization. Specifically,
a. student should grapple with the fact that some people are prone to being victimized not
once but again and sometimes, again and again and again?
b. They should also know the categories involved
72
c. They should be able to differentiate recurring victimization and repeat victimization; vis-
à-vis recurring victimization andrevictimisation.
3.0 Main Content

Types of Recurring Victimization
To know the extent to which people experience more than one victimization, let us first identify what we
mean by recurring victimization. As seen in Table below:,
i. Recurring victimization occurs when a person or place is victimized more than once by any
type of victimization.
ii. Repeat victimization occurs when a person or place is victimized more than once by the same
type of victimization.
iii. Revictimization is commonly referred to when a person is victimized more than once by
any type of victimization but across a relatively wide span of time—such as from
childhood to adulthood. Revictimization has been most widely studied in terms of
childhood sexual abuse and sexual assault in adulthood. Polyvictimization is another
form of recurring victimization.
iv. Polyvictimization is a term that is generally used for childhood-recurring victimization,

when a person has experienced multiple forms of victimization (Finkelhor, Ormrod, &
Turner, 2007a, 2007b). For example, a child who is beaten by his or her parents and who
experiences sexual abuse by a neighbor is a polyvictim.
v. The last term to be familiar with is near-repeat victimization. A near-repeat victimization occurs
when aplace is victimized that is close by or near in proximity to a place that was previously
victimized.
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Johnson et al., 2007
Near repeats occur because of crime displacement within a relatively small geographical area after an
initial victimization has occurred (Johnson et al., 2007). Near repeats are often studied in reference to
burglary incidents. Consider a home that experiences a burglary. The homeowner decides to install
an alarm and security lighting after the burglary, thus ―hardening‖ the home from future
burglary. Other homes without alarms, however, are not similarly protected. As a result, a
burglar who returns to the location may find the first home an unattractive target and choose to
burglarize a nearby home instead. In this way, near-repeat victimization happens to anew place
but is considered recurring victimization, because it is believed that the initial place that was victimized
would have been targeted again had it not been for its target hardening.
4.0 Conclusion
Recurring victimisation just like the broad study of victimisation has a way of creeping into
society, especially in societies that are relatively unstable and crimogenic in nature. The causes
of recurring victimisation is often based on several factors ranging from the individual to the
74
structural defect in security operatives responsibility and responsiveness in tackling previous acts
of victimisation.
5.0 Summary
Recurring victimisation as a concept deals with the repeated nature of victimisation as well as
criminal activities directly or indirectly to individuals or the community. In whatever the case
depending on the nature and the category of persons involved recurring victimisation comes in
any form of repeat victimisation, near-repeat victimisation, revictimisation,
or/andpolyvictimisation

a. Where does attractive and unattractive targets come in the study of recurring
victimisation
b. What is Polyvictimization?
c. How does near-repeat victimization occur?
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007a).Poly-victimization and trauma in a

national longitudinal cohort. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 149–166.
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007b). Poly-victimization: A neglected
component in child victimization trauma. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 7–26.
Forrester, D., Chatterton, M., & Pease, K. (1988). The Kirkholt Burglary Project, Rochdale.
(Crime Prevention Unit Paper 13). London, England: Home Office.
Johnson, S. D., Bernasco, W., Bowers, K. J., Elffers, H., Ratcliffe, J., Rengert, G., &Townsley,
M. (2007). Space-time patterns of risk: A cross national assessment of residential
burglary victimization. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 23, 201–219.
Oxford Bibliography on Repeat Victimization:
http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo- 9780195396607/obo-
9780195396607-0119.xml
Violent Repeat Victimization: Prospects and Challenges for Research and Practice‖:
http://www.nij.gov/multimedia/presenter/presenter-lauritsen/pages/presenter-
lauritsen-transcript.aspx
The Kirkholt Burglary Prevention Project: http://www.popcenter.org/library/scp/pdf/71-
Kirkholt.pdf
75
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MODULE 3
Unit 1. Theoretical Explanations of Recurring Victimization
Unit 2. Extent and consequences of Recurring victimisation
Unit 3.Characteristics of Recurring Victimization
Unit 1: Theoretical Explanations of Recurring Victimization

Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
We know, then, that recurring victimization is a reality many victims face, that it is likely to
recur rather quickly if it does happen, and that the same type of victimization is likely to follow.
But this picture of what recurring victimization looks like does not address why some people are
victimized a single time and others find themselves victimized again.

In this unit, students are expected to learn and engage situations pertaining to victimization recurrence
with the logic of theory. Thus specifically students should know among others the following theories
1. the risk heterogeneity or the ―flag‖ explanation which focuses on qualities or characteristics of
the victim as enablers of recurring victimisation.
2. the State dependence, event dependence, or the ―boost‖ explanation theory of recurring
77
victimization and
3. the Negative state dependence perspective focusing on what happens during and after the
victimization as determinants and/or deterrents to recurring victimization.
3.0 Main Content

There are two and a sub theoretical explanations that have been proffered to explain recurring
victimization.
(1). The first is called risk heterogeneity or the ―flag‖ explanation.
This explanation of recurring victimization focuses on qualities or characteristics of the victim. Those
qualities or characteristics that initially place a victim at risk will keep that person at risk of
experiencing a subsequent victimization if unchanged (Farrell, Phillips, & Pease, 1995). The story bellow
will give an insight to the answers of the following questions to buttress what is meant by the theory of
risk heterogeneity or the ―flag‖ explanation.
It was not exactly a typical night for Polly. Instead of studying at the library as she normally did
during the week, she decided to meet two of her friends at a local bar. They spent the evening
catching up and drinking a few beers before they decided to head home. Because Polly lived
within walking distance of the bar, she bid her friends goodnight and started on her journey
home. It was dark out, but because she had neverconfronted trouble in the neighborhood
before—even though it was in a fairly crime-ridden part of a large city—she felt relatively safe.
As Polly walked by an alley, two young men whom she had never seen before stepped out,
and one of them grabbed her arm and demanded that she give them her school bag, in
which she had her wallet, computer, keys, and phone. Because Polly refused, the other man
shoved her, causing her to hit her head, while the first man grabbed her bag. Despite
holding on as tightly as she could, the men were able to take her bag before running off into
the night. Slightly stunned, Polly stood there trying to calm down. Without her bag, which
held her phone and keys, she felt there was little she could do other than continue to walk
home and hope her roommates were there to let her in. As she walked home, she wondered
why she had such bad luck. Why was she targeted? Was she simply in ―the wrong place at
the wrong time,‖ or did she do something to place herself in harm’s way? Although it is
hard to know why Polly was victimized, we can compare her to other victims to see
how similar she is to them. To this end, a description of the ―typical‖ crime victim is
presented in this section. But what about why she was targeted? Fortunately, we can
use the theories presented in this section to understand why Polly fell victim on that
particular night.
Take a look at the story above. Is there any quality or characteristic that placed Polly at risk for being
78
accosted by the two men in the alley? You are probably thinking that her walking home at night may
have been a risk factor for her. This has been discussed earlier about lifestyles and routine activities
as theoretical framework. Polly quite likely was victimized, at least in part, because she was seen
by the two men as being a vulnerable target. In this way, walking home at night by herself placed
her at risk. If Polly walks home at night by herself on other nights, she is again at risk of being
victimized. In this way, Polly‘s walking home at night by herself placed her at risk of being
victimized the first time, and it also places her at risk of being a victim in the future. What if she
walked home because she could not afford a car? In other words, what if her social status or class
placed her in a position that increased her vulnerability to crime victimization because she had to
walk homeat night rather than drive? This quality or characteristic would also fall into the explanation
of risk heterogeneity.
Also, remember other factors, discussed in the earlier units and modules, that place individuals at
risk of victimization more generally—living in disadvantaged neighborhoods and exposure to
delinquent peers, for example. These factors, if left unchanged, will keep individuals at risk of
subsequent victimization.
(2). State dependence, event dependence, or the ―boost‖ explanation
In contrast to the risk heterogeneity argument, the second theoretical explanation of recurring
victimization is known as state dependence, event dependence, or the ―boost‖ explanation.
According to state dependence, it is not the qualities or characteristics of a victim that are
important for recurring victimization so much as what happens during and after the victimization
(Farrell et al., 1995). How the victim and the offender act andreact to the victimization event will
predict risk of becoming a recurrent victim. In this way, the victim and offender are learning key
information that will impact the likelihood of subsequent victimizations. For example, a victim of rape
or other sexual victimization who resists or uses self-protective actions is less likely than those who do
not to be victimized again (Fisher et al., 2010). This reduction in risk is likely due to the victim learning
that she has agency and control over her life. Protecting herself may even serve to empower her so that
in the future she is able to identify and avoid risk. Likewise, the offender is likely learning that she is not
an ―easy‖ target and that victimizing her will not pay off in the future. In both scenarios, the victim is
79
less likely to find herself the target of an offender. It is not always clear if recurring victimization
occurs because of a ―boost‖ or ―flag.‖ To investigate whether repeat burglary victimization can
best be explained by boosts or flags, Brendan Lantz and R. Barry Ruback (2015) identified the
offending networks of burglars to see their connections. Read about whether it is the same
offender who targets the same house in this section‘s
What if, after being victimized, a person changes his or her routine activities? Doing so probably makes
senseto you—a person may become afraid of being victimized again, so he decides to stay in and not go
out at night, or a person who was victimized on the subway decides to only take taxi/uber at
night. Recent research has explored what people do after being victimized. Surprisingly, at least
one study has found that victims engage in greater, not lower, levels of risky behaviour (going
shopping and spending evenings away from home) after being victimized. What these
researchers found, however, was that it was not in response to the victimization itself but related
to preexisting features of the person (Bunch, Clay-Warner, & McMahon-Howard, 2014). One
possible explanation for why a person may not change risky behaviours is rooted in low self-
control. Turanovic and Pratt (2014) found that victims with low self-control are less likely than
others to change their risky behaviours than those with higher levels. Other research has
uncovered structural constraints that may limit individuals from changing their risky behaviours
(Turanovic, Pratt, &Piquero, 2016).
In Polly‘s case, it is difficult to know if she is likely to be victimized again based on a state dependence
explanation. Because she tried to resist and she called the police, she certainly is learning that she has
some control over her life. If doing so empowers her, she likely will be less attractive as a target
to offenders, and she may be less likely to find herself in risky situations—such as walking home
at night alone. To be clear, neither of these explanations should be used to blame the victim or
place responsibility for the victimization on the victim. The offender is responsible for his or her
actions, and blame should rest there. These explanations are, however, tools to help understand
why some people are targeted over and over again.
80
Recent theoretical developments have been made in the recurring victimization literature to better
understand the interplay between risk heterogeneity and state dependence. According to the
compounding vulnerability argument, those with the highest levels of underlying propensity for
victimization will be at risk for future victimization because of state dependence processes. For
example, those with low income who are victimized may be more likely to show signs of
depression following a victimization. These signs of depression are signals to offenders of
vulnerability that then increase risk of future victimization. A different perspective is that of
victimization salience. In this perspective, state dependence processes will be most salient
among those with the lowest underlying risks. Because a target has initially low risk, it makes
sense statistically that his or her
risk has more potential than other targets to increase after an initial victimization. Because the target‘s
risk was initially low, the information an offender gains about the target (consider a burglar and
the house he successfully stole from) is particularly useful and serves to increase risk for future
victimization. Contrast thisto a target whose risk is initially fairly high—the information gained may
not be of much use or needed because the target cannot be much more at risk anyway.
(3). Negative state dependence perspective

A third perspective is the negative state dependence perspective, which suggests that low-risk persons
experience negative state dependence. In this way, a victimization event would serve to reduce
victimization risk because a person would become more aware of his or her risk and would take
steps to reduce the chances of being victimized in the future (see Clay-Warner, Bunch, &
McMahon-Howard, 2016).
4.0 Conclusion
These theories are parts of a number of theories that cannot be exhausted that explain recurring
victimisation. In as much as they serve the purpose of explanation, understanding and prediction
of recurring victimisation, we are free to use it in qualitative engagement in our discussion as
students of criminology and victimology.
5.0 Summary
This unit examine two major theories that can be used to understand, explain and predict, the causes
81
situations that may warrant. The first in line was the risk heterogeneity or the ―flag‖ explanation which
focuses on qualities or characteristics of the victim. And the second which is the State dependence,
event dependence, or the ―boost‖ explanation focusing on what happens during and after the
victimization as determinants of recurring victimization. The third is a sub theoretical framework
which emphasizes on the awareness of risk or a victimization to re-strategize against further
occurrence of victimization, in what is called the negative state dependence perspective.

1. What has research put forward about what people do after being victimized?
2. Explain why signs of depression are signals to offenders, of vulnerability that then
increase risk of future victimization.
3. What are the three major theories that can be used to explain recurring victimization?

Clay-Warner, J., Bunch, J., & McMahon-Howard, J. (2016). Differential vulnerability:
Disentangling the effects of state dependence and population heterogeneity on repeat
victimization. Criminal Justice &Behaviour, 43, 1406–1429.
doi:10.1177/0093854816636415
Farrell, G., & Pease, K. (2001). Repeat victimization. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Farrell, G., Phillips, C., & Pease, K. (1995). Like taking candy: Why does repeat victimization occur?
British Journal of Criminology, 35, 384–399.
Fisher, B. S., Daigle, L. E., & Cullen, F. T. (2010a). Unsafe in the ivory tower: The sexual
victimization of college women. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fisher, B. S., Daigle, L. E., & Cullen, F. T. (2010b). What distinguishes single from recurrent sexual
victims? The role of lifestyle-routine activities and first-incident characteristics. Justice
Quarterly, 27, 102–129.
Lantz, B., &Ruback, R. B. (2015). A networked boost: Burglary co-offending and repeat victimization
using a network approach. Crime & Delinquency. Online first
doi:10.1177/0011128715597695
Turanovic, J. J., & Pratt, T. C. (2014). ―Can‘t stop, won‘t stop‖: Self-control, risky lifestyles, and
repeat victimization. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 30, 29–56.
Turanovic, J. J., Pratt, T. C., &Piquero, A. R. (2016).Structural constraints, risky lifestyles, and repeat
victimization.Journal of Quantitative Criminology.doi:10.1007/s10940-016-9334-5
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83
Unit 2: Extent and consequences of Recurring victimisation

Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Now that we know what the terms mean, let‘s find out how often people and places are
victimized more than once. Although most people and households in a given year or more are
not victimized at all, some households experience more than one victimization in the same
period. Large-scale national victimization surveys reveal that many people who are victimized
are unfortunate enough to experience recurring victimization.
After reading this unit students are expected to be able to gives an overview of the extent and
consequences of recurring victimization with the use of statistical and demographic references as
depicted by the data from the Home office (2011) aboutCrime in England and Wale. Similarly
they should note that but with a difference the overwhelming consequences of recurring
victimisation over victimisation ordinary nature.
3.0 Main Content
Drawing from the Home office (2011) data on Crime in England and Wale, with findings from
the British Crime Survey and police recorded of crimeit was obvious that of individuals who
experienced any type of violent victimization, 23% experienced twoor more incidents during the
previous 12 months (Office for National Statistics, 2015). Forty-four percentofdomestic violence
84
victims and 19% of acquaintance violence victims experienced more than one incident(Home
Office, 2011). Results from the NCVS also indicate that recurring victimization is occurring.
Forexample, in 2015, about 1% of victimizations were series victimizations (Truman & Morgan,
2016). Findingsfrom the General Social Survey on Victimization in Canada also highlight the
occurrence of recurringvictimization. The results from the 2004 survey show that 38% of victims
experienced more than one incident(Perrault, Sauve, & Burns, 2010).
You may be wondering if all types of victimizations are likely to happen to victims more than
once. Althoughsome types are more likely to recur than others, research shows that victims of
intimate partner violence, rape,assault, and property victimization are all at risk of experiencing a
subsequent incident following their initialvictimization. For example, between 1992 and 2004,
about 15% of households surveyed in the NCVSexperienced multiple family violence incidents
involving the same victim (Goodlin& Dunn, 2010). Other research on intimate partner violence
supports this finding. Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey show that
female victims of intimate partner physicalassault reported being assaulted on average 6.9 times
by the same partner, whereas men reported experiencing an average 4.4 assaults by the same
intimate partner.
Rape and other sexual victimizations also recur. Women in the National Violence Against
Women Study who had been raped averaged 2.9 rapes during the previous 12 months. In
addition, research on college students shows that they too are at risk of experiencing recurring
sexual victimization. In fact, as noted by Daigle, Fisher, and Cullen (2008), 7% of college
students in the National Women Sexual Victimization Study had experienced more than one
sexual victimization incident during the previous academic year. There is a strong correlation
between sexual victimization in childhood and sexual victimization later in life as well. Women
who had experienced childhood sexual abuse were 6 times more likely to experience sexual
abuse as adults by a current intimate partner than women without a childhood sexual abuse
history. Others have estimated that childhood sexual abuse increases the risk of adult sexual
victimization by 2 to 3 times. Assault and property victimizations are other types of
victimizations that may recur. Findings from the National Youth Survey revealed that almost
60% of youth who had been assaulted were actually repeat victims. Although not quite as
85
prevalent, a proportion of burglary victims in theBritish Crime Survey (BCS) were repeat
victims—14% in 2004 (Nicholas, Povey, Walker, & Kershaw, 2005). Another interesting feature
of recurring victimization is that these recurring victims also experience a disproportionate share
of all victimization events. For example, 6% of the respondents in the BCS over 10 years
experienced 68% of all the thefts that occurred (Pease, 1998). Other research on property
victimization also supports this finding. Research on university students in the East Midlands of
England showed that 10% of the victims of property crime accounted for 56% of all the property
crime incidents (Barberet, Fisher, & Taylor, 2004). Recurring violent crime victims also
experience more than their ―fair share‖ of victimization events. The 2% of respondents in
Canada‘s General Social Survey who were recurring violent victims had experienced 60% of all
the violent victimizations (Perrault et al., 2010). Similarly, 3% of personal crime victims in the
BCS accounted for 78% of all personal crime victimizations (Pease, 1998). Lauritsen and Davis
Quinet‘s (1995) research on youth found that 18% of them experienced almost 90% of assaults.
Finally, sexual assault recurring victims also experience an inordinate amount of all sexual
victimization incidents. In their study of college women, Daigle, Fisher, and Cullen (2008) found
that 7% of college women experienced more than one sexual victimization incident during the
previous academic year and that these women experienced almost three-fourths of all sexual
victimizations that occurred. Understanding the extent of recurring victimisation statistically
speaking where they are available gives a picture for which the consequences becomes germane
for research and policy formulation.
Consequences of Recurring Victimization
As you have already come across the consequences of victimisation in Module 1, victimization
can take a toll on individuals. What happens to individuals, then, when they experience multiple
victimization incidents? Do the consequences of victimization accumulate and cause even more
destruction in victims‘ lives? It is not clear that experiencing more than one victimization
necessarily causes more negative outcomes for victims, but some research does suggest that
experiencing more than one victimization can be particularly bad for victims (Finkelhor,
Ormrod, & Turner, 2007a, 2009; Ford, Elhai, Connor, &Frueh, 2010; Snyder, Fisher, Scherer, &
Daigle, 2012). For example, Finkelhor, Ormord, and Turner (2009) found that youth who
86
experience polyvictimization also experience significantly more distress than those youth who
experience a single type of victimization. Polyvictimization has also been linked to an increase in
depression, anxiety, and anger/depression among children ages 2 to 11 (Cyr, Clement,
&Chamberland, 2014). These have beeb extensive discussed in the previous mode
4.0 Conclusion
A number of research and policy paper are abound as discussed have come to realise and
position it as fact that re-victimisation and recurring have negative impact on victims. Similarly
NCVS Survey also found support for the link between experiencing more than one victimization
and worse outcomes. For instance the number of sexual assaults experienced during a woman‘s
lifetime was predictive of current depressive symptoms, current PTSD symptoms, poor health,
and binge drinking (Casey &Nurius, 2005). In this way, experiencing more than one
victimization may in fact carry negative outcomes for individuals that a single victimization
experience does not.
5.0 Summary
This unit succinctly gives an overview of the extent and consequences of recurring victimization
with the use of statistical data from the Home office (2011) data on Crime in England and Wale,
and survey of crime and victimisation in Canada. Recurring victimization is not only real but
also comes with severe consequences, such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder among
other consequences in terms of economic and social coast just as emphasized in Module 1 about
the consequences of victimisation in its ordinary nature.

I. What are the likely consequences of recurring victimization
II. Explain the correlation between sexual victimization in childhood and sexual
victimization later in life.
III. What are those events/types of victimisation that are more likely to recur than others?
IV. What are the possible solutions to the list from above
87

Casey, E. A., &Nurius, P. S. (2005). Trauma exposure and sexual revictimization risk. Violence
Against Women, 11, 505–530.
Cyr, K., Clement, M., &Chamberland, C. (2014).Lifetime prevalence of multiple victimizations
and its impact on children‘s mental health. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 616–634.
Ford, J. D., Elhai, J. D., Connor, D. F., &Frueh, B. C. (2010). Poly-victimization and risk of
posttraumatic, depressive, and substance use disorders and involvement in delinquency in a
national sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46, 545–552.
Goodlin, W. E., & Dunn, C. S. (2010). Three patterns of domestic violence in households: Single
victimization, repeat victimization, and co-occurring victimization. Journal of Family
Violence, 25,107–122.
Home Office. (2011). Crime in England and Wales: Findings from the British Crime Survey and
police recorded crime (2nd ed.). Home office statistical bulletin 2010/11. London, UK:
Author. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/116417
/hosb1011.pdf
Perrault, S., Sauve, J., & Burns, M. (2010).Multiple victimization in Canada.Canadian Centre for
Justice Statistics Profile Series, 22.
Policastro, C., Teasdale, B., & Daigle, L. E. (2016). The recurring victimization of individuals
with mental illness: A comparison of trajectories for two racial groups. Journal of
Quantitative Criminology, 32, 675–693.
Snyder, J. A., Fisher, B. S., Scherer, H. L., & Daigle, L. E. (2012). Unsafe in the camouflage
tower: Sexual victimization and perceptions of military academy leadership. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence. Online first doi:10.1177/0886260512441252
88
Unit 3. Characteristics of Recurring Victimization
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In addition to knowing to what extent recurring victimization occurs, two other features of
recurring victimization have been introduced (1) The first characteristic is known as the time
course of recurring victimization the time between recurring incidents and (2) the crime-
switching patterns and victim proneness ie. the type of incident a person is likely to experience
after the initial victimization. These two major characteristics are discussed in turn.
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs).

Basically at the end of this unit students are expected to know and be able to differentiate
between the two features that are common to recurring victimisation.
3.0 Main Content
1. Time Course of Recurring Victimization

Researchers have been interested in knowing how soon a victim is likely to experience a
subsequent victimization. What this body of research has generally found is that recurring
victimization is likely to happen quickly. When examining the time between incidents,
researchers have found that, often, little time transpires between incidents. Specifically
research on residential burglary show that a subsequent burglary is likely to happen within
89
a month after the initial burglary incident, in fact, one study showed that half of the second
residential burglaries in Canada that were reported to the police occurred within 7 days of
the first burglary (Polvi, Looman, Humphries, & Pease, 1991). Research within the United
States also confirms that the time immediately following an initial burglary is the key
period of risk for households—25% of repeat burglary incidents occurred within a week
and just more than half occurred within a month in a study that examined police call data
in Tallahassee, Florida (M. B. Robinson, 1998). This period of heightened risk holds true
for domestic violence, sexual victimization, and near repeats. Of the households that had
called the police for domestic violence once, 35% had done so again within 5 weeks (as cited
by G. Farrell & Pease, 2006). For college women’s sexual victimization, one study found
that most subsequent incidents happened within the same month or 1 month after the
initial incident (Daigle, Fisher, & Cullen, 2008). Near repeats are most likely to occur
within 2 weeks.
Research on shootings in Philadelphia discovered that near repeats were likely to occur
within 2 weeks and one city block after previous shootings (Ratcliffe&Rengert, 2008). This
elevated risk also occurs for near-repeat burglaries. After a burglary occurs, burglaries
within 200 meters of the burgled home are at greatest risk of being burgled for a 2-week
period (S.D. Johnson et al., 2007). What is also interesting is that across victimization types,
this heightened risk period declines over time. For example, in the study of college women’s
experiences of sexual victimization by Daigle, Fisher, and Cullen (2008) only 21% of rape
incidents occurred within 3 months or more after the initial rape incident. Others have
studied the amount of time that transpires between successive incidents of victimization.
Intimate partner violence has been investigated in this manner to see how long victims go
without being victimized. In her study of repeat intimate partner violence, Mele (2009)
found that, over time, the median number of daysbetween successive incidents of intimate
partner violence decreases. The median number of days between the first and second
incident was 62, and the median number of days between the third and fourth incident was
37. This finding shows that the frequency of recurring intimate partner violence actually
accelerates over time.
90
You may have noticed that the research on the time course of repeat victimization has also
pinpointed a spatial element to this phenomenon. Indeed, there appears to be a clustering of
incidents in that near-repeat incidents are likely to recur within a relatively small geographic
space to an initial victimized target. In other words, the risk of a near repeat is not random but
rather concentrated in particular areas within a city or neighborhood. This pattern holds true for
near-repeat burglaries as well as gun violence (Wells, Wu, & Ye, 2011). Importantly, knowing
that repeat victimization is likely to recur within a close proximity should aid in prevention
efforts (Johnson & Bowers, 2004).
2. Crime-Switch Patterns and Victim Proneness
The question that often comes to mind is to ask - do recurring victims always experience the
same type of victimization when they experience more than one victimization?One may wonder
what type of victimization victims are likely to experience if they experiencemore than one.
Research examining this issue concludes that, most likely, when a person is victimized a
subsequent time, he or she will experience the same type of victimization previously experienced
(Reiss, 1980). For example, a theft victim is likely to experience another theft if victimized a
second time. One of the first investigations that examined crime-switch (or proneness) patterns
found evidence for victim proneness for victims of larceny, burglary, household larceny, and
assault (Reiss, 1980). More recent research examining crime switching within types of sexual
victimization also found evidence of victim proneness. For example, in a sample of sexual
victimization incidents occurring among college women, rape incidents were likely to be
followed by rape incidents, and sexual coercion incidents were likely to be followed by sexual
coercion incidents (Daigle, Fisher, & Cullen, 2008).
4.0 Conclusion
The features of recurring victimization clearly show that victims are likely to face the same type
of recurring victimisation directly or by near-repeat victimisation indirectly. Similarly if it is not
happening to the same person, it is surely and likely to happen to different persons in the same
neighbourhood.
5.0 Summary
91
Intimate partner violence has been investigated in this manner to see how long victims go
without being victimized.(Time course). Research along this line have come revealed that
recurring victimization is likely to happen quickly. All thighs being equal, little time
transpires between incidents. Similarly along proneness to crime is what victimologists refer to
as crime-Switch Patterns, stating the obvious that victims always experience the same type of
victimization when they experience more than one victimization depending on the crime .

I. what type of victimization victims are likely to experience if they experience more than
one
II. What has the body of research on recurring victimisation shown overtime?

Casey, E. A., &Nurius, P. S. (2005). Trauma exposure and sexual revictimization risk. Violence
Against Women, 11, 505–530.
Cyr, K., Clement, M., &Chamberland, C. (2014).Lifetime prevalence of multiple victimizations
and its impact on children‘s mental health. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 616–634.
Daigle, L. E., Fisher, B. S., & Cullen, F. T. (2008).The violent and sexual victimization of
college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1296–1313.
Ford, J. D., Elhai, J. D., Connor, D. F., &Frueh, B. C. (2010). Poly-victimization and risk of
posttraumatic, depressive, and substance use disorders and involvement in delinquency in a
national sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46, 545–552.
Goodlin, W. E., & Dunn, C. S. (2010). Three patterns of domestic violence in households: Single
victimization, repeat victimization, and co-occurring victimization. Journal of Family
Violence, 25,107–122.
Home Office. (2011). Crime in England and Wales: Findings from the British Crime Survey and
police recorded crime (2nd ed.). Home office statistical bulletin 2010/11. London, UK:
Author. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/116417
/hosb1011.pdf
Johnson, S. D., & Bowers, K. J. (2004). The stability of space-time clusters of burglary.
British Journal of Criminology, 44, 55–65.
Policastro, C., Teasdale, B., & Daigle, L. E. (2016). The recurring victimization of individuals
with mental illness: A comparison of trajectories for two racial groups. Journal of
Polvi, N., Looman, T., Humphries, C., & Pease, K. (1991).The time course of repeat
burglary victimization. British Journal of Criminology, 31, 411–414.
92
Reiss, A. (1980). Victim proneness in repeat victimization by type of crime. In S. Fienberg

& A. Reiss (Eds.), Indicators of crime and criminal justice: Quantitative studies (pp.
41–53). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Snyder, J. A., Fisher, B. S., Scherer, H. L., & Daigle, L. E. (2012). Unsafe in the camouflage
tower: Sexual victimization and perceptions of military academy leadership. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence. Online first doi:10.1177/0886260512441252
Wells, W., Wu, L., & Ye, X. (2011).Patterns of near-repeat gun assaults in Houston.
Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 49, 186–212.
93
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
We know that recurring victimization is likely to happen quickly and is likely to be of the same
type of victimization, but what factors place a person or place at risk of experiencing recurring
victimization? These risk factors can be individual-level risk factors or characteristics of the area
or household.

Students are expected to understand the various risk factors therein that can expose an individual
or a community to revictimisation. These factors have been grouped into two categories:
individual level risk and the neighbourhood/household factors. Specifically students should be
able to identify age (young/old), marital status, (Married/separated/divorced), socioeconomic
status (employed/unemployed) and characteristics neighbourhood as captured by population, size
settlement patterns and density as risk factors in the explanation of recurring victimisation at the
end of the study
3.0 Main Content

Individual-Level Risk Factors
94
Let‘s first consider those factors tied to the individual that place a person at risk of being
victimized more thanonce. Demographic characteristics are examples of individual-level risk
factors that may place a person at riskfor recurring victimization. Indeed, the recurring
victimization literature has found that males are more likelyto be victims repeatedly than females
(for all types of victimizations except sexual victimization) (Lauritsen&DavisQuinet, 1995;
Mukherjee &Carcach, 1998). In addition, younger people are at a greater risk forrecurring
victimization than are older persons (Gabor & Mata, 2004; Lauritsen& Davis Quinet,
1995;Mukherjee&Carcach, 1998; Outlaw, Ruback, & Britt, 2002; Perrault et al., 2010; Tseloni,
2000;Wittebrood&Nieuwbeerta, 2000). Single (Lasley& Rosenbaum, 1988; Perrault et al.,
2010), separated(Mukherjee &Carcach, 1998), and divorced (Tseloni, 2000) persons face greater
risks of repeat victimizationthan others. Socioeconomic and employment status are two
additional demographic characteristics that havebeen linked to recurring victimization. Low, as
compared to high, socioeconomic status is a risk factor forpersonal recurring victimization
(Lauritsen& Davis Quinet, 1995), although having high socioeconomicstatus actually places you
at greater risk of repeat property victimization (Lauritsen& Davis Quinet, 1995;Outlaw et al.,
2002). Unemployed persons are more likely than employed persons to be victimized more
thanonce (Mukherjee &Carcach, 1998). Among persons diagnosed with a serious mental illness,
Black personsremain at a greater risk of experiencing recurring victimization as compared with
White persons once released from a psychiatric hospital (Policastro, Teasdale, & Daigle, 2016).
Generally in White dominated communities in Europe and America, where Blacks are faced with
a myriad of problems. Take the issue of racism and police brutality, the evidences are bound.
Demographics are not the only type of individual-level characteristics that may increase risk for
recurringvictimization. Let‘s go back to the issues around routine activities and lifestyles theories
as discussed earlier. Given what thesetheoretical perspectives say about victimization risk, what
other factors may increase risk for recurringvictimization? Research indicates that people who
spend nights away from home more frequently face greaterchances of being repeatedly
victimized than those who spend less time away from home at night (Lasley&Rosenbaum, 1988;
Tseloni, 2000). Using public transportation after 6:00 p.m. also places people at risk forrepeat
victimization (Mukherjee &Carcach, 1998). Other features of lifestyles theory that have been
linked torepeat victimization are spending time with delinquent peers and involvement in
95
delinquency (Lauritsen&DavisQuinet, 1995). Participating in dangerous activities has been

linked to repeat victimization for adults(Outlaw et al., 2002), and frequency of offending has
been linked to repeat victimization for people in theNetherlands (Wittebrood&Nieuwbeerta,
2000). Alcohol use has also been linked to recurring victimization.Specifically, the link between
alcohol use and recurring victimization has been found for sexual victimization.Among
adolescent women, using alcohol within the past year was predictive of sexual
revictimization(Raghavan, Bogart, Elliott, Vestal, & Schuster, 2004). Others have found a link
between alcohol use andsexualrevictimization among persons with a history of childhood sexual
assault (Messman-Moore & Long,2002; J. A. Siegel & Williams, 2003). When these factors are
considered together, it is likely then thatparticipating in a risky lifestyle or routine activities
increases the likelihood that a person will experience morethan one victimization.
Why might some people engage in these risky lifestyles or routine activities? Some research has
linkedrecurring victimization to genetic factors that may be related to involvement in risky
behaviours. Rememberfrom the biosocial theory in that genes in and of themselves do not cause
criminal behaviour, but rather they influence howa person responds to his or her environment.
Genetic factors have been linked to victimization and, morerecently, to recurring victimization.
A particular study by Beaver, Boutwell, Barnes, & Cooper, (2009) revealed that the genetic
factors account for 64% of thevariance in repeat victimization. Another study on
recurringvictimization has attempted to identify what specific genetic factor is linked to recurring
victimization risk.
This study found that the 7-repeat allele of the DRD4 gene distinguishes those individuals who
have beenvictimized a single time from those who have been victimized more than once (Daigle,
2010). DRD4 codesfor the production of dopamine receptors located in postsynaptic neurons
(DeYoung et al., 2006). The 7-repeat allele produces less efficient receptors and has been linked
to attention-related problems (Faraone,Doyle, Mick, &Biederman, 2001), novelty seeking
(Benjamin et al., 1996; Ebstein et al., 1996), and conductdisorder (Rowe et al., 2001). DRD4 has
also been linked to aggression (L. A. Schmidt, Fox, Rubin, Hu, &Hamer, 2002) and serious
violence for males who also have the A1 allele of DRD2 (Beaver, Wright, DeLisi,Walsh, et al.,
96
2007). Because of its impact on these characteristics, DRD4 may be related to

recurringvictimization because individuals may be less attuned to risk and likely to actually seek
out novel or riskysituations, perhaps even after being victimized.
The last set of individual-level risk factors that have been explored are psychological and
cognitive factors.Much of this research has focused on the sexual revictimization of women.
What this research has shown isthat women who have been revictimized often experience high
levels of psychological distress and posttraumaticstress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and these
levels are higher than in women who have experienceda single sexual victimization incident
(Banyard, Williams, & Siegel, 2001; L. E. Gibson &Leitenberg, 2001;S. M. Murphy et al.,
1988). PTSD may play an important role in revictimization in that it may inhibitwomen‘s ability
to quickly identify risk. In fact, one study found that PTSD reduced latency in recognizingrisk in
an audiotape of a date-rape situation among revictimized women (Wilson, Calhoun,
&Bernat,1999). Other research has shown a link between mental illness and recurring
victimization. Similarly the study by Teasdale, Daigle, & Ballard, (2013) found that almost two-
thirds of victims, all of whom had been diagnosed with a major mental disorder,experienced a
recurring victimization during one of the follow-ups that occurred over the following year.
Alsofound was that individuals who had been diagnosed with manic disorder or schizophrenia
spectrum disorderhad flat trajectories of recurring victimization over the study period, whereas
those diagnosed with a substanceabuse disorder or major depression had declining trajectories.
Neighborhood- or Household-Level Risk Factors
The last set of risk factors for recurring victimization to consider are those tied to the
neighborhood or household. There are basically three main characteristics of
household/neighbourhood analysis of risk factors to recurring victimisation:
1) Neighborhoods that are dangerous place the residents who reside in them at risk for
recurringvictimization. That is, living in urban areas places people at risk for repeat
victimization (Tseloni, 2000;Wittebrood&Nieuwbeerta, 2000), and
2) living in areas with a high concentration of single-parent householdsputs people at risk
for recurring victimization as well (Osborn, Ellingworth, Hope, &Trickett, 1996).
97
3) A thirdcharacteristic, neighborhood disorder, has also been linked to recurring

victimization. It has been linked to anincrease in the number of assault, larceny, and
vandalism victimizations experienced by youth (Lauritsen&DavisQuinet, 1995) and to
repeat property victimizations experienced by adults (Outlaw et al., 2002).
The question students/readers should ask is that ‗Why isit, though, that these factors would
impact risk for recurring victimization? It is likely that urban areas aresimply those areas where
more crime happens?Therefore, a person who lives there is at greater risk ofexperiencing
recurring victimization? In addition, areas with lots of single-parent households may not have
high levels of supervision or capable guardianship and may be indicative of an area‘s
socioeconomic status.
Finally, areas that are highly disordered are likely low in socioeconomic status, low in capable
guardianship,and beacons for motivated offenders.Household characteristics such as living in a
low-income household, having children, having four or morecars, participating in neighbourhood
watch, and having security devices installed in the home are related to anincrease in the number
of personal victimizations (Tseloni, 2000). However, higher incomes have been linkedto
recurring property victimization (Perrault et al., 2010). In addition, younger households, having
two or more adults in the household, having more children in the household, andhaving more
than one car increased the number of crime victimizations (Osborn &Tseloni, 1998). Theshorter
the time people have lived in a residence, the greater the likelihood of repeat victimization
(Osborn &Tseloni, 1998). Renting a residence is also linked to recurring victimization(Osborn
&Tseloni, 1998; Perrault et al., 2010).
4.0 Conclusion
The fact that individual level analyses are very germane in understanding risk factors attributed
to recurring victimisation, as captured by the demographics of the person and well explained by
the lifestyles and routine activities theories nevertheless the geographical location
(neighbourhood/household composition) co-factored with the personal attributes to give a broad
analysis and a better view of why these risk factors are very useful in understanding the crux of
the matter - recurring victimisation.
98
5.0 Summary
This unit specifically dealt with two broad analyses of the risk factors contributing to the
statistics of recurring victimisation (individual/personal characteristic and the
neighbourhood/household) of events that are likely to expose an individual to risk of recurring
victimisation. Some of these risk factors were identified as age (young/old), marital status
(Married/separated/divorced), socioeconomic status (employed/unemployed) and characteristics
neighbourhood as captured by population, size settlement patterns and density.

1) What are individual-level risk factors in recurring victimisation?
2) Why are women favoured or exempted in certain recurring victimisation?
3) In what ways are males more likely to be victims repeatedly than females?

Beaver, K. M., Boutwell, B. B., Barnes, J. C., & Cooper, J. A. (2009). The biosocial
underpinnings to adolescent victimization: Results from a longitudinal sample of twins.
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 7, 223–238.
DeYoung, C. G., Peterson, J. B., Seguin, J. R., Mejia, J. M., Pihl, R. O., Beitchman, J. H.,
…&Palmour, R. M. (2006). The dopamine D4 receptor gene and moderation of the
association between externalizing behaviour and IQ. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63,
1410–1416.
Osborn, D. R., &Tseloni, A. (1998). The distribution of household property crimes. Journal of
Outlaw, M. C., Ruback, R. B., & Britt, C. (2002). Repeat and multiple victimizations: The role
of individual and contextual factors. Violence and Victims, 17, 187–204.
Raghavan, R., Bogart, L. M., Elliott, M. N., Vestal, K. D., & Schuster, M. A. (2004).Sexual
victimization among a national probability sample of adolescent women. Perspectives on
Sexual and Reproductive Health, 36, 225–232.
Teasdale, B., Daigle, L. E., & Ballard, E. (2013).Trajectories of recurring victimization among
people with major mental disorders.Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 987–1005.
Teasdale, B., Daigle, L. E., Hawk, S. R., &Daquin, J. C. (2015). Violent victimization in the
prison context: An examination of the gendered contexts of prison. International Journal of
Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 60, 995–1015.
Tseloni, A. (2000). Personal criminal victimization in the United States: Fixed and random
effects of individual and household characteristics. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16,
415–442.
99
Wittebrood, K., &Nieuwbeerta, P. (2000). Criminal victimization during one‘s life course: The
effects of previous victimization and patterns of routine activities. Journal of Research in
Crime and Delinquency, 37, 91–122.
100
MODULE 4
Unit 1. Measuring Crime and Crime Victimization
Unit 2 Historical development of methods for Measuring Crime
Unit 3Introduction to Crime Statistics

Unit 4Users (and Uses) of Crime Statistics
Unit 1
Measuring Crime and Crime Victimization
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
It is self-evident that accurate and valid data and research information on both crime and
victimization are critical for an understanding of crime everywhere in the world and for any
assessment of the quality of the activities and programs of the criminal justice system. Most
measurement of crime emanates from two major data sources: (1) Uniform Crime Reports and
(2). The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) has
collected information on crimes known to the police and arrests from local and state jurisdictions
throughout the country. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), a general population
survey designed to discover the extent, nature, and consequences of criminal victimization.
There are other national surveys focusing on specific problems, such as victimisation,
101
delinquency, violence against women, and child abuse, which also provide important data on
crime, victims, and offenders.

This unit intends to impact on students the knowledge of the sources of data collection and
measurement of crime and victimisation and the various challenges there in. At the end of the
study students should be able to freely itemise and discuss the
1. specific problems associated with UCR arrest data,

2. the puzzle why criminal victimization is said to be arelatively rare event
3. need to disaggregate data especially as pertaining to identified subgroups in society and
lastly
4. the general and particularly difficulties therein measuring crime and victimsation
3.0 Main Content

These data collection systems utilize different methods of measuring criminal behaviour. The
UCR relies on official data that have been collected and reported by law enforcement agencies
(See Box 1.2). The NCVS and other surveys discussed in this unit are large-scale social surveys
that rely on self-reports of offenses or victimization. Although these data collection systems do
many things right, they are, like any such system, beset with the methodological problems of
surveys in general as well as particular problems associated with measuring illicit, deviant, and
deleterious activities. Such problems include nonreporting and false reporting, nonstandard
definitions of events, difficulties associated with asking sensitive questions, sampling problems
such as coverage and nonresponse, and an array of other factors involved in conducting surveys
of individuals and implementing official data reporting systems. Compounding these problems
are the recent interest in rare crime events, such as violent crimes committed by youth and hate
crimes; the need for attention to vulnerable subpopulations, such as very young and school-age
children and disabled, elderly, minority, queer group and immigrant populations; and a focus on
small- or local-area estimates of crime and victimization. Periodically it is expected by way of
research and policy to develop new and relevant data collection efforts to measure crime
102
victimization in specific populations and for small areas. Understanding victimization and
offending in these subgroups, however, can be particularly difficult.
Difficulties in measuring and understanding victimisation
In general, criminal victimization is a relatively rare event—
1. that is, in any given reference period, the majority of respondents do not report any
victimization.
2. Very large general population samples are therefore required to accurately characterize
the population of offenders and victims, and
3. detailed subgroup analyses can be problematic. Some important subgroups may not be
covered at all (e.g., homeless people), and smaller research studies of crimes against
these subgroups often have problems of statistical power because of small sample sizes in
most cases.
4. For many hard-to identify subpopulations, such as people with disabilities and abused
children, there is no large, well-defined group from which to draw a sample for
measuring victimization—in other words, a sampling frame. This, as well as more
conventional problems associated with interviewing crime victims, presents substantial
design and analytical difficulties.
103
Problems with the UCR arrest data
Specifically official data such as UCR arrest data have a different set of problems. Foremost
among them is that:
1. most crimes are not reported to the police,
2. and only a small proportion of those that are reported result in an arrest.
3. Increases or decreases in reports or in arrests for certain offenses, such as burglary or
auto theft, can therefore result in large differences in outcomes and misleading
conclusions about crime trends.
4. The accuracy of official data is also compromised by differences in the definitions of
crimes and reporting protocols.
5. Most national-level official data are compiled through the voluntary reporting of local-
level agencies— for example getting data specifically from the police, the vigilante
groups, or other law enforcement agencies (formal and informal) and also from a sample
of prosecutors‘ officers separately for prosecution data.
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However, these agencies do not always file reports as called for in the reporting protocol. A
review of the 1999 UCR data in America shows that of the 50 States only six cities reported
limited data. Rape data were unavailable for two states because the state reporting agencies did
not follow the national UCR guidelines and there were more report on arrest (available:
<http://www.FBI.gov/ucr/99cius.htm> [15/8/19). There has been a significant lack of
governmental and private interest and investment in research aimed at solving these categories of
problems. Often than not large-scale data systems on crime victimization are not available,
despite the constant agitation for funding redesigning and restructuring of NCVS to address
many important sampling questions, but due to social and political reasons sensitive information
are often not included.
In recent times, in fact, the problems may be growing worse because of eroding federal
investment in data systems and social science research on crime and victimization. Thus sample
in the NCVS has continuously shrunk because of flat funding over time. Similarly the promise of
improvements in data on reported crimes through conversion to an incident based reporting
system has not been realized because of a lack of funding to support the necessary changes at the
state and local levels. Except for modest new funds to study violence against women, the federal
budget for social science research on crime and victimization specifically is often not there in
Nigeria. As in the case of the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND) available funds
generally are reserved for studies that potentially have a direct impact on policy.
4.0 Conclusion
The relevance of the two major sources and methods for the measurement of crime, which are:
(1) Uniform Crime Reports and (2) The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is
overwhelming, if only the challenges of nonreporting by victims, poor funding and discrepancies
in the way and manners crime and victimisation data are often collated and generalised without
recourse to sub population and dynamics of communities can be frustrating.
5.0 Summary
105
This unit emphasized the relevance of the two major sources and methods for the measurement
of crime, which are: (1) Uniform Crime Reports and (2) The National Crime Victimization
Survey (NCVS) as well as the challenges in understanding victimisation and offending in
different subgroups in a population. It also shows that these data sources are faced with a lot of
inadequacies where they are available for crime and victimization. Among these problems are
inadequate records and poor funding to update and research on the specifics in victimization and
last the traditional problems of non-reporting of victimization by the people

1. What are specific problems associated with UCR arrest data?
2. Despite the daily occurrence of criminality and victimization, why is criminal
victimization regarded as relatively rare event?
3. What are the major data sources in measuring crime and victimization?
4. What are the reasons behind the maxim the ‗Understanding victimization and offending
in identified subgroups can be particularly difficult‘?

Baddeley, A.D., V. Lewis, and I. Nimmo-Smith 1978 When did you last . . .? In Practical
Aspects of Memory, M.M. Gruneberg, P.E. Morris, and R.N. Sykes, eds. London: London
Academic Press.
Biderman, A., and D. Cantor 1984 A longitudinal analysis of bounding, respondent conditioning,
and mobility as sources of panel bias in the National Crime Survey.In Proceedings of the
American Statistical Association, Survey Research Methods Section. Washington, DC:
American Statistical Association.
Burton, S., and E. Blair 1991 Task conditions, response formulation processes, and response
accuracy for behavioural frequency questions in surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly 55:50-
79.
Fisher, B.S., and F.T. Cullen 2000 Measuring the Sexual Victimization of Women: Evolution,
Current Controversies, and Future Research.
Lessler, J.T., and J.M. O‘Reilly 1997 Mode of interview and reporting of sensitive issues: Design
and implementation of audio computer-assisted self-interviewing. Pp. 366-382 in The
Validity of Self-Reported Drug Use: Improving the Accuracy of Survey Estimates, L.
Harrison and A. Hughes, eds. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
Means, B., G.E. Swan, J.B. Jobe, and J.L. Esposito 1994 An alternative approach to obtaining
personal history data. Pp. 167-184 in Measurement Errors in Surveys, P. Biemer, R.
Groves, L. Lyberg, N. Mathiowetz, and S. Sudman, eds. New York: Wiley.
106
Schober, M. 1999 Making sense of questions: An interactional approach. Pp. 77-93 in Cognition
and Survey Research, M.G. Sirken, D.J. Herrmann, S. Schechter, N. Schwarz, J.M. Tanur,
and R. Tourangeau, eds. New York: Wiley.
Skogan, W. 1981 Issues in the Measurement of Victimization.Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice
Statistics.
Tourangeau, R., and T.W. Smith 1996 Asking sensitive questions: The impact of data collection
mode, question format, and question context. Public Opinion Quarterly 60:275-304.
Tourangeau, R., L.J. Rips, and K.A. Rasinski 2000 The Psychology of Survey Response. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
107
Unit 2
Historical development of methods for Measuring Crime
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
There are three basic ways to measure criminal behaviour on a large scale. The oldest method is
to rely on official data collected by criminal justice agencies, such as data on arrests or
convictions. The other two rely on social surveys. In one case, individuals are asked if they have
been victims of crime; in the other, they are asked to self-report their own criminal activity. This
unit examines the historical development of the various methods of data collection in study of
delinquency, criminal careers and victimisation.
The intended purpose of this unit is to ensure students understand the historical development of
the various methods of data collection peculiar to delinquency, crime and victimisation research
as well as the factors that were responsible for the changes overtime. Specifically students should
know the least among others:
1. The development from observational studies to the more scientific methods of data
collection
2. thedevelopments that have made self-report studies an integral part of the way
delinquency, crime, and victimisation are studied?
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3. the shortcomings of the various methods and instruments of data collection
3.0 Main Content

The development and widespread use of the self-report method of collecting data on delinquent
and criminal behaviour together were one of the most important innovations in criminology
research in the twentieth century. This method of data collection is used extensively all over the
world. Because of its common use, we often lose sight of the important impact that self-report
studies have had on the study of the distribution and patterns of crime and delinquency, the
etiological study of criminality, and the study of the juvenile justice and criminal justice systems.
Sellin made the simple but critically important observation that ―the value of a crime rate for
index purposes decreases as the distance from the crime itself in terms of procedure increases‖
(1931:337). Thus, prison data are less useful than court or police data as a measure of actual
delinquent or criminal behaviour. Moreover, the reactions of the juvenile and criminal justice
systems often rely on information from victims or witnesses of crime. It does not take an expert
on crime to recognize that a substantial amount of crime is not reported and, if reported, is not
officially recorded. Thus, reliance on official sources introduces a number of layers of potential
bias between the actual behaviour and the data. Yet, through the first half of the twentieth
century, our understanding of the behaviour of criminals and those who reacted to crime was
based almost entirely on official data. While researchers were aware of many of these
limitations, the dilemma they faced was how to obtain valid information on crime that was closer
to the source of the behaviour. Observing the behaviour taking place would be one method of
doing so, but given the illegal nature of the behaviour and the potential consequences if caught
committing the behaviour, participants in crime are reluctant to have their behaviour observed.
Even when observational studies have been conducted—for example, gang studies (e.g.,
Thrasher, 1927)—researchers could observe only a very small portion of the crimes that took
place. Hence, observational studies had limited utility in describing the distribution and patterns
of criminal behaviour. If one could not observe the behaviour taking place, self-reports of
delinquent and criminal behaviour would be the data source nearest to the actual behaviour.
There was great skepticism, however, about whether respondents would be willing to tell
researchers about their participation in illegal behaviours. Early studies (Porterfield, 1943;
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Wallerstein and Wylie, 1947) found that not only were respondents willing to self-report their
delinquency and criminal behaviour, they did so in surprising numbers. Since those very early
studies, the self-report methodology has become much more sophisticated in design, making it
more reliable and valid and extending its applicability to myriad issues. Much work has been
done to improve the reliability and validity of self-reports, including the introduction of
specialized techniques intended to enhance the quality of self-report data. These developments
have made self-report studies an integral part of the way delinquency, crime, and victimisation
are studied.
Although the self-report method began with the contributions of Porterfield (1943, 1946) and
Wallerstein and Wylie (1947), the work of Short and Nye (1957, 1958) ―revolutionized ideas
about the feasibility of using survey procedures with a hitherto taboo topic‖ and changed how the
discipline thought about delinquent behaviour itself (Hindelang et al., 1981: 23). Short and Nye‘s
research is distinguished from previous self-report measures in their attention to methodological
issues, such as scale construction, reliability and validity, and sampling and their explicit focus
on the substantive relationship between social class and delinquent behaviour. A 21-item list of
criminal and antisocial behaviours was used to measure delinquency, although in most of their
analyses a scale comprised of a subset of only seven items was employed. Focusing on the
relationship between delinquent behaviour and the socioeconomic status of the adolescents‘
parents, Nye et al. (1958) found that relatively few of the differences in delinquent behaviour
among the different socioeconomic status groups were statistically significant. Short and Nye‘s
work stimulated much interest in both use of the self-report methodology and the relationship
between some measure of social status (socioeconomic status, ethnicity, race) and delinquent
behaviour.
The failure to find a relationship between social status and delinquency served at once to
question extant theories built on the assumption that an inverse relationship did in fact exist and
to suggest that the juvenile justice system may be using extra-legal factors in making decisions
concerning juveniles who misbehave. A number of studies in the late 1950s and early 1960s used
self-reports to examine the relationship between social status and delinquent behaviour (Akers,
110
1964; Clark and Wenninger, 1962; Dentler and Monroe, 1961; Empey and Erickson, 1966;
Erickson and Empey, 1963; Gold, 1966; Reiss and Rhodes, 1959; Slocum and Stone, 1963; Vaz,
1966; Voss, 1966). These studies advanced the use of the self-report method by applying it to
different, more ethnically diverse populations (Clark and Wenninger, 1962; Gold, 1966; Voss,
1966), attending to issues concerning validity and reliability (Clark and Tifft, 1966; Dentler and
Monroe, 1961; Gold, 1966), and constructing measures of delinquency that specifically
addressed issues regarding offense seriousness and frequency (Gold, 1966). These studies found
that, while most juveniles engaged in some delinquency, relatively few committed serious
delinquency repetitively. With few exceptions, these studies supported the general conclusion
that, if there were any statistically significant relationship between measures of social status and
self-reported delinquent behaviour, it was weak and clearly did not mirror the findings of studies
using official data sources.
During this period of time researchers began to recognize the true potential of the self-report
methodology. By including questions concerning other aspects of an adolescent‘s life as well as
a delinquency scale on the same questionnaire, researchers could explore a host of etiological
issues. Theoretically interesting issues concerning the family (Stanfield, 1966; Voss, 1964),
peers (Gold, 1970; Matthews, 1968; Reiss and Rhodes), and school (Elliott, 1966; Gold, 1970;
Kelly, 1974) emerged as the central focus of self-report studies. The potential of the self-report
methodology in examining etiological theories of delinquency was perhaps best displayed in
Hirschi‘s (1969) Causes of Delinquency. The use of self-report studies to examine theoretical
issues continued throughout the 1970s. In addition to several partial replications of Hirschi‘s,
other theoretical perspectives such as social learning theory (Akers et al., 1979), self-concept
theory (Jensen, 1973; Kaplan, 1972), strain theory (Elliott and Voss, 1974; Johnson, 1979), and
deterrence theory (Anderson et al., 1977; Jensen et al., 1978; Silberman, 1976; Waldo and
Chiricos, 1972) were evaluated using data from self-report surveys.
Another development during this period was the introduction of national surveys on delinquency
and drug use. Williams and Gold (1972) conducted the first nationwide survey, with a
probability sample of 847 boys and girls 13 to 16 years old. Monitoring the Future (Johnston et
111
al., 1996) is a national survey on drug use that has been conducted annually since 1975. It began
as an in-school survey of a nationally representative sample of high school seniors and was
expanded to include eighth- and tenth-grade students. One of the larger undertakings on a
national level is the National Youth Survey (NYS), conducted by Elliott and colleagues (1985).
The NYS began in 1976 by surveying a national probability sample of 1,725 youth ages 11
through 17. The survey design was sensitive to a number of methodological deficiencies of prior
self-report studies and has been greatly instrumental in improving the self-report method. The
NYS is also noteworthy because it is a panel design, having followed the original respondents
into their thirties. Despite the expanding applications of this methodology, questions remained
about what self-report instruments measure. The discrepancy in findings regarding the
relationship between social status and delinquencybased on self-report data versus official (and
victim) data continued to perplex scholars. Early on, self-reports came under heavy criticism on a
number of counts, including the selection of respondents and the selection of delinquency items.
Nettler (1978:98) stated that ―an evaluation of these unofficial ways of counting crime does not
fulfill the promise that they would provide a better enumeration of offensive activity.‖ Gibbons
(1979:84) was even more critical in his summary evaluation, stating: The burst of energy
devoted to self-report studies of delinquency has apparently been exhausted. This work
constituted a criminological fad that has waned, probably because such studies have not fulfilled
their early promise.
Two studies were particularly instrumental at that time in pointing to flaws in self-report
measures. Hindelang and colleagues (1979) illustrated the problems encountered when
comparing the results from studies using self-reports and those using official data or
victimization data by comparing characteristics of offenders across the three data sources. They
observed more similarity in those characteristics between victimization and Uniform Crime
Reports data than between self-report data and the other two sources. They argued that self-
report instruments did not include the more serious crimes for which people are arrested and that
are included in victimization surveys. Thus, self-reports tap a different, less serious domain of
behaviours than either of the other two sources, and discrepancies in observed relationships when
using self-reports should not be surprising. The differential domain of crime tapped by early self-
report measures could also explain the discrepancy in findings regarding the association between
112
social status and delinquency. Elliott and Ageton (1980) also explored the methodological
shortcomings of self-reports. They observed that a relatively small numbers of youth commit a
disproportionate number of serious offenses. However, most early self-report instruments failed
to include serious offenses in the inventory and truncated the response categories for the
frequency of offenses. In addition, many of the samples did not include enough high-rate
offenders to clearly distinguish them from other delinquents. By allowing respondents to report
the number of delinquent acts they committed rather than specifying an upper limit (e.g., 10 or
more) and by focusing on high-rate offenders, Elliott and Ageton found relationships between
engaging in serious delinquent behaviour and race and social class that are more consistent with
results from studies using official data. Hindelang and colleagues (1979) and Elliott and Ageton
(1980) suggested designing self-report studies so that they would acquire sufficient data from
those high-rate, serious offenders who would be most likely to come to the attention of the
authorities. They also suggested a number of changes in the way in which self-report data are
measured, so that the data reflect the fact that some offenders contribute disproportionately to the
rate of serious and violent delinquent acts.
The development of instruments to better measure serious offenses and the suggestion to acquire
data from high-rate offenders coincided with a substantive change in the 1980s in the focus of
much criminology work on the etiology of offenders. The identification of a relatively small
group of offenders who commit a disproportionate amount of crime and delinquency led for a
call to focus research efforts on ―chronic‖ or ―career‖ criminals (Blumstein et al., 1986;
Wolfgang et al., 1972, 1987). Blumstein et al.‘s observation that we need to study the careers of
criminals, including early precursors of delinquency, maintenance through the adolescent years,
and later consequences during the adult years, was particularly important in recognizing the need
for examining the life-course development of highrate offenders with self-report methodology.
The self-report methodology continues to advance in terms of both its application to new
substantive areas and the improvement of its design. Gibbons‘s (1979) suggestion that self-
reports were just a fad, likely to disappear, is clearly wrong. Rather, with improvements in
question design, administration technique, reliability and validity, and sample selection, this
technique is being used in the most innovative research on crime and delinquency. The sections
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that follow describe the key methodological developments that have made such applications
possible.
4.0 Conclusion
The various methods of data collection have come of age, like iron passing through fire. They
have developed (still developing) into stronger and better tools in the study of delinquency,
crime and victimisation. The critic and criticisms of these methods of data collection at the early
stages of development were all rational as identified shortcomings in each helped in no small
measures to continuously shape the ways data have been collected scientifically in the 21st
century better than in the past.
5.0 Summary
The historical development of methods of data collection was traced from the observational
studies conducted among gangs—for example, gang studies (e.g., Thrasher, 1927), to self-report
method which began with the contributions of Porterfield (1943, 1946), Wallerstein and Wylie
(1947) and the work of Short and Nye (1957, 1958). All these contributed to the revolutionized
ideas about methodological issues, such as scale construction, reliability and validity, and
sampling and their explicit usage to ultimately capture delinquency, crime and victimization in-
depth.
1. History has shown that reliance on official sources of data introduces a number of layers of
potential bias between the actual behaviour and the data. List some of these layers of
potential bias?
2. What are the developments that have made self-report studies an integral part of the way
delinquency, crime, and victimisation are studied?
3. What were the shortcomings of most early self-report instruments?
4. Why do researchers need to obtain information closer to the source of the behaviour?
5. Why has observational methodologybeen described as ‗limited in utility‘?

Short, J.F., Jr., and F.I. Nye 1957 Reported behaviour as a criterion of deviant behaviour.
Social Problems 5:207-213.
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Short, J.F., Jr., and F.I. Nye, 1958 Extent of unrecorded juvenile delinquency: Tentative
conclusions. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 49:296-302.
Porterfield, A.L. 1943 Delinquency and outcome in court and college.American Journal of
Sociology 49:199-208.
Porterfield, A.L. , 1946 Youth in Trouble. Fort Worth, TX: Leo Potishman Foundation.
Wallerstein, J.S., and C.J. Wylie 1947 Our law-abiding law-breakers. Probation 25:107-
112.
Thornberry, T.P., M.D. Krohn, A.J. Lizotte, C.A. Smith, and K. Tobin InThe Toll of Gang
Membership: Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective. Press New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Thrasher, F. 1927 The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Tourangeau, R. and T.W. Smith 1996 Asking sensitive questions: The impact of data
collection, mode,
Sellin, T. 1931 The basis of a crime index. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 22:335-
356.
Akers, R.L. 1964 Socio-economic status and delinquent behaviour: A retest. Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency 1:38-46.
Clark, J.P., and L.L. Tifft 1966 Polygraph and interview validation of self-reported
delinquent behaviour.AmericanSociological Review 31:516-523.
Gibbons, D.C. 1979 The Criminological Enterprise: Theories and Perspectives. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Gold, M. 1966 Undetected delinquent behaviour.Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency 3:27-46.
Gold, M.1970 Delinquent Behaviour in an American City. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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Unit 3
Introduction to Crime Statistics
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
To derive statistics about crime—to estimate its levels and trends, assess its costs to and impacts
on society, and inform law enforcement approaches to prevent it—a conceptual framework for
defining and thinking about crime is virtually a prerequisite. Developing and maintaining such a
framework is no easy task, because the mechanics of crime are ever evolving and shifting. For
example, the continuous spate of kidnapping and demand for ransom in Nigeria, hostage taking
in the horn of Africa, Suicide bombing among religious extremists, the current public
(dis)closure of corruption in the Niger-Delta Development Commission (NDDC) in 2020 and
other numerous criminalities raises major conceptual challenges. In respect of Kidnapping and
demand for ransom, it is certainly intuitive that a ―crime‖ has occurred, but few of the related
questions have easy answers:
• What is the criminal action(s)? The authoring of the threatening personality?The act of taking
ones liberty?The causing of harm (if any) to victims‘ existing cartel of kidnappers networks or
resources?The demand for, or the acceptance of, the ransom?
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• Who is the victim(s)? The person (the kidnapped/the family, the State)?The relatives or
associates?His place of work?His staff?others, whose effective access to the kidnapped may have
been encumbered by the act‖? implication of insurance company and unknown individuals with
high security risk after an incidence?
• Who is the offender(s), and where did the offense(s) take place? Is it proper to think of the
community as the ―scene of the crime,‖ or the specific location from which the kidnapper carried
out the act (if such is ever determined)? Or is it more proper to think of ―cyberspace‖ as involved
a location outside of conventional geographic space, or even of the crime as truly― locationless?‖
especially when scam is involved. Assuming that answers to the above conceptual questions are
decided upon, the next step—developing statistical measures for such attacks—is challenging in
its own right. A ―simple‖ count of incidents is anything to go by take another example in the case
of cyber fraud, where perpetrators are not known in person, but probably only the victims, the
question will be: does embedding malicious code in an email or on a webpage constitute one
incident, thousands of incidents (based on the number of email recipients targeted), or potentially
millions of incidents (based on webpage browse attempts)? If an incident count fails as a metric,
does an estimate of incurred loss or harm (if feasible) fare any better?
These are but few examples, but illustrative enough of larger concerns. ―Crime anywhere is,
arguably, at least as much about corporate fraud as about armed robbery, harassment via the
Internet as about breaking and entering, and endangering health through environmental
pollutants as about assaults and muggings. But, for decades, the perspective on crime has been
dominated by so-called ―street crime‖—violent crime and some types of property crime—to the
general exclusion of non-street crime, of which the fielding of cybercrime is certainly an
example in no other century than the 21st. The lack of systematic information about non-street
crimes makes it very difficult to develop sound judgments about whether adequate resources are
being devoted to these types of problems. A conceptual framework that encompasses the full
range of crime is essential for drawing attention to important issues that may be ignored because
they do not have the necessary statistical indicators for comparative purposes.
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It is useful to begin with a brief history of how crime statistics arrived at their current state, but to
make the story short upfront: statistics on crime are, by and large, still measured following
concepts outlined nearly a century earlier in 1929, making use of a list of defined crimes that
evolved from what was most feasible and tractable to measure. As we describe later in this
chapter, this unit is an attempt to step back and rethink the approach to the entire enterprise of
crime data collection—beginning, in this report, with development of a proposed classification of
criminal offenses toserve as a broad, conceptual framework for what ―crime‖ means. This
classification and framework would then be a useful blueprint for constructing measures of
crime.

This unit intends to ensure students are well grounded in the definition of crime as a precursor to
understanding how to go about measuring criminal activities which is the heartbeat of
statistics…..know what should be the unit of analysis, know how to aggregate and disaggregate
beyond just numbers and incidents. At the end of this unit students should be able among others
decipher the complexities of what constitute a crime, how and why it should be classified. And
lastly make sense of the state of crime statistics in the 21st century.
3.0 Main Content
WHAT IS ―CRIME,‖ AND WHY CLASSIFY IT?
To measure ―crime‖ one must first define it—and that is no easier a conceptual task in 2020 than it was
in 1929 or earlier. There are at least two general approaches to defining crime, and both sound simple
while masking bewildering complexity. This general divide is illustrated in the language of the different
countries Penal Code or the constitution as the case may be in an effort to suggest standardization in
criminal codes and which at least informed the continuous revisions of these codes with
development in society, technology and associated new forms and waves of harmful behaviours
and events. Explicitly, every nation‘s code/law holds that crime is ―an offense defined by the
Code or by any other statute of the State, for which a sentence of [death or of] imprisonment is
authorized‖ (American Law Institute, 1985:§ 1.04). The first clause of this definition is the
118
simple, obvious, literally legal definition—―crime‖ is activity that is unlawful, either the
commission of something that is explicitly banned or the failure to do something that is explicitly
mandated by letter of the law. But complexity sets in with the second clause, which modifies the
first and narrows its focus: the full thought becomes ―crime‖ is that activity that is both unlawful
and subject to certain punishments or sanctions. Black’s Law Dictionary puts the point more
succinctly, defining crime as ―an act that the law makes punishable‖ (Garner, 2014).
What this basic legal definition leaves open are the questions of exactly which law and which degree of
punishment are used to define crime, and the answers to those questions vary greatly everywhere in the
world. Roughly, the challenge is delineating ―criminal‖ law, procedure, and adjudication from ―civil‖ or
―regulatory‖ concepts, and that line is far from sharp. The language of codes as said earlier differs
from one country to another— echoed in some states—uses the punishment of incarceration as
the criterion: behaviour that is deemed punishable by incarceration is crime, but behaviour
punishable only by other means (e.g., fine or forfeiture) is not. However, for example, while in
some countries even in some states and counties in Europe and America, for instance the state of
Wisconsin, the scope of crime is broadened to include those with only financial punishment,
specifying that crime is ―conduct which is prohibited by state law and punishable by fine or
imprisonment or both‖ but adding that ―conduct punishable only by a forfeiture is not a crime‖
(2011–12 Wis. Stats. § 939.12). California‘s definition, which dates back to 1873, goes further,
melding the concept of crime with that of a ―public offense‖ and so including offenses of a
political variety (California Penal Code § 15):
A crime or public offense is an act committed or omitted in violation of a law
forbidding or commanding it, and to which is annexed, upon conviction
either of the following punishments: 1. Death; 2. Imprisonment; 3.
Fine; 4. Removal from office; or, 5. Disqualification to hold and enjoy
any office of honor, trust, or profit in this State.
Several states demur on stating a core definition of ―crime‖ and instead delve directly into distinguishing
offenses based on severity of offense (including aggravating or contributing factors to the act, such as
weapon involvement) or the extent of imprisonment or punishment. Hence, the common differentiation
between felonies, misdemeanors, petty offenses, or some other general infractions occurs, as well as the
119
typically numbered degrees attached to offenses. But the criteria for these gradations of offense
types vary by jurisdiction, and so the concept of what behaviour is thought of as crime (or
perhaps most crime-like) varies as well. For instance, Vermont statute holds that ―any offense
whose maximum term of imprisonment is more than two years, for life or which may be
punished by death is a felony. Any other offense is a misdemeanor‖ (13 Vermont Stat. 1).
Meanwhile, Virginia code uses ―felony‖ to denote a crime subject to a prison term of any length,
and explicitly excludes the broad class of traffic offenses from designation as crime (Virginia
Criminal Code § 18.2-8):
Offenses are either felonies or misdemeanors. Such offenses as are punishable with
death or confinement in a state correctional facility are felonies; all other
offenses are misdemeanors. Traffic infractions are violations of public order
[defined elsewhere in law] not deemed to be criminal in nature.
Still other state codes take different approaches: Connecticut Penal Code § 53a-24 distinguishes between
―crimes‖ and ―offenses,‖ dividing the former into felonies and misdemeanors and setting aside
―violations‖ as ―every offense that is not ‗crime‘ ‖;Indiana‘s criminal code adds a clause including ―a
delinquent act‖ as ―crime‖ for purposes of the Victim Rights article of the code (IC 35-40); Colorado
Revised Statutes 18-1-104 take ―offense‖ and ―crime‖ as synonymous and subdivides offenses
among one of 18 felony (drug or nondrug), misdemeanor (drug or nondrug), petty offense (drug or
nondrug), or unclassified categories.
Recitation of the legal text may be dry, but it is undeniably vital in defining crime—and it makes clear
the challenges of working within a measurement framework defined strictly by the language of federal
and state criminal codes. Hence, the second approach illustrated by the language of the codes in any
nation‘s constitution, which is to emphasize the general, type of behaviour that might be said to constitute
crime. The first-stated guiding principle to note is that it is a given that the Code is intended to ―forbid
and prevent‖ ―conduct that unjustifiably and inexcusably inflicts or threatens harm to individual or
public interests‖ (American Law Institute, 1985:§ 1.02). This language serves as an implicit,
behavioural-rather- than-legal definition of crime: roughly speaking, ―crime‖ is a class of
socially unacceptable behaviour that directly harms or threatens harm to others. Like the legal
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definition, this thread has also frequently been woven into state criminal codes—though
substitutions in wording hint at the complexity inherent in this behavioural application. For
instance, Texas Penal Code § 1.02 repeats this language, albeit substituting ―causes‖ for
―inflicts‖ and revising ―individual or public interests‖ to ―those individual or public interests for
which state protection is appropriate.‖ Washington Criminal Code § 9A.04.020 states the first
principle of construction of the code as forbidding ―conduct that inflicts or threatens substantial
harm to individual or public interests.‖ Florida Criminal Code § 775.012 eschews ―unjustifiably
or inexcusably,‖ stating that the code is meant to prohibit ―conduct that improperly causes or
threatens substantial harm to individual or public interest.‖ More than mere semantics, these
substitutions in language raise difficult questions in operationalizing a common definition. How
―substantial‖ must the real or threatened harm be before the action constitutes a ―crime‖?How
palpable or immediate must the threat of harm be to qualify as ―crime‖? And—akin to the
blurred line between action that is criminal and that which is civil/regulatory in the purely legal
definition— how broad are ―individual or public interests,‖ and which qualify as those ―for
which state protection is appropriate‖?
The point may seem basic but is undeniably important: The definition of ―crime‖ is and must be
dynamic in nature, because crime is tied to shifts and development in technology, society, and legislation.
Just as some crimes such as motor vehicle theft and carjacking were made possible only by the
invention of the automobile, so too did the creation and emergence of the Internet spur all manner
of new behaviours—some of which are indisputably ―crime.‖ Other incidents, such as those
known as ―hate crimes,‖ existed long before there were legislative efforts to recognize and
designate such incidents as criminal acts, but come into sharper focus with shifts in social norms
and expectations. Some behaviours, such as marijuana possession and use, have involved many
legislative actions to both criminalize and decriminalize such acts over time, and these laws currently
exhibit important variations across jurisdictions. Considering ―crime‖ as a unit of analysis raises
further complexity; in the simplest case—thinking of ―crime‖ as an action by one party against some
other actor (whether another person, another business/institution, or society at large)—one has to
recognize an essential duality: Legal criminal codes may appropriately treat ―crime‖ and ―offense‖ as
synonymous, yet ―crime‖ and ―victimization‖ are also inherently linked. Accordingly, thinking of crime
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from the perspective of its victims can affect what one labels ―crime‖ and how one tries to measure it.
Of course, ―crime‖ is not a strictly one- to-one action; broader ―incidents‖ of crime may involve one (or
multiple) offender(s) taking one (or multiple) crime-type action(s) against one (or multiple) victims.
Hence, measuring ―crime‖ is not completely equivalent to measuring (or counting) crime
―incidents.‖Moreover, some specific ―crime‖ types are serial in nature and may best (or only) be
thought of as processes over time, stalking or harassment being examples of such pattern-of-conduct
crimes. A very fundamental measurement concept relative to crime—one with major implications for
the scope of this study—is that ―crime‖ also takes place in the context of a broader justice system,
in the various stages of which different labels and structures may apply. So the same ―crime(s)‖
become:―arrests,‖ booking ―charges,‖ ―arrestable offenses,‖ or investigative ―cases‖ to law
enforcement officers; judicial ―cases,‖ counts of ―charges,‖ and grounds for sentencing criteria
in the courts; and charges of conviction in the correctional system. Each of these additional
different labels are countable and capable of analysis, but each has different scope and
potentially different underlying definitions—and arguably serve as better seeds for measuring
other phenomena (such as law enforcement effectiveness or judicial system throughput) than for
measuring the level of criminal activity. Yet it is also true that some of these alternative labels
and corresponding measures might be the best, if not the only, way to get a reading on some
types of criminal behaviour—for instance, white- collar offenses such as embezzlement or some
types of fraud may only appear to be potential ―crime‖ when charges are rendered or arrests
made, much later in the law enforcement and investigatory processes than crimes such as
homicide or burglary.
Given this extensive degree of diversity of concept and potential mis-alignment in definition, one thing
that must be said clearly of the historic (and existing) UCR program standards is this: The degree of
standardization in concept and reporting style that the UCR program was able to impose beginning
in 1929, across widely disparate law enforcement agencies contributing information on a strictly
voluntary basis, was and remains a phenomenal accomplishment. That said, the problem is that
the ―uniformity‖ that the UCR has achieved has been greater in concept than in practice—and, in
concept at least, has arguablyworked too well. Useful standardization rigidified over time—
highlighting, in the UCR‘s short list of Part I offenses, a set of important crimes to be sure, but
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not necessarily the most important or most salient (to the American public) crimes—and so the
basic features of UCR measurement remain largely the same over 90 years later.
4.0 Conclusion
The law enforcement agencies annually releases tabulations of UCR data in series, and has done
so for decades—so it is not surprising that discussions of ―crime in anywhere in the world tend to
put great weight on the UCR numbers and largely follow the contours of UCR‘s Part I offenses
which consist of six types of crime—or offenses of murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault,
burglary, and motor vehicle theft (and UCR content, generally) typically require either enacted
legislation or years of vetting through an elaborate advisory process. Consequently, it has been
difficult for the UCR program (and corresponding crime statistics) to nimbly adapt to the wider
range of actors (e.g., offenses by and against businesses and institutions) and offense types that
characterize contemporary crime.
5.0 Summary
Some summary points from the above discussion are useful in understanding crime as well as the
direction to go when it comes to crime statistics:
 For purposes of developing a modern crime classification, it is most appropriate to take

the criminal offense as the most fine-grained unit of analysis—and, specifically, to
emphasize behavioural definitions of individual offenses rather than rely exclusively on
the language of statute and criminal law.
 Though we may classify and think of crime in terms of specific offenses, the practical
unit of analysis on which we concentrate is the incident. Incidents of crime can be very
complex—comprising one or more criminal offenses and ―linking‖ one or more offenders
with one or more victims, typically but not necessarily occurring within a tight window
of time and physical space.
 While ―simple‖ counts of offenses or incidents are the most common end statistics, there
are other measures related to offense behaviours (such as estimates of damage or
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financial loss inflicted, or even the perception of victimizations or occurrences) that may
have greater salience for some crime types.
1. What are the complexities in considering ―crime‖ as a unit of analysis raises in statistics?
2. How palpable or immediate must the threat of harm be to qualify as ―crime‖?
3. Why do we need to recite the legal definition of crime as measurement framework crime
statistics?
4. Why classify crime?
5. What is the state of crime statistics in the 21st century?
American Law Institute (1985). Model Penal Code: Official Draft and Explanatory Notes.
Complete text of the Model Penal Code as adopted at the 1962 annual meeting of The
American Law Institute at Washington, DC, May 24, 1962. Philadelphia: American Law
Institute.
Baum, K., S. Catalano, M. R. Rand, and K. Rose (2009, January).National Crime Victimization
Survey: Stalking Victimization in the United States. NCJ 24527. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (2014a).National Crime Victimization Survey,
2014.Codebook.ICPSR 36142. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political
and Social Research [producer and distributor].
Bureau of Justice Statistics (2014b, September).National Crime Victimization Survey:Technical
Documentation. NCJ 247252.Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Justice, Bureau of
Justice Statistics.
Bustamante, A. A. (2015, December 2). Review of Crime Classification Practices. Los Angeles:
Los Angeles Police Commission, Office of the Inspector General.
Cahalan, M. W. (1986, December). Historical Corrections Statistics in the United States, 1850–
1984. NCJ 102529.
Central Statistics Office (2015, June).Central Statistics Office: Review of the Quality of Crime
Statistics. Cork, Ireland: Government of Ireland, Central Statistics Office.
Cowley, S. and L. Stack (2016, February 18). Los Angeles hospital pays hackers $17,000after
attack. New York Times.
Crime Statistics Agency, Government of Victoria (2015).Offence Classification—2015.
Melbourne: Government of Victoria.
Criminal Justice Information Services Division (2015a).UCR Program Quarterly, April 2015.
Number 2. Clarksburg, WV: Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Criminal Justice Information Services Division (2015b).UCR Program Quarterly, July 2015.
Number 3. Clarksburg, WV: Federal Bureau of Investigation.
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Eterno, J. A. and E. B. Silverman (2012).The Crime Numbers Game: Management

byManipulation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (1958).Uniform Crime Reports for the United States: Special
Issue, 1958. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Lynch, J. P. and L. A. Addington (2007a). Conclusion. In J. P. Lynch and L. A. Addington
(Eds.), Understanding Crime Statistics: Revisiting the Divergence of the NCVS and UCR,
Cambridge Studies in Criminology, Chapter 11. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lynch, J. P. and L. A. Addington (2007b). Understanding Crime Statistics: Revisiting the
Divergence of the NCVS and UCR. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Maltz, M. D. (1977). Crime statistics: A historical perspective. Crime and Delinquency 23, 32–
40.
McDowall, D. and C. Loftin (1992).Comparing the UCR and NCVS over time.Criminology 30,
125–132.
Sellin, T. (1931).The basis of a crime index.Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 22(3),
335–356.
Sellin, T. and M. E. Wolfgang (1964).The Measurement of Delinquency. New York: Wiley.
UNODC/UNECE Task Force on Crime Classification (2011, September).Principles and
Framework for an International Classification of Crimes for Statistical Purposes.Report of
the task force to the Conference of European Statisticians. Vienna: United Nations.
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Unit 4
Users (and Uses) of Crime Statistics
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Crime statistics have many users, from researchers, practitioners, advocates, business
representatives, policy makers, and others. In general, the uses of existing crime data include
operational and resource allocation decisions by law enforcement, local and state government
agencies, and businesses and other groups. Crime data are also a critical source of information
for program and policy evaluations by researchers in government, academia, and the public and
private sectors. They are also used by advocates of particular issues and by the public, and are
often seen as measures of accountability. For some of these purposes, existing crime data appear
to be adequate, though users often noted many ways that the available data could be improved.
For many types of crime, often than not data are incomplete, lacking in consistency, inadequate,
restricted, classified as official or unavailable.
At the end of this unit students are expected to be well grounded on the various uses and users of
statistics as criminologists and security experts to be. Bearing this in mind the unit intend to
specifically highlight the various uses/users of crime statistics and described it as diverse beyond
law enforcement officials or departments to individuals, communities, researchers, research
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institutions and business owners and in all the ability of statistics to inform and empower society
through policy formulation. And lastly by way of examples students should be able to expatiate
on why statistics is relevant as well as the problems and challenges facing the use and users of
crime statistics when they are needed.
3.0 Main Content
What follows, then, in this brief overview above is to elaborate on the identified users and uses
of crime data alongside the need for a more useful crime statistics system.
3.1 LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES
Law enforcement agencies are one of the major providers of crime data and the ways in which
the different agencies in the country use their crime data differs considerably. Some of the
smaller local police departments in the country, for example, simply record the crime incidents
that come to their attention and forward their reports to their state‘s Statistical Analysis Center or
directly to the FBI‘s UCR program. However, not all police departments do this on a regular
basis as participation in the national UCR program is voluntary. The reasons for non-regular
participation are varied, but in some cases this is because the agency has relatively few crimes to
report on a monthly basis and therefore reports are accumulated and then submitted periodically
or annually. In developed climes, the majority of law enforcement agencies, however, do report
regularly to the UCR program, using either the Summary Reporting System (SRS) format or
using the National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS). Many police departments use the
data to issue their own reports on crime in their jurisdictions on an annual basis, and most states
issue annual reports based on the compilations of local agency crime reports that are sent to
them. These reports are then used to inform the public and government officials about local and
state levels of crime, and changes in the levels of crime over time. Aside from serving as a
general indicator of crime in their own communities, crime data compiled by state, local, and
other law enforcement agencies are often used for strategic decision-making and operational or
tactical purposes. Many police departments use what is referred to as a ―CompStat‖ approach in
which detailed departmental crime data are summarized by in-house crime analysis units and
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disseminated to police commanders (typically on a weekly basis). These data are used to discuss
the nature of emerging and continuing crime problems in different areas of the jurisdiction.
The purpose of ―CompStat‖ is to track crimes and the efforts used to deal with these crimes, and
to provide information that allows for better decision-making about tactical strategies for
addressing these problems. Another important aspect of CompStat meetings is that they provide
police commanders with greater managerial control over their field operations. However, it can
be argued with similar strength that the CompStat approach to police management has
drawbacks to temper its benefits—not the least of which a sort of ―negative quota‖ mentality that
comes from managing to crime counts, creating at least the appearance of an incentive to
manipulate or misreport crime incidences so as to curb the appearance of spikes of crime (Eterno
and Silverman, 2012). More fundamentally, not all police departments have the luxury of
dedicated crime analysis units—and even those that do face the difficult problem of putting
CompStat-type crime numbers in proper context, to understand the underlying dynamics behind
upticks or downticks of some crime types.
An important concern that was raised about police-based crime statistics is the timeliness of their
release from the FBI‘s UCR program. As advance as the U.S, Crime statistics typically are
released by the FBI in their annual publication Crime in the United States approximately 10
months after the collection year (for example, crime statistics for 2014 were released during the
last week of September 2015). Although police departments have crime data for their
jurisdictions as soon as they are compiled in their own data management systems, information
about crime in other jurisdictions is not available to them through the UCR program until much
later, thus precluding timely comparative assessments about how changes in their crime rates
may be related to problems occurring elsewhere. Moreover, the information available in the
UCR annual publication necessarily excludes details on the types of problems that may be
emerging because the data are reported in summary form, primarily consisting of the total counts
and rates for the eight index offenses (i.e., the eight major categories of violent and property
crime), rather than with the more expansive detail that the NIBRS system can provide (e.g.
offense categories, victim characteristics, etc.).
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3.2 FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL POLICY MAKERS
Policy makers at the local, state, and federal levels need accurate and timely data on crime to
inform budgetary decisions about the amount of resources needed to address crimes of various
types. Crime data are used to inform projections of the resources needed for criminal justice
agencies to investigate cases, prosecute and defend arrestees, supervise persons on probation and
parole, and incarcerate offenders in jails and prisons. In addition, policy makers may use crime
and victimization data to estimate the amount of resources needed for specific types of crime
victims (such as child abuse, intimate partner violence, and elder abuse victims), and grant
agencies often require victim service providers to use such data to evaluate the effectiveness of
their programs designed to reduce these crimes.
3.2.1 Legislative Uses
Federal, state, and local legislators often are provided with crime and justice data to assist them
with efforts to identify priority areas, design responsive legislation, and help make budgetary
decisions for law enforcement and justice agencies in specific locales. Reports based on these
data may come from numerous sources, including members of their constituencies, advocacy
groups, or research from state Statistical Analysis CentersSACs or other crime analysts. Because
of the overlap in data use by legislators and the others users noted here, only a few illustrative
examples of how these officials use crime data are provided. Customarily as it in the US,
Federal legislators often request crime information and related assessments from the Government
Accountability Office (GAO) to inform legislative issues, and reports from these requests are
made available on the GAO website. GAO reports cover a wide range of crime-related topics and
include assessments of the availability of data on specific crimes (for example, on sexual assault,
fraud risks in federal programs, and cybersecurity), the quality of some of the existing crime
data, the rigor of the methodologies used in research evaluations of crime- related programs, and
the state of the evidence about specific crime programs. Though these reports are often requested
by federal legislators, it is challenging to determine whether and how the findings in these
reports may have been used subsequently by legislators. It should be noted that when such
assessments are completed, the results may lead to well-founded decisions
3.2.2 Justice Assistance and Fund Allocation

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Policy formulation requires identifying problems, weighing the importance of those problems
based on their magnitude and impact, and developing policy approaches to address them. Policy
implementation involves making decisions for the appropriateness of the policy, encouraging
people to adopt that policy, and securing the resources necessary to carry it out. Accordingly, in
the crime and justice area, crime statistics play vital roles in both policy justification and fund
allocation.
3.3 PUBLIC SECTOR AND ACADEMIC RESEARCHERS
Use of crime data by researchers in both the public sector and academia is extensive and diverse.
Because this research covers a very large range of data uses and approaches, the discussion
below necessarily provides a very brief overview of its primary features with respect to available
crime data and gaps in existing data. In addition, public-sector researchers (such as those in
ministries/parastatals and other research organizations or public desks) and academic researchers
often work in collaboration with other users of crime data such as law enforcement agencies,
local, state, and federal agencies, businesses, and other groups, so there is considerable overlap
between their uses of crime data and uses by others.
3.3.1 Academic Researchers
Academic and public-sector research consists of both descriptive and multivariate analysis of
crime and victimization problems and their outcomes. Crime data are used at numerous levels of
analysis to describe the extent to which crime varies over time, across places (such as countries,
states, cities, neighbourhoods, and other areas), across organizations (such as schools,
businesses, and sectors of the economy), between individuals and groups, and how individuals‘
experiences with crime and victimization vary and change over the life-course. The type of data
used for the descriptive analyses of these variations necessarily depends on the research question
and the availability of crime data at the various levels of analysis. For example, studies of
national- level crime trends for major categories of crime must use UCR or NCVS data as they
are the world‘s two main indicators of crime, providing different types of information as well as
distinct trends during some time periods. Beyond describing trends in the major categories of
violence and property crime, researchers often examine these data with additional information
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from other sources to assess the association of crime rates with social, demographic, and
economic factors; criminal justice resources and practices; and changes in the law. Some
researchers have also attempted to forecast future rates of crime, though this is an area fraught
with significant challenges (National Research Council, 2009).
While studies of UCR (and NCVS) crime trends provide basic and essential information about
levels and changes in violent and property over time, researchers noted a wide range of crimes
that are not captured by these measurement systems. It is very difficult to determine, for
example, whether crimes against businesses and other organizations, the environment, or
government agencies have increased or decreased over time, and trends for some types of crimes
against persons are unknown as well (e.g., human trafficking, fraud). There are numerous
reasons why such information is difficult to obtain, but the lack of this basic information means
that current understandings of crime trends are incomplete and dominated by analyses of ―street
crimes‖ that can be more easily obtained because the reports are initiated by victims and local
police. Other types of crime (such as fraud) can have different detection rates and mechanisms,
and data for these types of incidents may only be available after investigations are completed.
When this is the case, the crime data are dependent on the level of investigation and the incidents
are only revealed when prosecutors proceed with charges of illegal activity.
Without additional information about investigation resources and processes, charge count data
provides information on crime that may be misleading in terms of both levels and trends in such
crimes. Another major component of public-sector and academic research combines data and
statistical models to infer how different factors and policies affect crime rates, and how crime
rates may, in turn, affect other important socioeconomic outcomes (such as neighbourhood
change and economic development). The unit of analysis for these types of studies also varies
and includes highly aggregated rates for places such as states, cities and neighbourhoods, but
may also be based on lower levels of aggregation or persons when the research is interested in
understanding how different treatment policies affect individuals‘ risk for future criminal
involvement. Some examples of these aggregate rate studies include research on the effects of
the death penalty on homicide rates (National Research Council, 2012), gun legislation on
county or state violence rates in America (National Research Council, 2005), and policing
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strategies on neighbourhood, block group, or street segment rates of crime (National Research
Council, 2004b; Weisburd et al., 2012).
In each of these types of studies, the need for geographic information about the location of the
incident is important, and with more targeted interventions, the geographic data for incidents of
crime needs to be more precise. Studies of program effects on individuals‘ offending typically
follow persons over time and use either arrest or other criminal justice system data as an
indicator of criminal involvement. Alternatively, because such data only include information on
detected criminal activity, some researchers track persons over time and administer self-report
surveys to obtain information about offending. With either approach, the researcher must be able
to link the person‘s crime data with previous information about the individuals and their
participation in the program under evaluation. The more detailed and reliable the crime
information, the more useful the results will be for policy evaluation purposes.
3.3.2 Policy Advocacy and Issue Constituencies
There are many policy advocates or issue constituencies that use crime and victimization data to
make arguments to advance their claims about the nature and extent of the problem they want to
see addressed. Some of these groups may be advocating for new data collections (such as in the
case of previously discussed efforts to obtain hate crime statistics), while others may be
advocating for changes in existing data collections to better capture the problem of concern. A
recent example of the latter instance can be found in the effort to redefine ―rape‖ incidents in the
UCR program. Advocates for this change argued that the long-standing definition used by the
FBI was highly restricted and did not capture the full range of sexual assaults, as it defined rape
as ―the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will.‖ Many police agencies
interpreted this to exclude sexual offenses that were criminal in their own jurisdictions, such as
those involving anal or oral penetration, or penetration with objects. In addition, the definition
excluded rapes committed against males. The new UCR definition of rape became effective on
January 1, 2013, and states that rape is ―penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus
with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the
consent of the victim.‖ Assessments of the difference in 2013 NIBRS counts of rape between the
legacy and the revised definition suggests that this change increased the number of incidents in
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that year by roughly 42 percent (https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-

theu.s/2013/crime-in-the-u.s.-2013/rape-addendum/rape_addendum_final).
Advocacy groups also request that other national data sources, such as the NCVS, be modified to
obtain data on their issue of concern, particularly when it is believed that victims of certain
crimes are unlikely to report the incident to the police. However, because the NCVS is a self-
report survey rather than a record-keeping mechanism by police departments, changes to the
survey are not often easily accommodated as each request would require unique considerations.
For example, if a new victimization rate is desired for a subgroup in the population that is
relatively small in size, the sampling framework of the NCVS necessarily limits the precision of
the rate that would be obtained and may not be feasible. In addition, the questions necessary to
identify the subgroup may be problematic in that respondents may not be willing to answer such
questions, such as would likely be the case to learn whether undocumented immigrants
experience higher rates of crime than citizens. For these types of reasons, the issues that are
necessary to consider for obtaining new crime and victimization data via the NCVS are different
from those that must be considered when changes are proposed for the UCR.
3.4 BUSINESS SECTOR
The business sector helps to generate statistics as well as uses of crime data which is unique from
those of other groups. Businesses may use UCR crime data to learn about the nature and extent
of problems in the cities or communities in which they operate or are considering for expansion
or relocation opportunities. Some businesses may use local crime data to target sales of their
products, such as burglar alarms or antitheft devices. But a large component of crime data use by
businesses is focused on analyzing and responding to their own crime information collection
systems to protect the businesses against thefts from customers and employees, as well as other
crimes including cyberattacks of various types. Discussions with business representatives
suggested that a large, but unknown proportion of the crimes against their companies is not
reported to police. Instead the data are used to monitor losses, improve security, and thwart
anticipated future incidents.
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One example of business ―crime‖ data that contains information distinct from that provided by
either the UCR or NCVS in America is the National Retail Federation‘s annual National Retail
Security Survey (NRSS). According to the 2015 survey of 100 senior loss-prevention executives,
inventory shrinkage in 2014 due to shoplifting, employee and other internal theft, paperwork
errors, and other factors amounted to approximately $44 billion. The two largest components of
this loss were attributed to shoplifting (38%) and employee/internal theft (35%). However,
unlike the UCR which provides larceny incident counts, these data estimate crime in terms of
inventory loss amounts that are more readily estimated than the number of distinct incidents or
persons involved in retail inventory loss.
3.5 NEWS MEDIA AND THE PUBLIC
A very large amount of crime information appears daily in news media outlets, most often as
descriptions of recent specific incidents, offenders, and victims, but also in the form of national
and local crime statistics to illustrate comparative crime rates and trends. For example, the
release of annual statistics from the UCR and NCVS by the U.S. Department of Justice is
typically covered in major news outlets, but increasingly local media outlets turn to their local
police departments to provide regular updates on recorded crimes. Several unique issues about
media and public use of crime statistics are noted here, including efforts to improve the
understanding of crime and appropriate uses of data to help better inform the public about crime
and related issues. Journalists and other media personnel often have been criticized for their
misuse or misinterpretation of crime statistics, and for failing to put recent unique or high-profile
incidents in broader temporal context. Without such contextual information, the most recent
newsworthy crime is often seen as an indicator of a new trend, and the continual overage of
crime in this way can contribute to the false impression that rates are continuously on the rise.
Media coverage of crime has helped in some instances to spur public criticisms of gaps in data
systems, and journalists have been responsible for producing pressure to make changes in crime
data records. Thus the need to continuously improve media coverage of crime and justice issues
and sensitisation of journalists about the implication of misleading crime reports in society
especially with the growing trend of online journalism. This will go a long way to strengthen the
relationship between the media and law enforcement agencies.
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4.0 Conclusion
There is strong demand for comprehensive, yet detailed, information, statistic or data about
crime by a broad range of users. The uses of crime and criminal justice data/statistics to inform a
variety of stakeholders (who are also users) are overwhelming. The availability of statistics in
this regard promotes the capacity of organizations to conduct evaluations of various criminal
justice programs and public policies. No single data collection can completely fulfil the needs of
every user and stakeholder, providing data with sufficient detail, timeliness, and quality to
address every interest of importance. Any structure devised to measure ―crime anywhere in the
world‖ should necessarily be conceptualized as a system of data collection efforts, and
informative details about the collection and quality of the distinct components in the data system
should be included to help ensure proper interpretation and use of the data.
5.0 Summary
In summary there are numerous users of crime statistics and as it is often said data is life, to
show that in one way or the other we cannot avoided relying and making use of data, we are also
involved in the whole data processes from start to finish because crime and victimisation are
constructs that exist between individuals, and among us all and the various institutions
connecting everyone directly or indirectly. Broadly speaking the uses of crime statistics include
operational and resource allocation decisions by law enforcement, local and state government
agencies, and businesses and other groups. Crime data are also a critical source of information
for program and policy evaluations by researchers in government, academia, and the public and
private sectors. They are also used by advocates of particular issues and by the public, and are
often seen as measures of accountability. For some of these purposes, existing crime data appear
to be adequate, though users often noted many ways that available data could be improved upon.
For many types of crime, however, the statistics are incomplete, lacking in consistency,
inadequate, or unavailable, especially when it comes to specifics about crime.
1. Crime data are used at numerous levels of analysis. List and discuss at least four of these.
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2. What are the problems associated with the use of the uniform crime reports (UCR)?
3. Write short notes on the following relating to crime statistics:
a. Timeliness,
b. Summary of data,
c. Police-based statistics
d. ―CompStat‖ approach
4. What are the uses and abuses of crime statistics?
5. What are the focuses of the business sector when crime statistics are used?
6. How does crime statistics contribute to policy advocacy?

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Federal Bureau of Investigation (1958).Uniform Crime Reports for the United States: Special
Issue, 1958. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
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americapress-event.
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department-summit-violent-crime.
http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/projects/pew-macarthur-results-first-initiative.
https://awionline.org/content/fbi-adds-animal-cruelty-category-nations-crime-report.
https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2013/crime-in-the-u.s.-2013/ rape-
addendum/rape_addendum_final.
National Research Council (2004b).Fairness and Effectiveness in Policing: The Evidence.
Committee to Review Research on Police Policy and Practices.Wesley Skogan and
Kathleen Frydl (Eds.), Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioural and Social
Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Research Council (2005).Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. Committee to
Improve Research Information on Data and Firearms.Charles F. Wellford, John V. Pepper,
and Carol V. Petrie (Eds.), Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioural and
Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Research Council (2009).Understanding Crime Trends: Workshop Report.Committee
on Understanding Crime Trends.Arthur S. Goldberger and Richard Rosenfeld (Eds.),
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Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioural and Social Sciences and
Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Research Council (2012).Deterrence and the Death Penalty.Committee on Deterrence
and the Death Penalty.Daniel S. Nagin and John V. Pepper (Eds.), Committee on Law and
Justice, Division of Behavioural and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press.
Police Executive Research Forum (2006, October).Chief Concerns: A Gathering Storm— Violent
Crime in America. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
Rosenfeld, R. (2007). Transfer the Uniform Crime Reporting program from the FBI to the
Bureau of Justice Statistics. Criminology and Public Policy 6(4), 825–833.
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MODULE 5
Unit 1 Scope and State of Nationally Compiled Crime Statistics: UCR Program and National
Unit 2 Basic Structure and Crime Coverage of the Base NCVS
Unit 3 The Wider Field Of ―Crime‖ Data
Unit 4 National Self-Report Surveys of criminal offending
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
Unit 1 Scope and State of Nationally Compiled Crime Statistics
1.0 Introduction
In the previous unit we have looked at the definition of ―What is ‗crime‘?‖ this questions will
continue to be our guide in this unit and invariably till the end of the module. This unit is
certainly driven by that question, too, though it is also motivated by a dual question—―What are
‗crime statistics‘?‖—that shares with the first question the vexing property that it seems simple
but is very complex to answer. The pat answer is that in every country in the 21st century there
two primary sources for nationally compiled statistics on the incidence of crime: the statistics
gathered by the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program and the results of the any National
Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), these may have different names in different countries they
are nevertheless the same in nature and structure. The former data are premised on the voluntary
contribution of information from local law enforcement agencies (primarily through state
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coordinators) to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the latter are derived from a
major sample survey sponsored by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) that directly interviews
people and households on their experiences with crime and violence as in the with the United
States of America.
These two sources span two major concepts or philosophies of data collection: The UCR series
are essentially administrative records, premised on the voluntary contribution of information
culled from the records of local law enforcement agencies, while the NCVS is a sample survey
involving direct interviews with people and households on their experiences with victimization
or crime. Ultimately, both data systems produce estimates of the incidence of crime, the UCR
emphasizing counts of incidents of various types that come to the attention of police (and serving
as an estimate of crime because it is also subject to nonreporting or misreporting by local
agencies) and the NCVS emphasizing rates of victimization within the broader population (and
overtly being an estimate based on inference from a carefully chosen sample of households). The
UCR and the NCVS are two principal sources of U.S. crime statistics, but are certainly not the
only data systems that are or might be sources of crime related statistics
This unit examine the state and scope of nationally compiled data in terms of coverage of
different crime types which has been added to the larger UCR and NCVS data collection
schemes described in the previous unit.
Students should be able to

 make sense of the fact that it is commonplace for parallel data collection systems with
sometimes strong substantive overlap to be established in other bureaus and departments
in every country.
 understand that there are indeed cases of multiple, ―competing‖ data collections using
different methodologies established to examine the same type of criminal (or socially
unacceptable) behaviour.
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 to identify some of the same crime types being covered by different data collections in an
administrative data compilation arrangement similar to the UCR Program, in a sample
survey of the same kind to the NCVS, or through other means.
Lastly for the sake of clarity, the treatment of these parallel data sources in this unit is meant to
be suggestive, not exhaustive of the full range of crime-related data resources. It is simply meant
to illustrate the complexity in identifying any single uniquely correct or comprehensive source of
―crime statistics‖
3.0 Main Content
Given the sweeping nature of crime statistics, it is natural to start with a description ofthe two
extant major resources for crime statistics, the UCR and the NCVS in detail in subsequent
chapter, before delving into parallel sources for some specific crime types. In all cases, there is
the need to do a classification of crime in order to guide identification of an eventual set of crime
indicators, in this unit we will limit ourselves to the descriptions of the coverage (topic/crime
type) and basic nature of the sources of crime statistics.
3.1 UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING (UCR) PROGRAM AND NATIONAL INCIDENT-

BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)
The origin of the Uniform Crime Reporting Program is recounted in Module 4; to recap in brief,
today‘s UCR Program compiles the voluntary data contributions from law enforcement agencies
(in most cases, monthly reports coordinated through a state-level coordinating agency) into a
national level resource. Data collection under the UCR Program began in 1929. Contribution of
data to the national UCR Program remains voluntary, as it has since the outset, although statute
in some countries require law enforcement agencies to report data to the state. The basic legal
authority for UCR data collection stems from a single line in legal authorization, in which the
Attorney General (as in the case in the US) is directed to ―acquire, collect, classify, and preserve
identification, criminal identification, crime, and other records. In extending UCR‘s scope to
include crimes known to federal law enforcement agencies, Congress noted that ―the term
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‗Uniform Crime Reports‘ means the reports‖ authorized under the Attorney General‘s record
collection powers ―and administered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation which compiles
nationwide criminal statistics for use in law enforcement administration, operation, and
management and to assess the nature and type of crime.
3.1.1 Core Components of the UCR Program

In common usage over several decades (and still continuing), generic references to ―UCR‖
information typically refer to only one part of the fuller suite of data collections that have
evolved over time under the UCR aegis. Such general references are typically to the Summary
Reporting System (SRS) of the UCR—the lineal successor of the original 1929 work that collect
summary counts of offenses known or reported to the police. The SRS is sometimes referenced
as ―Return A‖ data after the name of the form on which the local agencies are supposed to supply
monthly returns. In terms of content, it is important to note that SRS is intended only to cover the
small set of offenses dubbed ―Part I‖ crimes (and not those designated ―Part II‖ crimes; the
distinction is shown in Box 2.1 and discussed further below).
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We will describe the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) more completely
below; together, the SRS and NIBRS may be thought of as the central components of incidence-
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of-crime statistics in the UCR program. Originally envisioned as the next-generation core UCR
collection when it was crafted in the 1980s—that is, as a replacement for the SRS—the practice
over time has been to treat SRS and NIBRS as distinct, parallel entities, largely due to relatively
slow adoption of NIBRS standards for local data submissions. NIBRS is designed to span a
wider array of offenses than the SRS, though the NIBRS component of the broader UCR
program eschews the ―traditional‖ Part I and II terminology.
Detailed incident-level data and arrest information are collected in NIBRS for roughly 22 Group
A offense categories while only arrest information is collected for an additional 11 Group B
categories. Given their centrality, references to ―the UCR‖ in this unit focus exclusively on SRS
or NIBRS. In describing the content and crime coverage of the UCR program as a whole,
though, it is important to clarify that the UCR has evolved into a family of related data
collections, largely defined by the type or nature of underlying offenses. Other key components
of the fuller UCR program include the following:
a. The Supplementary Homicide Report (SHR) is a form that queries for additional detail—
on characteristics of the victim, on weaponry used (and other factors), on victim-offender
relationship, and the setting/context— that is expected to be completed for every
homicide. The rich contextual information available in the compiled SHR data exceeds
that expected of all crime types in the NIBRS incident-level data, and has fuelled
extensive research on the nature of the very important single crime type of homicide.
SHR data were first collected and published in 1962 (Federal Bureau of Investigation,
2004:2).
b. As described below in Box 2.3, additional crime types have been added to the UCR roster
over time. In most cases, this functionally takes the form of additional special-case forms
that are expected to be filled by local agencies, tallying the numbers of such incidents.
So, for instance, separate tallies of specific crimes types are expected to be submitted on
the Monthly Return of Arson Offenses Known to Law Enforcement and Monthly Return
of Human Trafficking Offenses. Similar to the SHR, additional detail on specific
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incidents are meant to be provided on separate Hate Crime Incident Reports and Cargo
Theft Incident Reports.
c. The basic unit for ―crime statistics‖ in SRS and NIBRS is an incident known to law
enforcement; for much of the UCR Program‘s lifetime, a parallel UCR component
switched the basic unit to arrests made by law enforcement and the ―clearance‖ or
resolution of cases through arrest. The full name associated with the collection is the Age,
Sex, and Race of Persons Arrested series, in which separate tallies are supposed to be
prepared for persons 18 years of age and over and for those under 18 years of age. Given
the nomenclature, these arrest data are sometimes referred to by the acronym ASR.
Arrestee data have been collected in the UCR Program since 1952 (Federal Bureau of
Investigation, 2004:2); arrests are to be recorded and counted for both Part I and Part II
offenses, while the ―Return A‖ SRS focuses on Part I offenses.
d. The Law Enforcement Officers Killed or Assaulted (LEOKA) collection is exactly as

described by its name, save for the clarification that it is intended to cover incidents in
which the officer is either in the line of duty or off-duty but performing functions that
would be normally expected of them when on duty. As has been made clear in the wake
of recent incidents involving the lethal application of force by law enforcement officers
in the course of arrest, there is no regular, comprehensive data collection covering ―use of
force‖ in the United States; the LEOKA collection addresses a subset of incidents where
harm is done to the police. The first UCR data on law enforcement officers killed on duty
were gathered in 1960 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2004:2).
A final component of the broader UCR program collects no offense or incident information at
all. Rather, it functions as a ―rolling census‖ of sorts of law enforcement personnel. On an annual
basis, UCR data providers are asked to submit the Number of Full-Time Law Enforcement
Employees, providing some rough information on size of law enforcement staffs (total and sworn
officers) and the resources available to some specific units within the individual agencies.
Though this particular sub-collection does not gather actual crime data, it does have some
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bearing on the final estimates of crime generated by the UCR. Size of a law enforcement agency,
whether in number of personnel or in population of the communities within the department‘s
jurisdiction, can play a role in imputation routines for handling missing data through reference to
―similar‖ agencies.
3.1.2 Crime-Type Coverage and the Hierarchy Rule in UCR Summary Reporting
Box 2.1 depicts the basic classification of crimes/offenses covered by the UCR Summary
Reporting System as of 2014. Contrasting it with the original Part I and Part II crimes outlined in
1929 (Box 1.2 in Module 4)—and looking over the cosmetic appearance of the 2014 Part I list
being expanded to include some subcategories (the reason for said expansion being described
below)—it is clear that change has occurred but at a vastly slower pace than might reasonably be
expected over many decades. Moreover, the changes that have been made have largely taken the
form of expanding crime types or making relatively modest additions, rather than revising
definitions.
When discussing the crime-type coverage of the UCR‘s Summary Reporting System, one must
inevitably describe what is probably the system‘s single most distinctive feature, as it is the one
that most starkly illustrates the ―Summary‖ nature of the data. This distinctive feature is what is
known as the Hierarchy Rule, which is invoked to determine the one—and only one—offense
type that is recorded for any particular incident. The order in which offenses are listed in the
UCR Part I classification is not accidental, and derives directly from the order in which they
were originally presented in 1929; the offense types are listed in a rough descending order of
severity while also differentiating between crimes against a person and crimes against property.
Box 2.2 presents the Part I listing again, with some expansion, in formally laying out the
Hierarchy Rule. As it was stated as a ―General Provision‖ in 1929 (International Association of
Chiefs of Police, 1929:34–35):
When several offenses are committed by one person at the same time, list as
the crime committed the one which comes first in the classification. For
example, one offense of robbery would be listed if both assault and robbery
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had been committed, because Robbery appears before Aggravated Assault in

the classification.
In this manner, single incidents occurring at the same time but involving multiple individual
offense types are generally collapsed in the SRS to count as only one offense. Box 2.2 describes
some exceptions to this general rule that have developed over the years.
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A second distinctive rule, known as the Separation of Time and Place Rule, also governs how—
and how many—offenses are tallied in the SRS. It, too, derives directly from a ―General
Provision‖ promulgated in the original 1929 UCR manual (International Association of Chiefs of
Police, 1929:35):
Offenses which follow in a more or less natural sequence but after an

appreciable length of time, such as a robbery following auto theft, should be
listed as separate offenses in their respective classes.
As currently operationalized (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2013b:26), the statement of the

rule actually addresses the inverse of separation of time and place. That is, it does not argue for
any minimum interval in time or space that would constitute a separation but rather defines
―same time and place‖ as occurrences in which ―the time interval between the offenses and the
distance between locations where they occurred is insignificant.‖ Generally, the rule defers to
investigative findings by law enforcement: If ―investigation deems the activity to constitute a
single criminal transaction,‖ then even incidents at different times and locations are to be treated
as single occurrences in the SRS.
3.1.3 National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
Problems with the relative inflexibility of UCR structures were already apparent by the early
1980s. After several calls for the creation of a new UCR program, the FBI and BJS formed a
joint task force in 1982 to oversee a study by Abt Associates Inc., which led to a major planning
conference in 1984 and ultimately to a final report, the Blueprint for the Future of the Uniform
Crime Reporting Program (Poggio et al., 1985). The Blueprint called for implementation of
―unit-record‖ data collection within a tiered structure: All agencies would be asked to submit
incident and arrest information in incident level detail, NIBRS covers a substantially broader
array of crime/offense types than the traditional SRS, as depicted in Table 2.1 below. Like the
traditional SRS, in which contributing agencies are expected to file both ―offenses known to
police‖ and arrest counts for Part I crimes but only arrest data for Part II crimes, NIBRS
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recognizes a distinction between ―Group A‖ and ―Group B‖ offenses. As in the SRS, only arrests
are to be reported for the Group B crimes while highly detailed incident-level data is supposed to
be filed for Group A crimes. A critical difference is that the list of Group A offenses (subject to
the most detailed reporting) is vastly longer than both the lists of Group B offenses and the list of
Part I offenses focused on by the SRS.
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149
150
3.1.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of UCR/NIBRS Coverage
From the particular lens of the program‘s coverage of crime types, we already characterized in
Module 4 what is simultaneously the UCR Program‘s most significant strength and weakness.
The problem with the list of crimes developed by the assembled law enforcement agencies is not
that it is uninformative—the original Part I crimes were chosen in large part for their salience to
the general public, and they remain serious events of interest today. Rather, the issues are that the
list of Part I crimes have so successfully ―defined‖—and limited—what is commonly meant by
―crime‖ and that the lists of both Part I and Part II crimes have remained so relatively invariant
over the years. More generally, the fundamental challenge of crime coverage in the UCR
Program‘s data collections is major uncertainty as to what information is really at hand. In the
case of the SRS, the problem returns to the language used that—the SRS really and necessarily
produces estimates of crime totals and rates. The historical branding of UCR tabulations as
Crime in a country contributes to a somewhat exaggerated sense of comprehensiveness and
absolute accuracy—for several reasons, not least of which is that the UCR logically cannot
encompass total crime because not all crime is reported to the police. In addition, the myriad
tables of the annual Crime in a country report each come with considerable fine print in
companion ―data declaration‖ and ―methodology‖ documents. So, the UCR data tables are
151
characterized in the report text and overview summaries as having impressive overall
participation rates.
As you can see the tables typically avoid mention of the extent to which individual law
enforcement agencies actually submitted a full 12 months‘ worth of data (or whether and how
many months of missing data had to be imputed), nor do they indicate whether all departments
provided data on all the types of crime in the UCR framework. In essence, the SRS tabulations
create the impression of being a complete census of crime activity, yet do nothing to suggest that
individual entries in the tables may have considerable variation due to nonresponse. This level of
uncertainty is undoubtedly elevated for the newer crimes—for example, arson, human
trafficking, and so forth. Likewise, in the case of NIBRS, the problem is even more acute
because adoption of the new reporting standards has been much slower than hoped. Alas, NIBRS
coverage is such that it does not suffer from the false impression of being fully comprehensive
and authoritative; NIBRS take-up, varying by state, is such that the accumulation of NIBRS data
cannot be said to be representative of the nation as a whole. Similarly, while NIBRS adds a
substantial number of new crime types to the mix, the relatively low take up rate is such that
NIBRS‘s strong potential for understanding crime in context remains largely unexplored by
researchers and unknown to the general public.
4.0 Conclusion
The complexity of statistics is further visualized and explained by the presentation in tables of
part I and II classification of crime. There is no doubt that crime statistics emanates from
criminal activities which is not static, neither is it easy to define. With the dynamics of crime in
scope and bound, there is always the need to classify and reclassify crime (which is also
problematic) in other for it to be easy for comprehension and outlive its usefulness for analysis
and impactful research and policy making.
5.0 Summary
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The state, scope and core components of the UCR Program of compiling statistics was typically
focused on as one among others in the compilation of national data on crime with regards to the
statistics (figures) that are often complex and dynamic, from one state to another, either in terms
of how they were compiled or how they are eventually recorded. Other times these changes may
be confusing if definitions of what constitute or characterise a crime and associated events and
methodologies used in compiling the data are not well defined and explained in terms of the
caveat involved. Similarly, this unit was able to capture the coverage of different typologies of
crime (part I and II) in the UCR overtime, those added to the larger UCR and NCVS data
collection. Cases of multiple, ―competing‖ data collections using different methodologies
established to examine the same type of criminal were identified as one among many problems
facing statistics and interpretation of nationally compiled database. Thus the introduction of the
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) envisioned as the next-generation core
UCR—that is, as a replacement for the traditional Summary Report System SRS to span a wider
array of offenses.

1. What are the Core Components of the UCR Program?
2. Why is the SRS often referenced as ―Return A‖
3. Identify the major limitation of the SRS
4. List at least three (3) each of Part I‖ and ―Part II‖ crimes.
5. What are the major issues facing the basic unit for ―crime statistics‖ in SRS and NIBRS?
6. What does the statistics on Law Enforcement Officers Killed or Assaulted (LEOKA)
addresses beyond the data?
7. What does Hierarchy Rule in UCR connote?
Aos, S. and E. Drake (2013). Prison, Police, and Programs: Evidence-Based Options thatReduce
Crime and Save Money. Doc. No. 13-11-1901. Olympia: Washington State Institute for
Public Policy.
153
Banks, D. and T. Kyckelhahn (2011, April).Characteristics of Suspected Human Trafficking

Incidents, 2008–2010. NCJ 233732. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau
of Justice Statistics.
Eterno, J. A. and E. B. Silverman (2012).The Crime Numbers Game: Management by
Manipulation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Poggio, E., S. Kennedy, J. Chaiken, and K. Carlson (1985, May).Blueprint for the Futureof the
Uniform Crime Reporting Program—Final Report of the UCR Study.NCJ
098348.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Warner, S. B. (1931). Survey of Criminal Statistics in the United States, pp. 19–147. InNational
Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement (1931).
Wines, F. H. (1896). Report on crime, pauperism, and benevolence in the United States atthe
eleventh census: 1890. Part I, Analysis, and Part II, General Tables. Washington,DC:
Government Printing Office.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2004). UCR: Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook.Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2013a, January 17). Criminal Justice InformationServices
(CJIS) Division Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program—National Incident-Based
Reporting System (NIBRS) User Manual.Version 1.0. Washington, DC: U.S.Department
of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2013b). Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS)Division
Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program—Summary Reporting System (SRS)User
Manual. Version 1.0. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, FederalBureau of
Investigation.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2015, Fall). Crime in the United States, 2014. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Online
publication/compilation, accessible at https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-
u.s/2014/crime-in-the-u.s.-2014.
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Unit 2
Contents
4.0 Introduction
6.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
With the recurring fact, that most crime and victimisations are not reported in the UCR system,
that is there is far more crime than ever is reported to the police (and so counted in the existing
UCR data), and the misses were hardly small: For example in some American cities, crime
types, UCR/police-report totals were one-half or one- third the levels suggested by the survey,
suggesting that in some cities ―only one-tenth of the total number of certain kinds of crimes are
reported to the police‖ (President‘s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of
Justice, 1967:v). The commission‘s report led directly to the creation of what is now the Office of
Justice Programs (and then known as the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration [LEAA]),
and fully realized versions of the commission‘s prototype studies—the national representative
survey, along with a survey of businesses and a few city-specific surveys—quickly became part
of the new unit‘s transmit. Formally, the full-fledged national survey (first fielded in 1972,
sponsored by what developed into BJS with data collection by the U.S. Census Bureau) was but
one part of the broader National Crime Surveys (plural) program, though it rapidly came to be
known by the NCS abbreviation. However, an early National Research Council (1976) review of
the program advised channelling resources into the national survey and scrapping the business-
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and city-specific components; upon implementation of this advice, the survey continued under
the National Crime Survey (singular) banner. Several years later, the first wave of improvement
and refinement took hold: A broad redesign consortium worked through a comprehensive
overhaul of the survey (in particular, improvements in its routine for a ―screening‖ interview, as
described below [Biderman et al., 1986]). Following that redesign, it was also decided to rename
the survey as the NCVS to denote its new approach. Data collection under the redesigned
protocols began in 1992 and continued for over a decade, when the time came for another
reappraisal—this time, inspired at least equally by fiscal realities as by the desire for
measurement improvement.

Generally, this unit intend to show to the student the inexhaustibility of both the UCR/NCVS as
model/instruments of statistics gathering that must be complimentary and at the same time that
will still not be able to give us all the necessary crime statistics in the society. For the fact that
society comprises of so many institutions and activities that are changing overtime, the need of
supplementary surveys must be brought in. at the end students are expected to comprehend:
: the goals driving the construction of the NCVS as a survey tool.
1. The importance of the NCVS Supplements.
2. The fundamental structure and consequences of NCVS and lastly
3. the principal strength and weakness of the NCVS
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Basic Structure and Crime Coverage of the Base NCVS
Throughout the NCVS various distinct ―lives‖ as a data collection program, the NCVS has
maintained a fundamental structure—consisting (stated in simplified form) of personal
interviews between a Census Bureau field representative and all individual members of a
household age 12 and above, each beginning with a ―screener‖ section meant to trigger recall
(and count) of individual incidences of violence and followed by completion of a detailed
―incident report‖ interview for each incident enumerated in the screener section. An important
feature of this structure is that the use of crime-type labels and legalistic language is avoided to
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the greatest extent possible in the interview: neither the survey respondent nor the field
representative is called upon to label a particular offense or incident as a robbery, an aggravated
assault, etc. Instead, the survey‘s intent is to collect descriptive information on and basic
attributes of the incident, in order to permit crime type(s) to be derived in post hoc data
preparation. Invoking the language that we will use later in this report, it may be said that the
base NCVS uses a rough attribute-based classification, wherein crime types are derived
algorithmically based on the presence/absence or levels of a set of variables (e.g., whether the
incident included an element of taking property from a victim or whether entry to a site was
achieved by force) rather than matching the letter of a legal definition. In combination with the
reasons for the survey‘s creation, the NCVS‘s fundamental structure has major consequences for
the types of crimes covered by the survey:
1. The survey/personal interview about individual victimization is uniquely suited to

measure some crime types that are not well handled by police report data—but rules out
coverage of some crimes and complicates others: The canonical crime type made out-of-
scope by the nature of the NCVS is homicide, inasmuch as the victim logically cannot
provide details about that particular incident. But, more subtly, survey designers
recognized from the outset that the personal interview context created inherent
difficulties in measuring crimes where the distinction between ―victim‖ and ―offender‖ is
blurry or nonexistent. Ennis (1967:3) commented that ―people are simply not going to
report their participation in illegal activities ranging from violation of gambling, game, or
liquor laws to abortion or the use of narcotics. Nor is it desirable for the survey to be used
as an instrument of confession‖ of misdeeds. The NCVS‘s current technical
documentation (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2014b:5) explicit articulation of ―crimes not
covered by the NCVS‖ expands upon the listing of these borderline offense types, ―such
as public drunkenness, drug abuse, prostitution, illegal gambling, con games, and
blackmail,‖ adding also that the survey at present does not measure ―kidnapping, verbal
threats over the phone, and other forms of crime involving social media, arson, fraud,
vandalism, drunk driving, and commercial entities.‖
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2. A major initial (and ongoing) objective of the NCVS is to complement the UCR, which
requires consistency with UCR definitions and protocols: National Research Council
(2008:§ 2–A) provides more extensive detail on the historical goals and objectives of the
NCVS, but it is fair to say that two goals dominated the early construction of the survey.
The first was a rare and revolutionary (both, for the time) focus on the victim‘s
perspective on acts that had almost invariably been viewed from the offender or incident
standpoint. But equally important was the goal for the survey to measure ―total‖ crime,
not just that which is reported to police—and the contrast with the level of crime that is
reported/known to the police only works effectively if the two programs are measuring
roughly the same thing. Similarity in content and concept permits periodic assessment of
the extent of and continued pervasiveness of the ―dark figure‖ of crime that goes
unreported to law enforcement. For instance, Langton et al. (2012) analyzed NCVS
responses for 2006–2010 to conclude that just over half (52 percent) of violent
victimizations go unreported, with crime-specific non-reporting rates ranging from 17
percent for motor vehicle theft to 65–67 percent for household theft and for rape and
sexual assault. The analysis was based solely on NCVS response data, not on any kind of
match between NCVS and UCR information—but continuity in concept does permit
meaningful discussion of differences between the different sources.
For emphasis sake, both the NCVS and the UCR have roots in questions of the effectiveness
of policing and law enforcement, which affected their construction and prompted a similarity
in content. The full-fledged NCVS began under the aegis of the LEAA, an entity that (as its
name suggests) was to provide assistance to local law enforcement agencies; the LEAA‘s
original statistical mandate (under which the survey was developed) was to ―collect, evaluate,
publish, and disseminate statistics and other information on the condition and progress of law
enforcement in the several States in America‖ (in the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe
Streets Act of 1968; 82 Stat. 207; emphasis added)—not unlike the reference to ―police
statistics‖ in the first mention of UCR data in statute. Not surprisingly, then, developers
chose to principally focus the NCVS on the same crime types measured under the UCR
summary, with definitions and concepts carrying over to the survey. Only later—in 1979, the
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new agency was directed ―to collect and analyze information concerning criminal
victimization, including crimes against the elderly, and civil disputes,‖ and moreover to
construct ―data that will serve as a continuous and comparable national social indication of
the prevalence, incidence, rates, extent, distribution, and attributes of crime‖ and related
factors (93 Stat. 1176).
The upshot of these two lines of arguments is that the general list of crimes covered by the base
NCVS—summarized in Box 2.4 below—looks remarkably similar to, and roughly follows, the
Hierarchy Rule listing of the UCR Summary Reporting System.
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The NCVS is an interesting hybrid in that it both employs and eschews a rigid hierarchical rule.
On a quarterly basis, a crime type is allocated to each Incident Report in the incoming NCVS
data (which would have previously undergone basic editing and coding performed on a monthly
cycle). ―Incidents that cannot be classified according to the crime classification algorithm (e.g.,
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arson, confidence games, and kidnapping) are deleted from the file,‖ and the level-of-seriousness
algorithm—embodied in the final list in Box 2.4—is used to identify the single most serious
offense associated with an Incident Report (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2014b:47). It is that
single, most serious offense that is used for basic tabulation and presentation of the survey‘s
results. However, the public-use NCVS data files contain at least a secondary offense code—as
well as the attribute and variable data used to derive the typeof-crime codes—so that
researchers may examine and classify incidents in a very flexible manner.
As a survey, the level of detail that can be gathered by the base NCVS is immense, bounded only
by constraints in comprehension in posing questions to respondents and restrictions against
making the interviews unduly burdensome. Yet, at the same time, the survey fundamentally
queries respondents about events that may be enormously consequential in people‘s lives but that
are—in the statistical sense, and fortunately in the societal sense—relatively rare events. For any
given individual respondent, asked to report incidences of crime and violence in the past 6
months, the chances that the interview will yield zero ―incident reports‖ are considerable, simply
because there is no such activity for the respondent to report. Estimation based on the survey
requires finding occurrences of incidents of a particular type and making inference from that
sample—and so, of necessity, two competing dynamics operate at once. The flexibility of the
survey‘s content makes it possible to articulate very fine categories of crime, with different
attributes such as weapon use or the value of property involved in an incident—at the expense of
precision and volatility in estimates. Simultaneously, NCVS publications focus on coarser
constructs such as all ―violent crime,‖ all ―property crime,‖ or all acts of serious violence
between family members, because those broader categories (and changes over time within them)
can be estimated more precisely.
Over the years, BJS has acquired several direct mandates through Congressional action to collect
certain information on criminal victimization in the NCVS. For instance, the Crime Victims with
Disabilities Awareness Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-301) directed that the NCVS produce measures of
―the nature of crimes against individuals with developmental disabilities‖ and ―the specific
characteristics of the victims of those crimes,‖ which led to the eventual addition of several
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questions to the survey (including one asking the respondent to judge whether any physical or
mental impairment provided an opportunity for their victimization). Two years later, the
Protecting Seniors from Fraud Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-534) explicitly mandated that BJS, ―as part
of each National Crime Victimization Survey,‖ collect information on ―crimes targeting or
disproportionately affecting seniors,‖ including ―crime risk factors for seniors‖ such as the ―time
and locations at which crimes victimizing seniors are most likely to occur.‖ This mandate, in
part, led to the eventual fielding of an Identity Theft Supplement to the NCVS for the first time
in 2008.
Most recently, in 2015 as part of the funding for the American Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS),
‗honour violence‘ was included to the list of National Crime Victimization Survey, though
without specifying explicitly what is meant by ―honour violence.‖ One common interpretation of
honour violence is punishment for disobeying or disrespecting family dignity, particularly acts
against women or girls in families. But the range of interpretations could also extend to ―stand
your ground‖/self-defence laws. Even under a more generic definition of ―honour violence‖ as
violence committed to avenge a perceived slight to personal or family dignity, the explicit
designation of the NCVS as the vehicle is surprising, both because construction of such a
measure requires strong speculation by victims about the motives of their attackers and because
the most extreme variant of honour violence (honour killing) would be out-of-scope for the
NCVS (like all homicide).
3.2. NCVS Supplements

The phrasing ‗NCVS Supplements‘ and Box 2.4 (Basic Crime Types/Victimization Rates
Estimated by National Crime Victimization Survey), speaking of the coverage of crimes in the
―base‖ NCVS, is deliberate, because a great strength of the NCVS is its capacity to
accommodate supplemental modules of questions—focused on different possible crime types or
on the incidence of crime within unique populations—that can broaden the survey‘s content.
Typically conducted with sponsorship from some other federal agency, some of these topic
supplements have been purely one-shot efforts while others have been conducted on a somewhat
more regular schedule, and the supplements have also provided a forum for survey questions and
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content to make their way into the base NCVS interviews. Some of the supplements that have
their way into the NCVS are:
a. Police-Public Contact Survey (PPCS) that asks citizens about the prevalence and
characteristics of their contacts with law enforcement personnel and other parts of the
criminal justice system (including such settings as traffic stops). The PPCS might not
yield estimates of new/different crime types, but it is a rich potential source of
information for understanding crime (and reaction to it) in broader context.
b. School Crime Supplement, conducted in collaboration with the National Center for
Education Statistics. The supplement prompts 12–18-year-old school attendees to
describe experiences of victimization; accordingly, it is uniquely poised to gather
systematic survey-based information about juvenile victimizations by bullying or gang-
related violence and the prevalence of drugs in the school environment.
c. Identity theft survey/supplement: pioneering questions related to identity theft were

added to the NCVS questionnaire, providing the basis for some of the first quantitative
measures of certain types of fraud (Baum, 2007) intended to estimate prevalence of
several variants of identity theft, ranging from unauthorized use of credit card or
checking accounts to misuse of personal information to obtain benefits or renting
housing. Significantly, the supplement queried for information on the time and resources
necessary for victims of identity theft to resolve the problems, and on whether the
incidents were reported to credit card companies/financial institutions or to law
enforcement (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2014b; Langton and Planty, 2010; National
Research Council 2008).
d. the Supplemental Victimization Survey—which served as the most extensive survey yet
conducted to assess the level and characteristics of criminal harassment generally and the
specific offense of stalking. The generic title was chosen to avoid direct mention of the
focus on ‗stalking‘ - to avoid biasing the responses of individuals and the subsequent
estimates (Baum et al., 2009; Catalano, 2012),
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e. Workplace Risk Supplement is one among several other supplements that have delved
into specific crime types or the effects of crime on special populations to examining
nonfatal violence in the workplace.
3.3 Conceptual Strengths and Weaknesses of NCVS Crime Coverage

In terms of the types of crime for which the NCVS can generate measures, and as a data
collection platform in general, the principal strength and weakness of the NCVS can be stated
simply and directly. Its principal strength is its flexibility, both analytically and in terms of
content. It is unique in its capacity to generate estimates using multiple units of analysis,
including incident-, person-, and household-levels of analysis. To ―emulate‖ and facilitate
comparison with the UCR, NCVS estimates can be analyzed at the incident-level, assessing
levels and rates of change in incidence of crimes of particular types (not to mention that it can be
used to generate different metrics of ―harm‖ induced by such crimes other than the raw count).
One of the survey‘s original hallmarks was that it shed light on the commonly overlooked
perspective of the individual-person victim, and can be used to study individual reactions to and
losses due to crime. But the nature of its collection also enables the use of the household as the
unit of analysis, and so can start to generate insights into household and family effects of crime
and violence. Finally, the NCVS can provide a unique perspective on criminal offending. In its
incident reports, the NCVS asks victims of crime about the number and character of criminal
incidents they experience, gathering information about what victims know about the offenders
involved in incidents. Certainly, there are limits to which victims know or can know with
precision the motives or characteristics of offenders, but some useful information is possible,
particularly for offenses involving face-to-face contact between victim and offender.
Accordingly, though it is best known for its victimization measures, the NCVS (and its
precursor, the NCS) has been used to construct crime incidence rates (by different characteristics
of offender) independent of those gathered in police-report data. Such data have been used to
study the similarities and differences in criminal offending as estimated by police-report data and
by victim survey data that include crimes not reported to the police (see, e.g., Biderman and
Lynch, 1991; Lynch and Addington, 2007b; McDowall and Loftin, 1992). The NCVS also has
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been used to produce rates of violent criminal offending over time, from 1973 to the present, for
males and females (e.g., Lauritsen et al., 2009) and for persons of specific race and ethnic groups
(e.g., Steffensmeier et al., 2011), and for some age groups such as juveniles (e.g., Lynch, 2002).
In addition, trends in these survey data have been compared to trends in police estimates of crime
for some types of offenses across a limited number of areas, such as metropolitan places (e.g.,
Lauritsen and Schaum, 2005) and urban, suburban, and rural places (Berg and Lauritsen, 2015;
National Research Council, 2009a:28).
3.4 Weakness of the NCVS

However, the principal weakness of the NCVS is that:
1. its flexibility can only be pushed so far: It is designed to be a nationally representative
survey, and so is best suited to produce national-level estimates. It is, moreover, a survey
principally for budgetary reasons.
2. The smaller sample sizes, combined with the underlying premise of querying for details
of statistically rare events meant that, the NCVS was falling short of its basic goal to
estimate the level and annual rate of change in criminal victimization.
3. The delay in compilation does not give room for annual data comparison, as it takes over
a for the statistics to be well compiled and analysed
It should be noted clearly that these weaknesses are not yet completely remedied, but that BJS is
currently engaged in efforts to further address them: refining analysis and sample in order to
derive some subnational estimates from the NCVS data and, within tight budgetary parameters,
having made substantial effort to restore some part of the sample size cuts. In short, then, it
remains true that the NCVS‘s principal weakness is that it is sharply limited in its capacity for
highly detailed annual geographic, demographic, or crime-type disaggregation, simply because a
large number of events must occur in the data in order to yield reliable estimates. Individual
states, and perhaps some large law enforcement departments, have fielded their own
victimization surveys, but the NCVS sample is not designed to produce estimates of crime at the
local-jurisdiction level that would be most useful to a variety of users. NCVS estimates certainly
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cannot be used for making comparisons to police-report-based estimates for a particular

(arbitrarily small) city or police department precinct.
4.0 Conclusion
There is strong demand for comprehensive, yet detailed, information, statistic or data about
crime by a broad range of users. The uses of crime and criminal justice data/statistics to inform a
variety of stakeholders (who are also users) are overwhelming. The availability of statistics in
this regard promotes the capacity of organizations to conduct evaluations of various criminal
justice programs and public policies. No single data collection can completely fulfil the needs of
every user and stakeholder, providing data with sufficient detail, timeliness, and quality to
address every interest of importance. Any structure devised to measure ―crime anywhere in the
world‖ should necessarily be conceptualized as a system of data collection efforts, and
informative details about the collection and quality of the distinct components in the data system
should be included to help ensure proper interpretation and use of the data.
5.0 Summary
This unit examines the general list of crimes covered by the base of NCVS as summarized in
Box 2.4 and throws highlight on the Hierarchy Rule listing of the UCR Summary Reporting
System which inform of us that in a multiple crime situation involving the same persons, the
most severe of all should be recorded. In the same manner the conceptual strengths and
weaknesses of NCVS as Crime Coverage and statistical were discussed, of which it was
highlighted that in all the combination of the UCR and NCVS programmes and information
gathering are not exhaustive, thus the need for other supplementary addendum to capture more
information hitherto not captured either in the UCR/NCVS instrument.
1. Highlight and discuss the two goals that dominated the early construction of the NCVS as
a survey tool.
2. List at least three of these NCVS Supplements and state their importance.
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3. What are the major consequence of the NCVS‘s fundamental structure?

4. What are the principal strength and weakness of the NCVS?
5. What do you understand by NCVS Supplements?
Baum, K. (2007, November). National Crime Victimization Survey: Identity Theft, 2005. NCJ
219411. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Baum, K. (2007, November). National Crime Victimization Survey: Identity Theft, 2005. NCJ
219411. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Baum, K., S. Catalano, M. R. Rand, and K. Rose (2009, January). National Crime Victimization
Baum, K., S. Catalano, M. R. Rand, and K. Rose (2009, January). National Crime Victimization
Berg, M. T. and J. L. Lauritsen (2015). Telling a similar story twice? NCVS/UCR convergence
in serious violent crime rates in rural, suburban, and urban places (1973– 2010). Journal of
Quantitative Criminology, 1–27.
Biderman, A. D. and J. P. Lynch (1991). Understanding Crime Incidence Statistics: Why the
UCR Diverges from the NCS. Research in Criminology. New York: Springer Verlag
Biderman, A. D., D. Cantor, J. P. Lynch, and E. Martin (1986).Final Report of Research and
Development for the Redesign of the National Crime Survey.Prepared for the Bureau of
Justice Statistics. Washington, DC: Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (2014b, September). National Crime Victimization Survey: Technical
Documentation. NCJ 247252. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of
Justice Statistics.
Catalano, S. (2012, September). Stalking Victims in the United States—Revised. NCJ 224527.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice
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Langton, L. and M. Planty (2010, December). National Crime Victimization Survey Supplement:
Victims of Identity Theft, 2008. NCJ 231680. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Lauritsen, J. L. and R. Schaum (2005). Crime and Victimization in the Three Largest
Metropolitan Areas, 1980–1998. NCJ 208075. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Lauritsen, J. L., K. Heimer, and J. P. Lynch (2009). Trends in the gender gap in violent
offending: New evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey. Criminology 47,
361–400.
Lynch, J. P. (2002). Trends in Juvenile Violent Offending: An Analysis of Victim Survey Data.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Lynch, J. P. and L. A. Addington (2007a). Conclusion. In J. P. Lynch and L. A. Addington
(Eds.), Understanding Crime Statistics: Revisiting the Divergence of the NCVS and UCR,
Cambridge Studies in Criminology, Chapter 11. New York: Cambridge University Press.
McDowall, D. and C. Loftin (1992).Comparing the UCR and NCVS over time. Criminology 30,
125–132.
National Research Council (2008).Surveying Victims: Options for Conducting the National
Crime Victimization Survey.Panel to Review the Programs of the Bureau of Justice
Statistics.Robert M. Groves and Daniel L. Cork (Eds.), Committee on National Statistics
and Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioural and Social Sciences and
Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Steffensmeier, D., B. Feldmeyer, C. Harris, and J. Ulmer (2011). Reassessing trends in black
violent crime, 1980–2008: Sorting out the ―Hispanic effect‖ in Uniform Crime Reports
arrests, National Crime Victimization Survey offender estimates, and U.S. prisoner counts.
Criminology (49), 197–251.
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Unit 3: THE WIDER FIELD OF ―CRIME‖ DATA
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The NCVS and the UCR Program‘s data collections is omnibus in terms of their coverage of
crime and related topics. They are not fully comprehensive over the full extent of ―crime,‖ yet
each does still cover some considerable terrain, with the intent of collecting information in a
standard way. Yet crime, and related behaviour, is of sufficient public importance that numerous
other data collections have emerged over the years, to cover some very specific offense types in
a more detailed manner or to focus attention on a specific victim (or offender) population group
in more detail than is possible in the more omnibus, nationally compiled crime datasets. These
data systems are not routinely thought of as being part of the nation‘s crime statistics system
but— nonetheless—are sources that might serve as sources of indicators of some types of crime.
The data collections that touch on some aspect of ―crime‖ comprise a very rough patchwork—
the inevitable result of different data resources being developed for different purposes, to cover
different constituencies or populations, as has been the developmental path for national statistics
generally.
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This unit basically intends to inform students that there are wider field of ―crime‖ data, targeted
at exhuming information that have been covered or overshadowed by the summaries in UCR and
the NCVS. Among these are statistics of :
 crime in and around secondary and tertiary institutions
 crime and victimization in a closed/total institution like the military
 law enforcement, investigations, punitive measures and justice (often not observed by
the public)
 fire incidents, nature, trends, losses, compensation etc
 child abuse and neglects in society
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Law-Enforcement and Public-Safety Based Sources of Crime Data: Crime on College and
University Campuses
A typical example of crime data from Postsecondary education institutions began in the US as
result of the rising crime and insecurities in the 1990s peculiar secondary and tertiary settings.
This involves the compiling and regularly disclosing of statistics on crime and security on
campuses. The reporting is effectively mandatory on most institutions because it was made a
condition for institutions‘ eligibility for federal student financial aid Funds (scholarship/bursary).
In addition to required statements on campus security procedures, the 1990 law mandated that
occurrences of six types of crime—the UCR Part I offenses of murder, rape, robbery, aggravated
assault, burglary, and motor vehicle theft, albeit not explicitly labelled as such—be tallied for the
current and the two preceding school years, to include ―offenses reported to [either] campus
security authorities or local police agencies.‖ In addition, the law directed that arrest statistics be
collected regarding on-campus liquor law, drug abuse, and weapon possession violations.
Though, written to include offenses handled by law enforcement in the communities surrounding
college campuses. The campus crime reporting law vested collection authority directly in the
U.S. Department of Education, where it continues to be operated by the Office of Postsecondary
Education (OPE). Eight years later, the crime reporting provisions were revised and expanded,
and renamed in memory of Lehigh University freshman Jeanne Clery, who was murdered in her
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campus residence hall room in 1986 (P.L. 105-244, 112 Stat. 1742). In terms of crime covered,
the new Clery Act (Formally, the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and
Campus Crimes Statistics Act; codified at 20 USC § 1092(f) with companion U.S. Department of
Education rules for compliance at 34 CFR § 668.46) expanded the list of reportable offenses to
include manslaughter (distinct from murder) and replaced ―rape‖ with ―sex offenses, forcible or
nonforcible.‖
The act also paralleled the structure of the Hate Crime Statistics Act and directed that the offense
counts be disaggregated to include crimes ―in which the person is intentionally selected because
of the actual or perceived race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, or disability of the
victim.‖ (Simultaneously, arson was added to the list of reportable offenses and the arrest counts
on liquor, drug, or weapon possession charges were made subject to past two - year reporting,
but none of these were made subject to the hate crime categorization).
In terms of crime coverage, then, the campus crime statistics collected under the Clery Act are
closely patterned after the UCR Summary Reporting System, with some additions directed by the
enabling law. That said, OPE‘s website for dissemination of the data (http://ope.ed.gov/security/)
takes care to caution users against directly comparing UCR figures with the OPE compiled data,
because the latter includes a mixture of data from local law enforcement agencies (which should
report data to UCR) and campus security forces (which may not be so obligated). The Clery Act
data also differ from the UCR and other traditional crime statistics programs in that their primary
means of dissemination is dictated by law: The same law that requires the data to be collected
mandates that an annual security report be published and disclosed/disseminated by all the
individual schools to not just current students and employees but to ―any applicant for enrolment
or employment upon request‖ (20 U.S.C. § 1092(f)(1)). There is not, however, a standalone
document akin to Crime in the United States that draws inference from the nationally compiled
data. In addition to the ―data analysis cutting tool‖ on the OPE‘s website, the Clery Act data are
accessible through the National Center for Education Statistics‘ College Navigator interface
(https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/). The above can also be domesticated in gathering
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statistics in secondary and tertiary institutions especially with recourse to the incessant rise in
cultism and gang violence.
3,2.Defense Incident-Based Reporting System (DIBRS) (Applicable to Military/paramilitary

institutions)
Events in the military are often not disclosed in the open. The military as a closed institution is
encumbered shrouded in secrecy. However over the years with the new paradigm shift requiring
the need for the civil-military relation and cooperation, it is gradually becoming an open
institution in some countries, again the US military stands out. Members of the U.S. armed
forces, personnel at U.S. military installations, and enemy combatants and prisoners in military
custody (This is a highly simplified version of the description of all persons governed by the
Uniform Code of Military Justice, including detailed discussion of what exactly it means to be a
―member‖ of the armed forces;) are subject to the adjudication processes outlined in the Uniform
Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), comprising Title 10, Chapter 47 of the U.S. Code. Subchapter
X of the UCMJ lists a battery of ―punitive measures‖—in essence, a set of sentencing guidelines
dictating what offenses are governed by a court-martial and which incur other penalties; in so
doing, the UCMJ lays out an array of crime types unique to the military context, as described in
Box 2.5. below:
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174
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As mentioned above in unit 2, the enactment of the Uniform Federal Crime Reporting Act of
1988 did not result in much increased reporting to the UCR Program—but it did partially spur
the development of what would become the Defense Incident-Based Reporting System (DIBRS).
DIBRS was principally developed within the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) to coordinate
and bring order to the inputs from the numerous law enforcement agencies that serve within and
support the functions of the nation‘s armed services. But a central data repository system also
became essential to meet a number of legal mandates—not just reporting to the FBI under the
Uniform Federal Crime Reporting Act, but also to satisfy recordkeeping requirements imposed
by the Victims‘ Rights and Restitution Act of 1990 and the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention
Act. On October 15, 1996, DoD published Directive 7730.47, ―Defense Incident-Based
Reporting System (DIBRS),‖ to introduce the system and implement legal requirements, and to
enable responsiveness to anticipated congressional and DoD information needs. Per a technical
document regarding the system (U.S. Department of Defense, 2010), DoD areas with
responsibility for populating and reporting to DIBRS run the gamut of the internal military
justice system:
 Law enforcement: general police operations under the broader DoD aegis, such as those
conducted by each military service‘s military police unit, by the Pentagon Police, as well
as by Defense agency civilian police;
 Criminal investigations: investigations conducted by the Air Force Office of Special

Investigations, the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, or other criminal investigative
organizations within DoD;
 Command actions: case dispositions resulting from command authority or referral for
judicial action;
 Judicial functions: proceedings conducted through military legal offices and courts
responsible for prosecuting DoD offenders, and the dispositions of courts-martial; and
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 Corrections: actions conducted at military correctional facilities and by persons

responsible for DoD employees convicted of a crime and sentenced to imprisonment.
DIBRS also is meant to enable the Department of Defense to track a criminal incident from
initial allegation through final disposition. It includes data segments on the law enforcement,
criminal investigation, judicial, and corrections phases. These segments from the later phases of
the military justice process have substantially more missing data than those segments required
for NIBRS. Contributions to DIBRS from within DoD are mandatory, in contrast to the
voluntary participation of states and localities in NIBRS, suggesting coverage issues for the core
data elements may be less severe. A DoD Inspector General report in late 2014 noted that ―10
years of DoD criminal incident data have not been provided to the FBI for inclusion in the
annual uniform crime reports‖ (U.S. Department of Defense, Inspector General, 2014). As of
August 2015, DoD remains in the process of obtaining FBI certification for DIBRS to clear the
way for transmittal of its criminal incident data for inclusion in NIBRS as required by the
Uniform Federal Crime Reporting Act of 1988 and DoD Instruction 7730.47. The remaining
hurdle to certification is resolution of geographic tags to avoid inadvertent attribution of
incidents to the city or state in which a military installation is located, as opposed to the
installation itself or the military service.
DoD produces no regular reports using DIBRS data that track trends on crime in the U.S.
military. There are no public access files for DIBRS, whereas NIBRS has released data through
the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. Like the secrecy empathised in
military internal affairs we consequently have found no secondary analyses of the data outside of
government that speak to its strengths and weaknesses.
3,3 National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS): Arson and Emergency Response
Information Component
A national system for the collection, analysis, and dissemination of fire data is needed to help
local fire services establish research and action priorities. In the US as in most if not all
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countries, the presence of fire service station is unrivalled in major urban and rural communities
especially in local government headquarters.. The 1974 act established a National Fire
Prevention and Control Administration within the Department of Commerce, and directed that
this agency establish a National Fire Data Center to ―gather and analyze‖ data on the ―frequency,
causes, spread, and extinguishment of fires,‖ as well as deaths, injuries, and property losses
incurred by fires (among other fire fighting-specific information). In response, the first
generation National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) was created in 1976, compiling
voluntary data submissions from local fire departments in the same manner as the UCR Program
collects voluntary submissions from law enforcement agencies. Today, NFIRS continues to be
coordinated by the USFA, though the USFA‘s administrative placement has shifted over the
years. It is now housed within the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), in turn
overseen by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The National Fire Information Council
(NFIC)—originated in 1979, and comprised of a group of (volunteer) representative NFIRS
users—serves as a liaison between USFA and the broader USFA participants, though with less
formal standing in policy decisions than the UCR‘s Advisory Policy Board.
Generally, NFIRS parallels the UCR Program in construction: It relies on the voluntary
contribution of data from local fire departments. Though originally motivated by the desire for
better quantification of fire and arson incidents, NFIRS has developed into a record system of all
functions and activities performed by local fire departments, from emergency medical services
(EMS) runs to hazardous material responses to ―first responder‖ calls not actually involving a
fire. NFIRS has a modular structure, with fire department personnel intended to fill out a
core/Basic module for every response incident, followed by detailed question modules for
applicable circumstances. This also involves a core/Basic module (dubbed NFIRS- 1) which is
completed by fire department personnel for each incident to which they have responded. NFIRS-
1 prompts for basic identifier information (e.g., an identifier code for the reporting department,
the geographic location, and a rough categorization of the incident). It also asks for information
about the aid given or received and the actions taken by fire department personnel; whether
monetary/property losses were incurred or whether fatalities resulted; and whether any hazardous
materials were released. The basic module could also include ―incidents‖ not actually involving a
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fire (e.g., first responder calls) or very minor incidents (e.g., ―contained no-loss fires,‖ such as
food on- stove extinguished when fire department arrives). In addition to the Basic Module,
NFIRS contains nearly a dozen specific additional ―modules‖ that may apply to particular
incidents. The second, ―Fire‖ Module (NFIRS-2), starts the process of documenting actual fire
incidents, including details about the property and what is known about human factors involved
in the ignition of the fire. Depending on the type of land/property involved, a Structure Fire or a
Woodland Fire Module would be completed. If the fire resulted in a casualty, then either the
Civilian Fire Casualty Module or the Fire Service Casualty Module would be completed; both of
those involve the fire department rendering an opinion on the causes of the injury leading to
death, including human and contributing factors. Depending on the situation andthe specific
equipment and staff put into play, then the Personnel Modules would be completed.
In addition to some of the information collected on NFIRS-1 and NFIRS-2 (and the associated
Property Type module), interest in NFIRS as a companion measure of arson (or, generally,
malicious burning or other property-damage crimes involving the use of fire) centres around two
other modules:
1. The Arson Module applies to incidents where a fire is believed to be intentionally set.
The module includes documentation of case status, possible/suspected motivation factors,
and information on how entry was secured and what specific devices or incendiary
materials may have been used.
2. The general EMS Module would apply to non-fire incidents—any time the fire
department applies emergency medical services. The module calls on the reporting
department to report the EMS providers‘ ―impression/ assessment‖ of the underlying
problem (including trauma, sexual assault, overdose/poisoning, and ―obvious death‖) and
speculate on the nature/cause of the injury (or illness).
Retrieval of such NFIRS data and subsequent comparison with/attribution to incidents collected
through other reporting sources is difficult because of NFIRS‘ unique structure.
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3.4 National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS)

The original Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), enacted in 1974, required a
new center within the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to ―make a complete
and full study and investigation of the national incidence of child abuse and neglect, including a
determination of the extent to which incidence of child abuse and neglect are increasing in
number or severity‖ (P.L. 93-247; 88 Stat. 5). A 1988 revision of CAPTA (formally the Child
Abuse Prevention, Adoption, and Family Services Act; P.L. 100-294, codified at 42 USC § 5104
et seq.) required the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) to establish and appoint a
director for the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, as well as establish a national
clearing house for information relating to child abuse. The general task of coordinating
information (from state and local resources) on national-level incidence of child abuse and
neglect swelled in magnitude and specificity as CAPTA was periodically revised over the years.
The current specifications of data required to be collected by the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services on ―the national incidence of child abuse and neglect‖ includes 11 specific
dimensions, ranging from ―the incidence of substantiated and unsubstantiated reported child
abuse and neglect cases‖ to ―the extent to which reports of suspected or known instances of child
abuse . . . are being screened out solely on the basis of the cross-jurisdictional complications‖ of
multiple agencies (42 USC § 5105(a)(1)(O)). Though the legislation beginning in 1974 laid the
groundwork for a data collection system, it would take until enactment of P.L. 111-320, the
CAPTA Reauthorization Act of 2010, for amendment text to formally define ―child abuse and
neglect‖ for these purposes: ―any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker,
which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act
or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.‖
The specific data system established to meet these legislatively mandated requests is the National
Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS), under which HHS‘s Administration for
Children and Families (ACF) coordinates data inputs from state child welfare agencies. In its
basic structure, NCANDS uncannily parallels both the core mission of BJS and emulates the
methodology of the UCR Program. Under its information clearinghouse authority under law,
HHS (through ACF) is required to ―annually compile and analyze research on child abuse and
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neglect and publish a summary of such research,‖ to promulgate ―materials and information to
assist State programs for investigating and prosecuting child abuse cases,‖ and ―establish model
information collection systems.‖ That mission is akin to BJS‘s authorizing legislation,
emphasizing the function of providing technical assistance to individual communities. The level
of state compliance with NCANDS reporting has been and remains impressive. That said, it is
important to note that the final step in the data relay, from the states to NCANDS, is strictly
voluntary. Established to provide insight on the highly specific crimes of child abuse and neglect.
4.0 Conclusion
Having examined the specific and disaggregated need for statistics on criminal events in
secondary and tertiary institutions, in the military settings, and the number and amount of losses
arising from fire incidences and capturing the prevalence and incidences child abuse and neglect
data , it became clear and necessary not only to state that specific information by way of statistics
is important but they are more meaningful when collated separately for better understanding
unlike when they are broadly captured under the UCR. The case of crime and punitive measures
in the military is quite interesting statistically when they are available because it furthers
exhumed other sides of the dark figures usually unknown in criminological/victimology research.
5.0 Summary
As we noted in previewing this units, the description of data resources in this section is not
intended to be construed as comprehensive or exhaustive, and mention of a data collection here
(at the exclusion of others) is not any special ―endorsement‖ of the data. Nor are these capsule
summaries meant to be thorough reviews or assessments. As with the UCR and the NCVS, our
primary emphasis is the coverage of crime-related information the data collections may contain
but, given their relative unfamiliarity, we also try to go a step further in describing the ways in
which the data are currently being used. In this section, then, we describe an illustrative set of
possible data resources—potential sources for crime indicators or critical contextual information
that may inform gaps or weaknesses in extant BJS and FBI crime data series, or that may be
uniquely suited to measure crime-related phenomena among special subpopulations. We begin
by reviewing some examples of data systems that are analogous to the UCR in that they are
compiled from law enforcement or public safety sources, but also focus on some particular
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population or set of offenses. We then turn to some measures from self-report surveys, of
victimization like the NCVS, of offending (in some cases), or of perceptions of specific crimes
or offenses. Finally, we turn to some resources that do not align neatly with either of these data
collection models but that are, in some sense, either administrative surveys (queries made of
facilities or institutions) or compilations of administrative records data outside the law
enforcement/public safety sphere.

1. What are the contributions of local fire departments to crime statistics?
2. Why is it difficult to get data from the military/paramilitary institutions?
3. With reference to emergency management at every level (federal, state or local level),
how does emergencies become an issue in crime statistics?
4. What does National Fire Data Centers upon?
5. Why has crime statistics often than not neglect the child?

Catalano, S. (2012, September). Stalking Victims in the United States—Revised. NCJ 224527.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice
https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/).
Lauritsen, J. L., K. Heimer, and J. P. Lynch (2009). Trends in the gender gap in violent
offending: New evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey. Criminology 47,
361–400.
Lynch, J. P. (2002). Trends in Juvenile Violent Offending: An Analysis of Victim Survey Data.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
McDowall, D. and C. Loftin (1992).Comparing the UCR and NCVS over time. Criminology 30,
125–132.
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Unit 4 National Self-Report Surveys of criminal offending

Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Self-Report Surveys of Criminal Offending is Independent of the NCVS, it focuses exclusively

on obtaining self-reports of recent victimization experiences, there are very few national-level
self-report estimates of criminal offending. Five notable exceptions are:
1. National Youth Survey (NYS): Started in 1976, the NYS is a longitudinal study of an
original sample of 1,725 adolescents who were between ages 11 and 17 at the first
interview and who were selected to be representative of the national population. The
study is still ongoing, with follow-up assessments most recently when the sample was
ages 39–45. Data from the NYS has been used extensively to study delinquency and
criminal offending as well as victimization and associated factors.
2. National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY): There are two distinct versions/waves of
the NLSY, dubbed NLSY79 and NLSY97 for their beginnings in 1979 and 1997,
respectively. NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of persons who were between
ages 14– 22 at the first interview in 1979 (born 1957–1964); NLSY97 tapped a nationally
representative sample of persons who were ages 12–16 at the end of 1996 (born 1980–
1984). In both iterations, though, the NLSY contains information on participants‘ self-
reported arrests, incarcerations, and a limited set of criminal activities, with its
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longitudinal contacts making it a useful source for studying cohort effects of criminal
offending.
3. Monitoring the Future (MTF) Studies: Begun in 1975, the MTF collects self-report data
on the behaviours and attitudes of secondary school students, college students, and young
adults annually. The MTF survey interviews of pupils and students 8th, 10th, and 12th
grade students, with annual follow-up surveys conducted with a sample of each
graduating class for several years after initial participation.14 Although it contains some
information on self-reported delinquency, most of the antisocial behaviour information
contained in the MTF is focused on drug and alcohol use.
4. National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health): The Add Health is a
longitudinal study of a nationally representative sample of adolescents in grades 7–12 in
the U.S. starting during the 1994–1995 year, and includes four follow-up interviews with
the same subjects, the most recent in 2008 when the sample was aged 24–32. The Add
Health survey data contains some self-reported information on delinquency and criminal
offending, though its main focus is to gather data on the physical, psychological, social
and economic well-being of the respondents.
5. Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance System (YRBSS): Sponsored by the U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the YRBSS is actually a suite of ongoing annual
surveys of high-school and middle-school students. A ―national‖ questionnaire specified
by the CDC is administered to the students included in the sample, while the CDC‘s state
and local health department partners can field a supplementary survey (typically building
from a ―standard‖ questionnaire of suggested items and focused on the high-school
students in the sample).16 Like the other surveys, the YRBSS instruments cover a wide
array of behaviours and activities (e.g., alcohol/tobacco/―electronic cigarette‖ or vapour
inhalant usage, and sexual behaviour), but do branch into eliciting self-report surveys of
both crime victimization and offending. For instance, recent versions of the surveys have
asked students how frequently they drive vehicles when they have been drinking alcohol
(as well as how many times they ride in cars with peer drivers who have been drinking).
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Questions have also focused on bullying and cyber-bullying in the school setting (both
victimization and offending), and on instances of forced sexual intercourse or physical
abuse by someone a respondent was dating.
In this unit students are expected to grapple with more realities about the broader nature of crime
data with emphasis of crime, delinquency and statistics from children and youths with the radar
of 12 years and above better captured by Self-Report Surveys regarding criminal offending
Secondly a the need to highlight that crime statistics could also come in form of complaints
captured by administrative survey (ie records of the consumer protection agencies), thirdly the
need for specific commission to handle statistics of crime involving corporate or individual
financial transactions. And lastly the importance of public health data a vital register in
understanding unnatural causes of death that are related to murder, illicit drug consumption and
other suspicious acts of homicide.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 National Self-Report Surveys of criminal offending
In addition, the annual National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), and Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), generate information on the use
(and abuse) of ―legal‖ drugs (alcohol and tobacco) as well as controlled substances ―illegal‖
drugs. The survey targets the population aged 12 and older, and makes use of computer-assisted
self-interviewing to try to actively promote the privacy of respondent answers. Although each of
these data sources has served as an important resource for understanding the correlates of
delinquent and criminal activity, each is limited in some ways for purposes of estimating levels
of crimes. Some of these limitations are associated with methodological problems common to
self-report surveys, such as sample biases and errors associated with respondent under- and over-
reporting (Thornberry and Krohn, 2000); other limitations are due to study-specific differences.
For example, longitudinal surveys such as the NYS and the Add Health data suffer from sample
attrition over time and the low levels of self-reported involvement in violence suggests that
survey participation may not be fully representative of the population. The MTF self-report
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information estimates only certain delinquent and antisocial behaviours and is limited to younger
age persons in schools. The NLSY does not contain sufficient information on a large array of
delinquent or criminal acts, and annual assessments are not routinely conducted. Therefore,
although there have been efforts to obtain self-report information directly from persons about
their involvement in criminal offending, these data collections are not capable of providing
ongoing, reliable national-level estimates of crime. As the NCVS sheds some light on the
characteristics of offenders, other national surveys provide specialized glimpses at crimes and
offenders, particularly in the area of family and intimate partner violence. Like the NCVS, the
focus of these studies is on measuring victimization incidents that are often classifiable as
―crime‖ as well as some important information about the offenders in such incidents (such as
victim-offender relationship). In the area of child victimization, the National Incidence Studies of
Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrown-away Children (NISMART) has twice measured
abductions of children by strangers and non-strangers (see, e.g., Hammer et al., 2004), once in
1988 and a second time in 1999. The Developmental Victimization Survey, conducted once in
early 2003, used a combination of self-reports and proxy reports to measure the extent to which
children younger than age 12 have experienced various forms of victimization (Finkelhor et al.,
2005).
Like other victim surveys, these data include incidents that are not captured in official records by
either the police or by child welfare agencies, or captured in the NCVS because it excludes
respondents under the age of 12. Violence against women and intimate partner violence have
been captured in various national surveys, the largest including the National Violence Against
Women Survey (Tjaden and Thoenes, 2000) and the National Intimate Partner and Sexual
Violence Survey (NISVS, http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/ NISVS/index.html). Several
other violence-against-women surveys, including one measuring the sexual victimization against
college students (Cullen et al., 2001), are summarized by National Research Council (2004a). It
is important to note, that in listing these various surveys, they vary greatly in terms of frequency
of administration and sample size. Some, like NSDUH, are ongoing surveys that are meant to
produce ongoing data series, but others—either by design or as a result of cost of
administration—have been strictly one-shot affairs. Hence, the surveys can produce radically
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different estimates of what is purportedly the same phenomenon and, with a one-shot survey, it
can be nearly impossible to conclude that one source is inherently better or more accurate than
another. That said, the time-limited, one-shot surveys should not necessarily be denigrated;
indeed, a well-designed one-shot survey with a solid research base can be highly valuable in
pointing out deficiencies in the other, ongoing surveys and studies.
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has two data collections that may be partial indicators of
the occurrence of fraud as in the case in the US, where it was first used in 2003 to understand
the extent to which complaints in the Consumer Sentinel database are representative of
consumers‘ experiences with fraud in the marketplace, to assess the extent to which these
experiences vary across demographics, and to identify the determinants of victims filing a
complaint with authorities (Anderson, 2004, 2007, 2013). The surveys‘ samples were large
enough to enable some comparison of victimization by race and ethnicity, but not to make sub-
national estimates by geography. The first survey explicitly asked respondents about 10 types of
fraud that covered those that appeared most frequently in the FTC‘s complaint database and had
led to FTC enforcement actions. These included:
1. Paying an advance fee to obtain a loan or credit card that a consumer was promised or
guaranteed to receive;
2. Being billed for a buyers‘ club membership a consumer did not agree to purchase;
3. Purchasing credit card insurance;
4. Purchasing credit repair services;
5. Paying money or making a purchase to receive a promised prize and then not receiving
the prize or receiving a prize that was not as promised;
6. Being billed for Internet services a consumer did not agreed to purchase;
7. Purchasing a membership in a pyramid scheme;
8. Being billed for information services provided either over the Internet or by pay-per-call
telephone service that a consumer had not agreed to purchase;
9. Making a payment to someone who represented that as a result of making the payment, a
consumer would receive a government job; and
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10. Purchasing a business opportunity where the seller made earnings claims that were not
realized or promised assistance that was not provided.
The survey also asked about ―slamming,‖ where a consumer‘s long-distance telephone service
was switched from one provider to another without permission, and two situations that often
suggest a fraud may have occurred: paying for a product or service that a consumer does not
receive or being billed for a product, other than the specific products identified above, that a
consumer had not agreed to purchase. The survey, conducted on FTC‘s behalf by Public Opinion
Strategies, had respondents obtained via random direct-dialing sampling. The response rate is not
included in the documentation available on the FTC‘s website. No further information is
available on the sampling frame.
3.2 National Administrative Surveys or Records-Based Collections

The data consist of unverified complaints filed by consumers directly to the FTC, along with
those filed with numerous state law enforcement agencies, federal agencies and departments
(such as the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (Nigeria equivalent of the Consumer
protection agency), the FBI‘s Internet Crime Complaint Center, and the Departments of Defense,
Education, and Veterans Affairs), and nongovernmental organizations (such as Better Business
Bureaus, Green Dot, MoneyGram International, and Western Union; Federal Trade Commission,
2015). A review of sample complaint forms suggests that the data files contain copious amounts
of personally identifying information on the victims and alleged perpetrators (Federal Trade
Commission, 2004). Directions on the FTC site about filing a complaint ask the filer to be
prepared to provide (https://www.ftc.gov/faq/consumerprotection/ submit-consumer-complaint-
ftc):
a. Your contact information: name, address, phone number, email
b. The type of product or service involved
c. Information about the company or seller: business name, address, phone number,
website, email address, representative‘s name
d. Details about the transaction: the amount you paid, how you paid, the date.
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Consumer Sentinel data access is available to any federal, state, or local law enforcement
agencies and select international law enforcement authorities. The collection mechanism was not
designed to support traditional crime analysis, but rather to support investigations and decision
making about where to focus resources to combat fraud against consumers. The FTC publishes
an annual data book in PDF and makes the aggregated data available in Excel format. The data
books are often cited by the media in stories about fraud, but there are no public data files
available for further analysis.
3.3 Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) equivalent of Economic and Financial
Crime Commission (EFCC) in Nigeria Suspicious Activity Reports (SARs)
In the US, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN), established in 1990, is tasked
with safeguarding the financial system from illicit use, combating money laundering, and
promoting national security through the collection, analysis, and dissemination of financial
intelligence and strategic use of financial authorities. The Bank Secrecy Act (BSA), composed of
the Currency and Financial Transactions Reporting Act of 1970, as amended by Title III of the
USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 and other legislation, requires banks and other financial institutions
to file reports to FinCEN. These reports, in turn, have been found useful by the Treasury
Department in its criminal, tax, and regulatory investigations and proceedings, as well as certain
intelligence and counterterrorism matters. Of the data series produced under the BSA, Suspicious
Activity Reports (SARs) generate the data most likely to reflect a range of criminal activities
and, as such, prove useful in the creation of crime indicators. FinCEN is responsible for the
central collection, analysis, and dissemination of data reported under the Bank Secrecy Act.
Despite its nomenclature, FinCEN‘s core task is not the determination, prosecution, or
measurement of crime per se, but rather—through analysis of a series of reports—to be
bellwethers of activities that may subsequently be determined to be criminal.
Like the EFCC, the the types of reports FinCEN collects include:
• Currency Transaction Reports (CTRs) of certain range of amount,
• Currency and Monetary Instrument Reports (CMIRs) of certain range of amount,
• Suspicious Activity Reports (SARs),
• Foreign Bank Account Reports (FBARs) of certain range of amount,
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• Cash Transactions/transfer: Non-financial businesses of certain range of amount

• Money Service Business Registration.
A SAR is filed when a filer—a depository institution, non-bank financial institution, money
services business, or casino—suspects that a transaction: involves funds derived from illegal
activity, or is intended to hide or disguise the proceeds of illegal activity; is designed to evade
BSA reporting requirements; has no business or lawful purpose; or is not an expected transaction
for that particular customer.
The SAR has five parts: Part I—Subject Information; Part II—Suspicious Activity Information;
Part III—Information about the Financial Institution Where Activity Occurred; Part IV—Filing
Institution Contact Information; and Part V—Narrative. Detailed descriptions of each item on the
SAR form are included in official guidance available on FinCEN‘s website (Financial Crimes
Enforcement Network, 2015). Filers are asked to record the type of suspicious activity by
selecting from 10 categories, each of which has multiple subcategories:
1) Structuring,
2) Terrorist Financing
3) Fraud,
4) Casinos,
5) Money Laundering,
6) Identification/Documentation,
7) Other Suspicious Activities,
8) Insurance,
9) Securities/Futures/Options, and
10) Mortgage Fraud.
Some SARs address multiple financial transactions; some assign more than one suspicious
activity to a single transaction. These variations would require investment in data management to
generate series with consistent units of analysis. FinCEN typically aggregates the number of
instances of each type of suspicious activity reported, such that a SAR citing solely check fraud
would be tabulated as one instance of check fraud whereas a SAR citing check fraud and identity
theft would be tabulated as one instance of each suspicious activity. SARs are viewed primarily
as sources of potential lead information for regulators and law enforcement that, when further
investigated, may produce or supplement evidence of criminal activity. FinCEN publishes
regular updates highlighting trends and emerging issues in suspicious activity reporting both
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within and across industries. FinCEN has also published more focused examinations of industry-
specific trends or particular suspicious activities.
Theft/Loss Recordkeeping Requirements and Databases Another glimpse at possible criminal

activity may be possible because of federally required recordkeeping regulations, requiring the
prompt reporting of suspected theft (or general) loss of specific, sensitive ―property.‖ The
amount of detail about the nature of the possible theft and the affected property—and whether
the offense is also required to be reported to local law enforcement— varies by collection.
Among these recordkeeping-type collections are:
1) Firearm loss or theft: Federal Firearm Licensees (FFLs) are obligated by federal law to
―report the theft or loss of a firearm from the licensee‘s inventory or collection within 48
hours after the theft or loss is discovered‖; said report is required to be made to both ―the
Attorney General and to the appropriate local authorities‖ —the Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives‘ (ATF‘s) —obligates the licensee to categorize the
incident as burglary, larceny, robbery, or ―missing inventory‖; the date and time of
notification of local law enforcement; a brief (free-text response) description of the
incident; and specifications (manufacturer, model, caliber/gauge, and serial number) of
the lost or missing firearms.
2) Explosives loss or theft: Similarly to firearms, federal law makes it unlawful for any
person who has knowledge of the theft or loss of any explosive materials from his stock,
to fail to report such theft or loss‖ to both the Attorney General and to ―appropriate local
authorities‖—albeit within an even tighter timeframe of 24 hours,
3) Drug/controlled substance loss or theft: losses or thefts of controlled substances are to be
reported to the Drug Enforcement Administration (NDLEA), and the local law
enforcement agencies.
3.4 Public Health Data Resources
Around the world, birth and death certificates are completed using codes drawn from the
International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems maintained by
the World Health Organization (WHO). These information are vital statistics to public health as
an indicator of numerous happening especially deaths arising from unnatural events. Thus at
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every local government area birth and death records are routed for compilation. Akin to the UCR
Program, a primary (―underlying‖) cause of death is identified on the death certificate and is
commonly used for summary tabulation purposes. It also produces what are commonly known as
the Mortality Multiple Cause-of-Death files (as public use data files) that permit coding of an
additional 20 contributing causes of death. Of course, what is salient to discussion of crime
statistics is that not all the causes of death described are internal (to the body) or natural causes,
there are also ―external‖ cause of-death codes covering homicide, suicide, accidental deaths, and
the like. For purposes of factoring into possible measures of crime, mortality data have both
major strengths and liabilities. The strength is that the time for medical examiners to do their
work arguably provides the best (and perhaps only) source of some contextual information of the
detailed circumstances of a death, such as the presence of specific drugs in the decedent‘s system
at the time of death or the exact nature of the weapon that inflicted a lethal injury. One major
weakness is obvious and inherent, which is to say that mortality data pertinent to crime are
necessarily limited to homicide, manslaughter, and other criminal events leading to death. But
others are more subtle. The mortality data represent the determination by one source—typically,
the medical examiner or coroner—as to whether death was due to deliberate measures or to
accidental orother means. However, the coroner‘s determination may or may not square with
determinations made at any level of the criminal justice arena. More subtly, mortality data have
historically suffered from timeliness concerns—not just from the time of death to the publication
of data but also simply to edit and compile all of the deaths in a given year from every
participant area (recalling that the ―external cause‖ deaths are but a subset of the much broader
set of all deaths and corresponding certificates).
4.0 Conclusion
Looking at the examples of a more broader analysis of where and how disaggregated data can be
better sourced, for better understanding of crime through National Self-Report Surveys of
criminal offending, with the National Administrative Surveys Records-Based Collections, and
Financial Crime Commission unravelling suspicious and criminal activities, it is established that
they are highly desired as part of an overall, new crime statistics system.
5.0 Summary
192
This unit is a continuation of Unit 3, emphasising on the broader nature of wider sources of
crime data. Specifically the National Self-Report Surveys regarding criminal offending mostly of
youths in the crime radar (juvenile delinquency); administrative survey describing statistics of
complaints especially of consumer filed with numerous state law enforcement agencies. Here
information can be gotten from consumer protection agencies. Similarly statistics of financial
crimes were discussed as necessary as components of UCR, but better aggregated and handled
by agencies with specialised mandates like the EFCC in Nigeria. Lastly the relevance of public
health data to understating unnatural causes of death cannot be sidelined, for which local
government authorities contend with and ensure that death statistics are compiled.

1. What is the major weakness about mortality data pertinent to crime?
2. Highlight two major strengths of mortality data.
3. What is salient to discussion of crime statistics?
4. List and explain two major rationales surrounding Public Health Data in criminal
statistics.
5. Often there are 10 categories of suspicious activity by selecting from 10 categories, each
of which has multiple subcategories:
6. List the five parts in Suspicious Activities Reports (SARs) statistics
7. What is ‗slamming,‖ in crime statistics?
8. List any five types of fraud a survey can unveil
9. Discuss the Consumer Sentinel database as core concern of crime statisticians.
10. What do we refer to as ‗one-shot affairs‘ in crime survey?
11. What are the associatedmethodological problems common with self-report surveys?

Additional information on Add Health may be found at
http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth.
Additional information on the studies can be found at http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/.
Additional information on the YRBSS is available at
http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/index.htm.
Anderson, K. B. (2004). Consumer Fraud in the United States: An FTC Survey. Washington, DC: Federal Trade
Commission. Available: https://www.ftc.gov/ sites/default/files/documents/reports/consumer-fraud-united-
states-ftc-survey/ 040805confraudrpt.pdf.
Anderson, K. B. (2007). Consumer Fraud in the United States: The Second FTC Survey. Washington, DC: Federal
Trade Commission. Available: https://www.ftc.gov/sites/ default/files/documents/reports/consumer-fraud-
united-states-second-federal-tradecommission- survey-staff-report-federal-trade/fraud.pdf.
193
Anderson, K. B. (2013). Consumer Fraud in the United States, 2011: The Third FTC Survey. Washington, DC:
Federal Trade Commission. Available: https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/consumer-
fraudunited- states-2011-third-ftc-survey/130419fraudsurvey_0.pdf.
Cullen, F., B. Fisher, and M. Turner (2001).Sexual Victimization of College Women: Research Report. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
Federal Trade Commission (2004).A CAN-SPAM Informant Reward System: A Report to Congress. Washington, DC:
Federal Trade Commission. Available: https://www. ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/can-spam-
informant-reward-systemfederal- trade-commission-report-congressexpert-reports/040916rewardsysrpt.pdf.
Federal Trade Commission (2015).Consumer Sentinel Network Data Book for January–December 2014. Washington,
DC: Federal Trade Commission. Available:
https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/consumersentinel- network-data-book-january-december-
2014/sentinel-cy2014-1.pdf.
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (1998, April).1st Review of the SuspiciousActivity Reporting System(SARS).
Washington, DC: U.S.Department of the Treasury.Available:
http://www.fincen.gov/news_room/rp/reports/html/sarptfin.html.
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (2015, March).FinCEN Suspicious Activity Report (FinCEN SAR) Electronic
Filing Requirements. Version 1.4. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Treasury. Available:
http://bsaefiling.fincen.treas.gov/docs/ FinCENSARElectronicFilingRequirements.pdf.
Finkelhor, D., R. Ormrod, H. Turner, and S. Hamby (2005). The victimization of children and
youth: A comprehensive, national survey. Child Maltreatment 10, 5–25.
Hammer, H., D. Finkelhor, A. Sedlak, and A. Porcellini (2004). National Estimates of Missing
Children: Selected Trends, 1988–1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice,
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
http://www.bls.gov/nls/ for general information on the surveys and
https://www.nlsinfo.org/content/cohorts/nlsy97/topical-guide/crime/crime-delinquency-
arrest for discussion specific to crime and delinquency.
http://www.colorado.edu/ibg/human-research-studies/national-youth-survey-family-study.
National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey
(NISVS,http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/ NISVS/index.html).
National Research Council (2004a).Advancing the Federal Research Agenda on Violence
Against Women. Steering Committee for the Workshop on Issues in Research and Violence
Against Women. Candace Kruttschnitt, Brenda L. McLaughlin, and Carol V. Petrie (Eds.),
Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioural and Social Sciences and
Education.Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Thornberry, T. P. and M. D. Krohn (2000).The self-report method for measuring delinquency
and crime. In Measurement and Analysis of Crime and Justice, Volume 4 of Criminal
Justice 2000, pp. 33–83. NCJ 182411.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice,
Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Tjaden, P. and N. Thoenes (2000).The Nature, Extent, and Consequences of Intimate Partner
Violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
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MODULE 6
Unit 1 Statistics: The Benefits and Risks
Unit 2Data confidentiality: methods for statistical disclosure limitation and methods for
assessing privacy
Unit 3 International Classification of Crime for Statistical (ICCS) Purposes (An Overview)
Unit 4 Principles used in the International Classification of Crime for Statistical (ICCS)
Purposes
Contents
7.0 Introduction
9.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
Unit 1 Statistics: The Benefits and Risks
1.0 Introduction
When you hear the word statistics, you probably either get an attack of crime anxiety or think
about lifeless numbers, such as the population of the city or town where you live, as measured by
the latest census, or the per capita income in a country. The goal of this unit is to open a whole
new world of understanding of the term statistics. By the time you finish reading this unit, you
will realize that the invention of statistical methods is one of the most important developments of
modern times. The word statistics is actually used to mean two different things. The better
known definition is that statistics are numbers measured for some purpose. A more appropriate,
complete definition is the following: Statistics is a collection of procedures and principles for
gaining and processing information in order to make decisions when faced with uncertainty.
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Using this definition, you have undoubtedly used statistics in your own life. For example, if you
were faced with a choice of routes to get to school or work, or to get between one classroom
building and the next, how would you decide which one to take? You would probably try each of
them a number of times (thus gaining information) and then choose the best one according to
some criterion important to you, such as speed, fewer red lights, more interesting scenery, and so
on. You might even use different criteria on different days—such as when the weather is pleasant
versus when it is not. In any case, by sampling the various routes and comparing them, you
would have gained and processed useful information to help you make a decision. In this unit,
you will learn ways to intelligently improve your own methods for collecting and processing
complex information. You will learn how to interpret information that others have collected and
processed and how to make decisions when faced with uncertainty.
.
It is expected that students get to know (after going through this unit) the following
1. drivers crime over the last decade
2. the how and why old crimes are coming in new forms
3. the dramatic influence of technology on crime statistics.
4. the typical crimes that often neglected in crime statistics
5. the major pitfalls that can be encountered when asking questions in a survey or
experiment
3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Truth about Crime Statistics
Crime statistics seem to be discussed more than figures for other social phenomenon. Some feel
they are little more than government propaganda. Some feel the police count what they choose to
and put their faith in the figures obtained from surveys. Some look to the ‗golden past‘ when
figures were much lower. Some look to figures for other countries and take reassurance of how
safe or dangerous their hometown is. Others avoid using figures at all and look at their own
experience. When did they last lose anything to a robber, thief or burglar? When was any friend
of theirs last attacked? Most people rely on the media for their information. Few actually read the
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statistics themselves, published in great detail on the internet. Most rely on highly summarized
versions from their favourite source. This confuses further the message from crime statistics.
Different media sources often have agendas which drive the particular aspects of crime figures
that they choose to comment on. Nearly all current media are characterized by their reliance on
‗sound bites‘.
Hardly anyone appreciates the complex mix of data collection methods, technical input and
expert advice that lie behind crime figures. Probably most people are just thoroughly confused
about them. This is made worse by the recent economic crisis that has changed the way common
statistical series are behaving, not simply in the area of crime. In situation where there has been
virtually no growth in the economy for years, crime figures continue to fall, unemployment has
not risen as expected and the stock exchange is booming! Experts cannot understand what is
happening so how can the average person expect to?
Many of the problems with crime statistics rest on the basic question as earlier said what is
crime? Most people feel that the answer intuitively. But defining what a crime is, is not an easy
question, as any policeman will know. And it is further confused by the next question: what sort
of crime should be recorded in a particular case?
An example will help to develop this point. It is generally accepted that killing someone,
homicide, is a crime. But not all homicides are the same. We all agree that killing a policeman
in an armed robbery is a crime: but was the killing of Osama Ben Laden a crime? Is assisted
suicide a crime? Is a doctor who performs an abortion a criminal? Or a doctor who gives more
morphine to a terminally ill patient than is strictly necessary to alleviate the pain? Does a rapist
whose offence leads directly to his victim committing suicide then become a murderer? It is clear
that there is much scope for differences of opinion. In practical terms, the relatives of dead
person have to decide whether to report the death as a possible crime: police have to decide
whether they will investigate the death as a homicide and include it in the crime statistics:
prosecution have to decide whether there is enough evidence to take the case to court: the judge
and the jury will also have their views. That is why we have the body of law, including common
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law, statute law and precedent of previous cases to assist law enforcement officers as to what to
do in a particular case.
Law and practice changes from time to time: to take another example:
Up to 1991 it was impossible in England for a man who had forced his wife to have sex when she
was unwilling to be prosecuted for Rape. This was based on the accepted belief that a wife gave
up the possibility of any such accusation when she married. The House of Lords changed this
law in 1991. Because most Rapes occur between couples who are, or have been in close
relationships, this change has caused the number of reported Rapes to increase dramatically
over the last 20 years. Police will now investigate such a report, whereas before 1991 they would
have said no crime had been committed.
More complications arise when it is clear that a crime has been committed but not exactly what
crime it is or how many crimes there were. Again let us take an example: Considerable publicity
has been given to recent cases of sexual exploitation of young teenage girls. Everyone agrees
these were horrendous but how many crimes are actually committed when cases go on for many
months or years and involve a number of offenders and victims. Most people will sensibly say
that the actual number of crimes is not particularly important. But we need to know whether the
number of such cases is rising or not. Therefore there is a need for a clear set of rules to record
the number of offences in complex cases: rules every policeman in the country knows about.
What is a crime is not defined in a natural way, such as weight or height or numbers of people
living in a town. Crime is what the authorities of a country decide to count. There is a series of
rules for counting crime and this can change from time to time and differ from country to
country. Counting rules are available for all to see. They form a national standard for the police
to operate. It is often included in the processes for collecting statistics within its routine
inspection procedures and does not hesitate to criticize police departments that fall below the
standards laid down by state.
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Having the police directorate set standards is not the only way crime statistics could be collected:
other methods are possible. Crime statistics could be left to each police force districts or area
command – but that would mean national figures would be misleading. The logic of allowing the
police directorate to set the rules for counting is that the law is the same for each each police
force districts or area command. However, such pragmatism has its disadvantages. It completely
depends on the police being the sole organization to collect the data on crime. But research has
shown and the police acknowledge that they do not hear about all crime. There are two ways of
dealing with this:
i. to collect crime numbers through surveys: such as asking a sample of households or
businesses about crimes they experienced and whether they reported them to the police.
ii. to collect information from other authorities on crimes that know about and how they
dealt with them.
Reasons why crime statistics are often low
It is also worth noting that the official figures have never claimed to include all crimes that the
police know about. They are a subset of all crime, defined by the police directorate vis-à-vis the
constitution because it would be impossible and/or unrealistic to expect police to record or
households to report every single crime: eg every misuse of drugs or all road offences.) Typical
crimes not included but which can result in a criminal sanction, are:
 Most motoring offences such as speeding, drink driving, parking, driving without various
forms of authority (eg. MOT, licence, insurance) although the more serious motoring
offences are included.
 Most public order offences ( eg, public drunkenness, prostitution)
 Most drugs offences of possession and use.
 Most regulatory offences ( eg. TV licence evasion, offences against by-laws)
 Most cybercrime, fraud and bribery
What lies behind the falls in published crime statistics?
First, it is necessary to consider the main drivers for the levels of crime over the last generation:
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Crime Prevention
The past decade has shown that police concentrated on crime investigation and public protection
like no other. As much more emphasis on crime prevention: manufacturers recognized the
commercial advantage in making their products safer: cars became more secure: perimeter
security for houses, schools and hospitals became much more effective and local authorities were
encouraged to take into account the implications for crime prevention of all that they did and
form partnerships with others to reduce the likelihood of crime occurring. It is not surprising that
such concentration of effort into crime prevention has led to a real fall in crime in most
developed countries. We also find that other countries that have had similar crime prevention
initiatives have also seen a fall in their crime figures.
Technological changes
Developments in technology have also affected crime levels. The last 20 years have seen great
strides in the use of computers, which are now integral to nearly all consumer goods and
household appliances. Security is also integral to any appliance which has a power source: the
use of passwords, etc to be able to enter buildings and use computers, TVs, DVD players, etc has
grown so that it is not surprising that traditional crimes of stealing have reduced as many modern
electric goods can be effectively useless without their electronic key. The use of physical money
has been substantially reduced, so that few people now carry large sums of cash around for day-
to-day transactions: card use has replaced cash and cheque use. To steal a modern car you need
to steal the keys first or force the owner to open it up for you. These technological developments
have substantially altered crime. Traditional crime such as theft, burglary, car theft, robbery have
declined because there is less to steal in the way of cash and perimeter security is so much
greater than it was. But the criminal has not gone away: he may find it less worthwhile to try to
break into your house or pick your pocket. What does seem to be happening, however, is that the
criminal is now moving his target to your computer, your web site or to your bank account. Old
crimes come in new guises, as well. Computer hackers have devised a new crime whereby they
200
threaten to deny service to web sites and demand ‗protection money‘ from local firms in return
for not hacking into their web sites. Not surprisingly, many firms do not report this to the police.
Increased prosperity
Whatever we may feel about the past, it is accepted that the 21st century saw a great increase in
personal wealth and possessions. However, whereas this wealth was in the form of valuable
possessions it is now more likely to be held in savings for the purchase of services such as
holidays, eating out, or increased leisure. Criminals, in the past were likely to try to steal these
possessions. Today they target savings by committing frauds that are characterized by the
making of thousands of telephone calls to persuade ‗victims‘ to put their money into dodgy
investments or the sending out of millions of e-mails in the hope that a small percentage of
people will be persuaded to respond to non-existent lottery wins, free holidays, easily obtained
qualifications, high-yielding investments or other similar temptations.
Reactions to new forms of crime
Traditional reactions to crime were to record the event, and then investigate it in the hope of
prosecution. Counting was a by-product. Reaction to more modern crimes is very different.
If a credit card is cloned or a bank account hacked into, the police tend not to get involved.
Financial institutions spend large sums of money on electronic security but they acknowledge
that breaches do occur. Once they do, however, the response is primarily to restore the
customer‘s financial position. The attitude of financial institutions to investigation can be very
different from the ‗traditional‘ police attitude. Police investigate to catch and prosecute a
criminal. Financial institutions primarily look at patterns of offending so that they can modify
their systems to reduce the likelihood of such offences occurring in the future. They give lower
priority to investigating the specific crime and pursuing the specific criminal. This reasons
behind this are primarily economic: the money available for security in the financial institution is
usually better spent by building more secure firewalls or other form of security into their
systems: moreover, to catch a specific computer hacker is often virtually impossible, as the
offender might well be physically in another jurisdiction.
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Detecting Patterns and Relationships
Some differences are obvious to the naked eye, such as the fact that the average man is taller
than the average woman. If we were content to know only about such obvious relationships, we
would not need the power of statistical methods. But had you noticed that babies who listen to
the sound of a heartbeat gain more weight? Have you ever noticed that taking aspirin helps
prevent heart attacks? How about the fact that people are more likely to buy blue jeans in certain
months of the year than in others? The fact that men have lower resting pulse rates than women
do? The fact that listening to Mozart improves performance on the spatial reasoning questions of
an IQ test? All of these are relationships that have been demonstrated in studies using proper
statistical methods, yet none of them are obvious to the naked eye. Let‘s take the simplest of
these examples—one you can test yourself—and see what‘s needed to properly demonstrate the
relationship. Suppose you wanted to verify the claim that, on average, men have lower resting
pulse rates than women do. Would it be sufficient to measure only your own pulse rate and that
of a friend of the opposite sex? Obviously not. Even if the pair came out in the predicted
direction, the singular measurements would certainly not speak for all members of each sex. It is
not easy to conduct a study properly, but it is easy to understand much of how it should be done.
We will examine each of the following concepts in great detail in the remainder of this book;
here we just introduce them, using the simple example of comparing male and female pulse
rates, it could have also been the rate of crime between men and women, or persons of different
age categories.
To conduct a study properly, one must

1. Get a representative sample.
2. Get a large enough sample.
3. Decide whether the study should be an observational study or an experiment.
Many pitfalls can be encountered when asking questions in a survey or experiment.

Here are some of them; each will be discussed in turn:
1. Deliberate bias
2. Unintentional bias
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3. Desire to please
4. Asking the uninformed
5. Unnecessary complexity
6. Ordering of questions
7. Confidentiality and anonymity
4.0 Conclusion
Many currently held assumptions about crime statistics may need to be jettisoned. Specifically,
the following aspects will need to be carefully considered:
 Law enforcement should acknowledge they are only a small part of the system to combat
crime. In the future prevention, measurement, investigation and sanctions for crimes will be
spread across many more authorities than just law enforcement and coordinated in a loose
way, if at all.
 Statistics should no longer be a by-product of the investigation process or the individual
reporting process for surveys.
 Some international agreement will be needed to cover crimes that cut across national
boundaries.
 In the area of measurement, the following is likely to happen
o Many more sources of crime figures should be used.
o The idea of a simple global national total of crime should be abandoned.
o It will need to be recognized that many crimes exist only in cyberspace
o More organizations need to be involved in setting the rules for crime measurement.
o Such organizations will also need to become part of the government data collection
systems.
o Many of these will be government departments, financial institutions or traders who
may not wish to acknowledge publicly the full extent of crime to which they are
subjected.
o Some central authority, probably the Office for National Statistics should coordinate
all this
5.0 Summary
203
In this unit, we have just begun to examine both the advantages and the dangers of using
statistical methods. We have seen that it is not enough to know the results of a study, survey, or
experiment, but also to know how they were arrived at in terms of methodology and
personality/agencies behind them.

6. What are the drivers for the level of crime over the last decade?
7. How and why are old crimes coming in new forms?
8. Discuss the role of technology in crime statistics.
9. List some of the typical crimes often neglected in crime statistics that can result in
criminal sanctions.
10. What are the major pitfalls that can be encountered when asking questions in a survey or
experiment?

Crime and Disorder Act,1998
See eg. Lewis (2013) The Safer Sutton Partnership Service: Blueprint For the Future?. The
Police Journal: March 2013, Vol. 86, No. 1, pp. 15-28.
Address for correspondence chris.lewis@port.ac.uk. Chris was Chief Statistician at the Home
Office in charge of Crime Statistics from 1983-1996 and continues to research, teach, and
write on the topic.
The most recent figures at the time of writing were available in a 106-page Statistical Bulletin
from the Office of National Statistics at
http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_307458.pdf accessed on 15 May 2013
This has been highlighted most recently by the report of the Home Affairs Select Committee on
E-Crime, Fifth report 29 July 2013 downloaded from
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmselect/cmhaff/70/7002.htm
The marital rape exemption was abolished in England and Wales in 1991 by the Appellate
Committee of the House of Lords, in the case of R v R.
http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1991/12.html accessed 15 May 2013.
204
This change occurred before the setting up of the current Supreme Court which would decide
any future similar changes.
See press discussion of the verdicts given to a group of men in Oxford accused of grooming and
sexual exploitation at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-22438623
accessed 15 May 2013
Home Office counting rules can be found at
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/counting-rules-for-recorded-crime accessed
on 15 May 2013.This document contains the 2013 revised set of Rules for counting and
classifying crime.
See ‗Rethinking the ‗fall‘ in crime‘ at
http://www.kent.ac.uk/sspssr/postgraduate/news/view.html?view=1378 accessed on 15
May 2013
See detailed discussion athttp://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2313942/UK-Peace-Index-
Rate-murders-violent-crime-falling-faster-Western-Europe.html#ixzz2TNNoKfZg
accessed on 15 May 2013
See discussion on the Guardian web site at http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2013/apr/25/crime-
rates-falling-austerity accessed on 15 May 2013
See discussion at www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN06567.pdf accessed on 15 May 2013
See vehicle licencestatistics bulletin for September 2012, accessed May 22 2013, at
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/9290/vls-
q2-2012.pdf
See history of this development in National Crime Recording Standard (NCRS): an analysis of
the impact on recorded crimeby Simmons et al. accessed on 24 May 2013 from:
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218135832/http:/rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rd
s/pdfs2/rdsolr3103.pdf
Eg.see the web site of ActionFraud, which encourages victims of fraud to report direct to them
rather than to a local police force and produces national fraud statistics of its own.
http://www.actionfraud.police.uk/ accessed 22 May 2013.
205
For example, as this paper was being finalized, a High Court decision ruled that a ‗Tweet‘ which
the author claimed to be conversational and malicious‘ was in fact libellous and hence
potentially a crime.
See Eurostat Statistical Bulletin Crime Trends in detail, January 2012 accessed 20 May 2013
at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Crime_trends_in_detail
For Cyber Crime the need for the government and law enforcement agencies to respond to
technological developments and the need for better public education has been covered
most recently by the Home Affairs Select Committee in their 29 July 2013 report
downloaded from
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmselect/cmhaff/70/7002.htm
206
MODULE 6
Unit 2
Data confidentiality: methods for statistical disclosure limitation and methods for assessing
privacy
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (General Assembly of the United
Nations, 1948) states: ―No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy,
family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the
right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks‖. As such, with privacy
being viewed as a basic human right by the United Nations, data releasing agencies must make
every effort possible to maintain high levels of privacy for the individuals who entrust their data
to an agency. What exactly is meant by privacy? Given a piece of information about an
individual, one person may wish to keep that data private while another individual may not
particularly care about that specific piece of information. This leads to a good definition of
privacy. Fellegi (1972, page 7) used the definition of privacy provided by Professor Weston of
Columbia University which defines privacy as the right ―to determine what information about
ourselves we will share with others.‖
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Privacy considerations of microdata are an increasingly important issue. The amount of data
being produced everyday pertaining to individuals is unprecedented. Between medical,
educational, and human services records, large amounts of data are produced. These types of
data are invaluable to researchers in a vast array of fields, driving demand for this data.
However, this raw data cannot simply be released to the public for study due to these privacy
concerns. Many agencies rely on publicly released data from the census, and numerous public
policy research projects depend on publicly available medical or educational data sets. Further,
agencies like the U.S. National Institute of Health (NIH) urge its data collecting grantees to
release their data for public use, but they require that this be done in a private way. They state:
―In NIH‘s view, all data should be considered for data sharing. Data should be made as widely
and freely available as possible while safeguarding the privacy of participants, and protecting
confidential and proprietary data. To facilitate data sharing, investigators submitting a research
application requesting $500,000 or more of direct costs in any single year to NIH on or after
October 1, 2003 are expected to include a plan for sharing final research data for research
purposes, or state why data sharing is not possible.‖
Often times, the most interesting data for research can be extremely sensitive information about
an individual that must remain private for ethical or even legal reasons (e.g. Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
(FERPA). HIPAA creates a legal protection for individuals who wish to keep their medical
records private, whereas, FERPA provides individuals with legal protection of their educational
data. Data collecting organizations have a further incentive to maintain the privacy of their
respondents‘ data that goes beyond ethics or the law: If respondents feel that their data are at risk
for disclosure, they may be less likely to be completely honest in their responses. This may cause
respondents to alter responses or simply not respond at all to some surveys. Therefore, trust
between a data collecting agency and its respondents is very important. Ideally, any useful
collected data set could be released to the public for research with the implicit trust that that the
data would not be used for inappropriate purposes. However, groups or individuals often have
incentives to use data maliciously. For example, in 1995, prior to the passage of HIPAA,
Woodward (1995) described a case involving a banker from Maryland who obtained a list of
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patients with cancer. Using the list of patients with cancer along with a list of clients with
outstanding loans, the banker sought to match individuals across both lists. When a match was
found, he then called in the loans of the clients who had cancer. Today, with the regulations of
HIPAA, private medical information cannot simply be released to the public. As such,
institutions that wish to release sensitive data must take steps to protect the identity of the
individuals in the data.

At the end of this unit, students are expected to identify some of the reasons why statistics as
data are often not released by agencies in its raw form to concealed sensitive issues, that could
either harm the person as in the case of the sample population, where identifiers and markers are
removed. Specifically the techniques used should also be known and understood why they are
necessary and must be used
3.0 Main Content
The first, most basic step in maintaining privacy is to remove variables such as name, social
security number, and home address. Agencies strive to do their best to de-identify the data so that
the privacy of the individual remains intact, while still providing researchers with useful data
with which they can use to make useful, correct conclusions. However, simply removing these
obvious identifiers is not always enough to maintain the privacy of an individual. For instance,
several years ago the Massachusetts Group Insurance Commission released data to the public for
research that was stripped of obvious identifiers. Sweeney (2002b) used this data, along with
publicly available voting records, to identify the released medical information or former
Massachusetts governor William Weld. Sweeney (2002b, page 2) went on to say ―...87% (216
million of 248 million) of the population in the United States had reported characteristics that
likely made them unique based only on {5-digit ZIP, gender, date of birth}. Clearly, data
released containing such information about these individuals should not be considered
anonymous. Yet, health and other person-specific data are often publicly available in this form.‖
Thus, simply removing obvious identifiers from the data is not always adequate to maintain the
privacy of the individual. More rigorous procedures are required to achieve privacy.
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It is this type of disclosure, from what Sarathy and Muralidhar (2002a) referred to as ―snoopers‖,
that is discussed here. (As opposed to, say, privacy breaches from unauthorized users of a
database (hackers). Sarathy and Muralidhar (2002a, page 1) stated: ―The security threat posed by
snoopers generally takes the form of undesired inferences about confidential data using other
data available either within or outside the database.‖ We view all data discussed as rectangular
data with each row representing an observation and each column representing a variable,
however, the rectangle need not be complete. For some methods, rectangular data is expressed in
tabular format, and the discussed techniques for tabular data would be applied. While we
consider this to be a thorough review, the breadth of the topic is vast, and we do not attempt to
cover all papers on the topic. Another very good review of disclosure control techniques which
protect against this type of disclosure can be found in Skinner (2009).
3.1. Releasing microdata to the public in a private way
Microdata are data containing observations on individual level. When this type of data is
released for research purposes the very first action taken to maintain confidentiality is the
removal of obvious identifiers such as name, address, social security number, zip code, etc.
However, as mentioned above, this is not always enough to protect the privacy of the individual
from an inferential disclosure which can occur, for example, when an individual in the released
microdata has some outlying or unique trait (e.g. a very large income, a rare occupation).In this
section, we discuss different proposed privacy preserving techniques for releasing data for
research. We start by discussing basic privacy preserving methods employed by agencies for
releasing data. This is followed by several other proposals for maintaining privacy, including
matrix masking, data swapping, and synthetic data.
3.2. Basic methods for limiting disclosure risk
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After removing obvious identifiers, some of the most basic methods for maintaining privacy of
publicly released statistics sets employed by data releasing agencies (e.g. The Census Bureau)
include limitation of detail, top/bottom coding, cell suppression, and rounding.
1. Limitation of detail: This technique includes recoding variables into intervals and collapsing
together categories in which only a small number of observations appear. For example, the
Census does not release geographic identifiers that would leave a sub-population with less
that 100,000 observations (Moore, 1996)
2. Top/bottom coding: This technique can help reduce the disclosure risk of extreme values in
the data by limiting the largest (or smallest) value possible for a given variable. For example,
if an individual has an extremely large salary, rather than reporting the exact amount, which
would make the observation vulnerable to disclosure, an agency may simply report it as
―over N100,000‖. Likewise, negative values of income could be recoded to be ―less than N
0‖ to avoid extremely large negative values.
3. Suppression: In a contingency table, cells with too few observations cannot be released to the
public, as it may be easy to to infer the identity of these individuals. A simple procedure for
controlling disclosure is suppression of these cells. Similarly, if the values of some
combination of variables are unique or nearly unique in the data, the identity of these rare
combination may be easily de-identified. Therefore, these observations could be suppressed
as one possible method for maintaining confidentiality. (Cox, 1980, 1984, Mugge, 1983, Cox
et al., 1987).
4. Rounding: Rounding is another method to limit statistical disclosure of data. Random

rounding involves deciding on a rounding base and then rounding each observation up or
down to the nearest multiple of the rounding base. Rounding up or down is decided upon
randomly based on how close the observation is to the nearest multiple of a rounding base.
For example, if the rounding base is 10 and 7 was observed, 7 would be rounded up with
probability 0.7 and rounded down with probability 0.3. One could also use controlled
211
rounding which allows the sum of the rounded values to be the same as the rounded value of
the sum of the original data. (Cox, 1984, Cox et al., 1987, Cox, 1987).
5. Addition of noise: Rather than release the actual values of the data, noise is added to the data
in an attempt to prevent a linkage attack from occurring. The perturbed data can be correctly
analyzed by accounting for the extra variability from the added noise.
3.2.1. Sampling
Sampling is a very powerful tool in limiting disclosure risk of released microdata files, especially
against linkage attacks. For instance, a malicious user may try to match an observation in a
released set of microdata to another observation in a data set which could identify the individual.
However, simply by matching a record in the released data file does not mean that the match is
correct. Skinner et al. (1994) pointed out that ―Population uniqueness will be a sufficient
condition for an exact match to be verified as correct.‖ If the released microdata are a sample,
this make it difficult to verify population uniqueness and is one of the key benefits of sampling.
Other benefits of sampling as method of disclosure control are that it is easy to implement and
the resulting sampled data are relatively easy to analyze.
3.2.2 Matrix masking
Cox (1980) and Cox (1994) proposed a statistical disclosure limitation (SDL) method called
matrix masking. Consider an n by p data matrix, X, consisting of nobservation and p variables.
Rather than release the data X, one could release the data Y = AXB + C where A, B, C are
appropriate conformable matrices. By properly defining the matrices A, B, and C, special cases
of matrix masking include: noise addition (Fuller, 1993), sampling, suppressing sensitive
variables, cell suppression, and addition of simulated data. A drawback to matrix masking is that
in order to analyze the data, the analyzer must have knowledge of the masking procedure used,
and, often, even if the consumer knows the masking procedure, the analysis of the data can be
complex and special software may be needed. Analysis of masked data is discussed in Little
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(1993). Kim (1986) proposed to protect microdata via the addition of noise and transformation.
Using their notation, for a data set, x, consisting of n observations and p variables. Kim (1986)
suggested masking the j-th variable, xjby adding noise, ej, from a normal distribution or from the
distribution of xjitself. Thus the masked, released data for the i-th observation of the j-th
variable, yijwill be xij+ eijwhere i = 1...n and j = 1...p. Kim (1986) further suggests a
transformation after the addition of noise of the form zij= ayij+ bjwhere a and bjare chosen
subject to constrains on the first and second moments of zjand yj.bjis chosen such that E[xj] =
E[zj] and a can either be chosen so that
3.2.3. Randomized response and Post Randomization Method (PRAM)
Randomized response (Warner, 1965, Greenberg et al., 1969) is a technique used in surveys
when the questions being posed are of a sensitive nature (Suppose an interviewer was asking
about illegal activity which, in turn, may make the respondent more likely to lie or simply refuse
to respond). The basic idea is that a respondent answers a question truthfully with some
probability p or answers the question untruthfully with probability 1 − p. In this way, the survey
taker does not know for sure whether the respondent is telling the truth or not and a level of
confidentiality is maintained. Surveys with randomized response were originally proposed to
remove the effect of response bias in surveys that ask sensitive questions. By using this
technique respondents privacy is protected, since, even if an individual is identified by a data
snooper, they cannot be sure whether the response is correct or not. For example, when
administering a survey a researcher may ask a question which would easily identify the
respondent, such as asking about a rare condition or disease. After the question is asked, the
respondent flips a coin and, for example, tells the truth when heads is observed and lies when
tails in observed. In this way, even the raw microdatamaintains a level of confidentiality. This
method could also be applied after raw microdata were collected. For each observation, the real
value of a sensitive field would be released with some probability and its opposite would be
released with some other probability. Either way, in order to analyze this data, the researcher
must have information about the randomization mechanism. Gouweleeuw et al. (1998)
introduced Post Randomization Method which is used to protect categorical data from
213
disclosure. PRAM perturbs each record in a data file using some probability distribution. This
essentially amounts to the addition of noise for categorical variables. One important distinction
between PRAM and randomized response is that in randomized response the random mechanism
is independent of the true score and applied at the time of collection. However, with PRAM the
true value is known and one can therefore condition on this value when defining the probability
mechanism used to perturb the data.
4.0 Conclusion
There is an ever increasing demand from researchers for access to useful microdata files.
However, there are also growing concerns regarding the privacy of the individuals contained in
the microdata. Ideally, microdata could be released in such a way that a balance between
usefulness of the data and privacy is struck. This unit highlighted and discuss some of the
methods of statistical disclosure control and techniques for assessing the privacy of such
methods under different definitions of disclosure.
5.0 Summary
This unit examines some of the reasons for and methods of maintaining data confidentiality for
assessing privacy. Five of these were discussed to include: limitation of detail, top/bottom
coding, cell suppression, and rounding. Similarly with the help of sampling, matrix masking and
randomise/postrandonmise (PRAM) response techniques statistics are better understood.

1. Discuss Randomized response technique.
2. List and discuss three of the special cases of matrix masking
3. List five basic methods for maintaining privacy of publicly released statistics and explain
three (3) of them.
4. What are the benefits of sampling as a method of disclosure control?
5. What does noise in microdata/statistics connote?
214
6. Who does raw microdata maintains a level of confidentiality?

7. Why are identifiers not necessary in statistics?

Cox, L.H., 1980. Suppression methodology and statistical disclosure control. Journal of the
American Statistical Association 75, 377–385.
Cox, L.H., 1984. Disclosure control methods for frequency count data. Tech. rep., U.S. Bureau
of the Census.
Federal Committee on Statistical Methodology (FCSM), 2005.Statistical policy working group
22 - report on statistical disclosure limitation methodology.U.S. Census Bureau.
Fellegi, I.P., 1972. On the question of statistical confidentiality. Journal of the American
Statistical Association 67 (337), 7–18.
Fuller, W., 1993.Masking procedurse for microdata disclosure limitation. Journal of Official
Statistics 9, 383–406.
General Assembly of the United Nations, 1948.Universal declaration of human rights.
Gouweleeuw, J., P. Kooiman, L.W., de Wolf, P.-P., 1998. Post randomisation for statistical
disclosure control: Theory and implementation. Journal of Official Statistics 14 (4), 463–
478.
Greenberg, B., 1987. Rank swapping for masking ordinal microdata. Tech. rep., U.S. Bureau of
the Census (unpublished manuscript), Suitland, Maryland, USA.
Greenberg, B.G., Abul-Ela, A.-L.A., Simmons, W.R., Horvitz, D.G., 1969. The unrelated
question randomized response model: Theoretical framework. Journal of the American
Statistical Association 64 (326), 520–539. MR0247719
Kim, J., 1986. Limiting disclosure in microdata based on random noise and transformation.
Bureau of the Census.
Little, R.J.A., 1993.Statistical analysis of masked data. Journal of Official Statistics 9, 407–426.
Little, R.J.A., Rubin, D.B., 1987.Statistical Analysis with Missing Data.John Wiley & Sons.
MR0890519
Mugge, R., 1983. Issues in protecting confidentiality in national health statistics.Proceedings of
the Section on Survey Research Methods.
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Sarathy, R., Muralidhar, K., 2002a. The security of confidential numerical data in databases.
Information Systems Research 13 (4), 389–403.
Skinner, C., 2009. Statistical disclosure control for survey data. In: Pfeffermann, D and Rao,
C.R. eds. Handbook of Statistics Vol. 29A: Sample Surveys: Design, Methods and
Applications. pp. 381–396. MR2654645
Skinner, C., Marsh, C., Openshaw, S., Wymer, C., 1994.Disclosure control for census microdata.
Journal of Official Statistics 10, 31–51.
Skinner, C.J., Elliot, M.J., 2002. A measure of disclosure risk for microdata.Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society. Series B (Statistical Methodology) 64 (4), 855–867. MR1979391
Sweeney, L., 2002b. k-anonymity: A model for protecting privacy. International Journal of
Uncertainty, Fuzziness and Knowledge Based Systems 10 (5), 557–570. MR1948199
Warner, S.L., 1965. Randomized response: A survey technique for eliminating evasive answer
bias. Journal of the American Statistical Association 60 (309), 63–69.
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Unit 3 International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (An overview)
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) was developed using
the ―Principles and framework for an international classification of crimes for statistical
purposes‖ produced by the UNECE-UNODC Joint Task Force on Crime Classification and
endorsed by the Conference of European Statisticians in 2012. The ICCS was produced on the
basis of the plan to finalize by 2015 an international classification of crime for statistical
purposes, as approved by the Statistical Commission in its decision 44/110 and by the Economic
and Social Council in its resolution 2013/37.The International Classification of Crime for
Statistical Purposes (ICCS) is a classification of criminal offences which is based on
internationally agreed concepts, definitions and principles in order to enhance the consistency
and international comparability of crime statistics, and improve analytical capabilities at both the
national and international levels. The ICCS provides a framework for the systematic production
and comparison of statistical data across different criminal justice institutions and jurisdictions.
This means that the ICCS is applicable to all forms of crime data, whatever the stage of the
criminal justice process (police, prosecution, conviction, imprisonment) at which they are
collected, as well as to data collected in crime victimization surveys. At the international level,
the ICCS improves the comparability of crime data between countries. Standardized concepts
and definitions allow for the systematic collection, analysis and dissemination of data, and also
217
respond to the demand for in-depth research and analysis of transnational crime. At the national
level, the ICCS can be used as a model to provide structure and organize statistical data that are
often produced according to legal rather than analytical categories. Moreover, the ICCS can
harmonize data across domestic criminal justice institutions (police, prosecutions, courts,
prisons) and across different data sources (administrative records and statistical surveys).
Likewise, the ICCS can be used as a tool to standardize data from sub-national entities that may
have different statistical systems or legal frameworks (United Nations Economic and Social
Council. Statistical Commission, 2012).

At the end of this reading students should have come to terms with the need for an international
classification and recognition of crime as a social events that is in dire need of quantification and
as a means of properly incorporating and understanding crime scientifically amidst the various
challenges of methodological and standardisation and jurisdiction barriers.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 The need for an international classification of crime
Reliable crime statistics are critical for measuring changes in crime levels, monitoring state
responses to crime, evaluating policies and understanding the various facets of crime in different
contexts. Often, raw data from different stages of the criminal justice process are available, but
the purposeful collection and organization of these data into statistical form is required to
produce valuable information for use in decision-making. The comparison of crime statistics
across time, between countries or with other available statistics is particularly difficult due to the
lack of standardized concepts and the absence of an internationally agreed statistical framework
to make such comparisons possible.
To illustrate, various data sources, often within the same jurisdiction, use different definitions
and concepts to organize crime data which are often based on legal rather than statistical
principles. This close and intertwined relationship between legislation and statistics creates
problems from an analytical perspective: statistical data are often organized and categorized
according to legal provisions, such as articles in legal or penal codes, which are not always
218
relevant from an analytical standpoint. Furthermore, comparability across time and jurisdictions
can be hampered by changes in legislation and, for example, by the fact that the same act can be
criminalized under very different legal provisions in different countries, or may be considered a
criminal offence in one country but not in another. The ICCS addresses these issues by providing
a methodological and statistical standard and a common definitional framework to improve data
quality and comparability. Offences are grouped in a meaningful and systematic way, resulting
in an improvement in the capability to produce, disseminate and analyse crime data accurately in
order to inform the public and tailor policies and programmes in the areas of crime prevention,
rule of law and criminal justice reform.
3.2 The challenge of developing an international classification of crime for a nationally

defined event
Currently, national statistics on crime refer to criminal offences as defined by each country‘s
criminal law system. Without legal harmonization, differences in the definition of offences are
inevitable and international comparison must always be placed in the context of these
differences. For example, one country may require physical contact for an offence to be
considered an assault, while another country may not.
In order to overcome such challenges, the approach used by the ICCS is to consider ―criminal‖
acts in national and international laws as the universe of acts that are subject to classification
within the ICCS. However, the specific classification of such acts (i.e. their allocation to
analytical categories) is based on behavioural descriptions rather than strictly legal specifications
derived from criminal laws. Crimes as defined in criminal law are typically associated with
actions or behavioural and contextual attributes that are universally considered to be an offence
(for example, wounding or injuring, or taking property without consent). This event-based
approach avoids issues created by legal complexities, resulting in a simplified and globally
applicable classification. It is important to note that the ICCS uses specific terms, such as ―rape‖,
―harassment‖ or ―burglary‖, which are widely recognized and defined in criminal legislation.
These terms are given a specific description in the ICCS, which is intended to be used for
statistical purposes. The adoption of the ICCS at the national level will require the attentive
translation of offences as defined by national legislation into ICCS categories, with careful
consideration of the full act/event descriptions and explanatory notes.
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3.3 The process of building the international classification of crime

The Social Commission of the United Nations first highlighted the importance of preparing a
standard classification of offences in 1951 (United Nations Economic and Social Council.
Social Commission, 1951). However, successive endeavours to develop such an international
crime classification were fraught with challenges due to disparities in definitions, national
legislations and reporting systems. Concrete steps to overcome such limitations were made in
2009 when the Conference of European Statisticians established a Task Force, led by the United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe (UNECE), to develop a crime classification framework based on behavioural
descriptions rather than legal codes (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2009).
The framework of the first international crime classification was developed by the Task Force
and approved by the Conference of European Statisticians at the 60th plenary session in June
2012.
The proposal to develop a full international crime classification was discussed at the 43rd session
of the United Nations Statistical Commission (UNSC) and the 21st session of the United Nations
Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (CCPCJ). At the next session of both
UNSC and CCPCJ, both Commissions approved the plan to develop an international
classification of crime for statistical purposes, in consultation with statisticians and experts from
national statistical offices, other national government institutions and regional and international
organizations (UNSC, 2012).
Three consultation meetings were held between 2012 and 2014, and two large-scale testing
exercises of successive versions of the ICCS were also undertaken in the same period. Both
testing exercises confirmed the feasibility of developing and implementing the ICCS, with a
view to gradually applying it to statistics produced at the national level. A final draft version of
the ICCS was sent to Member States and other relevant organizations by the United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the United Nations Statistical Division in August
2014. Developed with the active participation and collaboration of experts from several
countries, who participated in the expert group meetings and testing exercises and provided
220
inputs and comments, the present version of the ICCS is the result of extensive consultations and
collaboration between national statistical offices, other national government institutions, regional
and international organizations, including UNODC, the UNODC-INEGI Center of Excellence
(COE) on Statistics on Governance, Public Safety, Victimization and Justice, the World Health
Organisation (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Eurostat, the Inter-
American Development Bank (IADB) and the Organisation of American States (OAS).
Furthermore, the ICCS has been reviewed by the Expert Group on International Statistical
Classifications, the central coordinating body of the work on international classifications
established by the United Nations Statistical Commission.
4.0 Conclusion
There has been no other time than now in the history of mankind, that the need of understanding
and harmonising the definition of crime, its attribute in terms of trend occurrence and variations
across time and space. And grappled with the technological advancement in science and the
requirement in programming language encoded and decoded with algorithm, statistical
computation of social events like crime can no longer be overemphasised across borders, thus the
coming of the ICCS was prompt.
5.0 Summary
This unit gives an overview of the emergence of the ICCS as a commission saddled with the
responsibility of harmonizing statistical issues around the quantification and standardization of
crime measurement globally it examined the challenges of developing an international
classification of crime for a nationally defined event, the need for an international
classification of crime And the process of building the international classification of crime

1. At what session of the United Nations Statistical Commission (UNSC) did the proposal
to develop a full international crime classification held?
2. Give a reason or two why legal harmonization is very germane in and for the ICCS.
3. How does the ICCS address these issues by providing a methodological and statistical
4. How does the ICCS improve data quality and comparability?
221
5. Identify at least three (3) specific terms widely recognised, defined and used for statistical
purposes in the ICCS?
6. List and discuss the major problem therein in the comparability of crime statistics across
time and jurisdictions.
7. What are the challenges of developing an international classification of crime for a
nationally defined event?
8. What are the three tools employed by the ICCS to improve data quality and comparability
9. What does the acronym ICCS stands for?
10. What is the applicability of the ICCS to all forms of crime data?
11. What is the operational importance of the ICCS?

Andrew Hancock, Best Practice Guidelines for Developing International Statistical
United Nations Economic and Social Council.Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal
Justice.Report of the twenty-first session (13 December 2011 and 23-27 April
2012).E/2012/30, E/CN.15/2012/24.
United Nations Economic and Social Council.Social Commission.Criminal Statistics:
Recommendations of the Secretary-General (8 January 1951). E/CN.5/233.
United Nations Economic and Social Council.Statistical Commission.Report of the forty-third
session (28 February-2 March 2012).E/2012/24, E/CN.3/2012/34.
United Nations Economic and Social Council.Statistical Commission.Report of the National
Institute of Statistics and Geography of Mexico and the United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime on a road map to improve the quality and availability of crime statistics at the
national and international levels (19 December 2012). E/CN.3/2013/11.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.Conference of European Statisticians.Report
of the UNODC/UNECE Task Force onCrime Classification to the Conference of European
Statisticians.2011. Available:www.unodc.org/documents/data-andanalysis/
statistics/crime/Report_crime_classification_2012.pdf>.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.Conference of European Statisticians.Report
of the Conference of European Statisticians Sixtieth plenary session (6-8 June
2012).ECE/CES/83.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.Terms of Reference of UNECE/UNODC Task
Force on Crime Classification (16 October 2009). ECE/CES/BUR/209/OCT/2012.
222
Unit 4
Principles used in the International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS)
Contents
10.0 Introduction
12.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) was developed using
the ―Principles and framework for an international classification of crimes for statistical
purposes‖ produced by the UNECE-UNODC Joint Task Force on Crime Classification and
endorsed by the Conference of European Statisticians in 2012. The ICCS was produced on the
basis of the plan to finalize in 2015 an international classification of crime for statistical
purposes, as approved by the Statistical Commission in its decision 44/110 and by the Economic
and Social Council in its resolution 2013/37. This is to enable researchers and policy makers to
be on the same page when crime statistics take the centre stage. To avoid complexities and
anxiety that statistics bring. It has been observed that When you hear the word statistics, you
probably either get an attack of crime anxiety or think about lifeless numbers, such as the
population of the city or town where you live, as measured by the latest census, or the per capita
income in a country. The goal of this unit is to open a whole new world of understanding of the
term statistics. By the time you finish reading this unit, you will realize that the invention of
statistical methods is one of the most important developments of modern times. The word
statistics is actually used to mean two different things. The better known definition is that
statistics are numbers measured for some purpose. A more appropriate, complete definition is the
following: Statistics is a collection of procedures and principles for gaining and processing
223
information in order to make decisions when faced with uncertainty. Using this definition, you
have undoubtedly used statistics in your own life.

The main intention of this unit is to further carry along readers on the way and manners ICCS
operates in classifying and distinguishing offences ie as applicable to Level 1-4 criminal offences
for comparative and analytical purposes to the best of international standard.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Principles used in the International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS)
 The definition of crime for the purposes of the ICCS
While certain common elements, such as ―harm‖ and ―wrongfulness‖, can be associated with
crime, they cannot wholly and operationally define it. Moreover, the vast disparity in approaches
and sources used in the establishment of criminal laws by different countries makes it impossible
to create a consistent and comprehensive definition of crime. The common denominator of what
constitutes a ―crime‖ is that it consists of behaviours which are defined as criminal offences and
are punishable as such by law. The offences defined as criminal are established by each
country‘s legal system and the codification of crimes (criminal code, penal code, etc.). As a
result, ―crime‖ is considered by the ICCS to be the punishable contravention or violation of the
limits on human behaviour as imposed by national criminal legislation. Each criminal offence
has a perpetrator — person, corporation or institution — which is liable for the criminal
behaviour in question.
 The unit of classification of the ICCS
The unit of classification of the ICCS is the act that constitutes a criminal offence. The
description of the criminal offence is provided in terms of the behaviour shown by the
perpetrator(s) of a crime. The apparent behaviour is in most cases sufficient to define an offence
for the purposes of the ICCS, while in some cases additional elements need to be taken into
account, such as the intentionality (state of mind) of the perpetrator or the condition/status of the
224
victim (for example, whether he/she is a minor); in other cases, a crime is defined by a sequence
of behaviours, as in the case of trafficking in persons, for example.
Defining and classifying the type of crime event is the primary focus of the classification, which
aims to assign all criminal offences to categories on the basis of a number of criteria. The ICCS
also provides for a number of additional attributes of the crime event, which, though not
determinant of the nature of the crime, are very important additions that provide analytical
insight to statistical data on crime, such as selected characteristics of victims or perpetrators.
Besides classifying criminal offences, the ICCS can also be used in relation to other events or
conditions related to the criminal justice process, such as arrests, prosecutions, convictions and
prison sentences, as well as persons involved as perpetrators or victims. If consistently used by
all relevant data sources, the ICCS can measure the flows and links between the different stages
of the criminal justice system. For example, if the ICCS is applied at all stages of the criminal
justice process, links can be made between data on a given offence (whether from administrative
data or from victimization surveys), the number of arrests for the same type of offence and, in
sequence, on prosecutions, convictions and on persons in prison for the same type of offence.
 The application of the principles of statistical classification
The ICCS is based on established statistical practices and principles. By definition, a statistical
classification is: ―A set of discrete, exhaustive and mutually exclusive categories which can be
assigned to one or more variables used in the collection and presentation of data, and which
describe the characteristics of a particular population‖ (Hancock, 2013). Particular care has been
taken that the following three core characteristics of an international statistical classification have
been implemented in the ICCS:
1. Mutual exclusivity: every elementary manifestation of the phenomenon under study should be
assigned to one and only one category of the classification such that there are no overlaps
Application of the principle of mutual exclusivity: the ICCS can be used to classify every offence
into one and only one category of the classification with no overlaps.
The description of each category clearly defines the respective event/behaviour with additional
guidance provided by legal inclusions and exclusions (examples of criminal offences in national
225
legislation that are respectively included in, or excluded from, that category), which will further
clarify the boundaries of each category. The use of additional crime disaggregations or ―tags‖
provides a method to deal with cases that could be attributed to one offence or another. For
example, a fraud offence perpetrated through the use of a computer is classified as a fraud with a
cybercrime-related tag. Similarly, a trafficking in persons offence perpetrated by an organized
criminal group is classified as trafficking in persons with an organized crime tag.
2. Exhaustiveness: every possible manifestation of the phenomenon under study should be

included in the classification
Application of the principle of exhaustiveness: while the ICCS aims to cover every manifestation
of crime, it is clear that this principle needs to be adopted with due consideration as to what is
feasible.
The sheer number of acts criminalized in statutes, regulatory provisions and judicial decisions in
any given country, as well as continuous legislative changes, hamper any attempt to build a
comprehensive listing of all criminal offences that exist globally. A realistic goal for the
classification is thus to capture acts or events generally known to constitute criminal offences in
a sufficient number of countries, at a certain level of detail, determined by carefully balancing
the classification for practicality and policy-relevance at an international level. In addition, the
ICCS does not include classification categories for events that generally constitute administrative
offences (such as minor traffic violations). As such, the ICCS also includes some events or
behaviours that are criminalized in some countries while being legal in others. In a small number
of cases, the criminalization of certain acts has been held to contravene international human
rights law. In such cases, it is important to note that the ICCS should not be viewed as
supporting or legitimizing the criminalization of any offence presented within the classification,
but be taken as a statistical standard that attempts to provide realistic, global coverage of every
manifestation of crime for statistical purposes.
3. Statistical feasibility: it is possible to effectively, accurately and consistently distinguish

between the categories in the classification on the basis of the information available
226
Application of the principle of statistical feasibility: the statistical feasibility of a statistical

classification means that observations can be allocated to categories in the classification on the
basis of the information available; for example, on the basis of responses to questions that can be
reasonably asked in statistical surveys or on administrative forms (Hancock, 2013). The ICCS
supports this by carefully defining the criminal act on the basis of behavioural descriptions,
supplemented with examples of legal inclusions and exclusions for each category.
Statistical feasibility was tested on the basis of existing data collections of a significant number
of countries which participated in testing subsequent draft versions of the ICCS by allocating
data on criminal offences to the categories of the classification (see section: ―The process of
building the international classification of crime‖).
3.2 The criteria used to build the ICCS
Criminal offences can be seen, and classified, from a multitude of angles: their impact on
victims, the way they have been perpetrated, the offender‘s motive and the seriousness of the
offence, to name but a few. In building the classification, priority has been given to criteria
which are particularly relevant from a policy perspective: the ICCS categories, and the data
produced accordingly, should provide information that can be easily understood and used when
developing crime prevention and criminal justice policies. For example, data organized along the
lines of the ICCS should provide answers to questions on trends and comparisons regarding
acquisitive crime, or crime of a sexual nature, or on more complex constructs such as financial
crime or offences committed by organized criminal groups. A number of criteria have been used
to build the hierarchical structure of the ICCS, in the attempt to build categories that can respond
to a variety of information needs. In particular, the following criteria have been used to form
categories of the ICCS:
a. policy area of the act/event (protection of property rights, protection of health, etc.)
b. target of the act/event (e.g. person, object, natural environment, State, etc.)
c. seriousness of the act/event (e.g. acts leading to death, acts causing harm, etc.)
d. means by which the act/event is perpetrated (e.g. by violence, threat of violence, etc.).
227
Based on these criteria, criminal offences can be grouped in homogenous categories, which are
aggregated at four different hierarchical levels: Levels 1, 2, 3 and 4. There are 11 Level 1
categories designed to cover all acts or events that constitute a crime within the scope of the
ICCS. Criminal offences at Levels 2, 3 and 4 can be summed to provide observations at more
aggregated levels, while observations at higher levels can be subdivided into lower-level
categories (see http://unstats.un.org/unsd/class/family/glossary_short.asp). For the UN
Glossary of Classification Terms."Group".
Criminal offences can be identified at the level of detail that is of interest. The ICCS has also
been designed with a view to being a flexible tool to create ―meta-categories‖. If needed,
categories can be aggregated across categories at different levels. For example, Level 1 category
―Acts against property involving violence or threat against a person‖ can be aggregated with
Level 1 category ―Acts against property only‖ to form a new meta-category ―Acts against
property‖.
The numerical coding of the categories is in accordance with their level in the classification:
Level 1categories are the broadest categories and have a two-digit code (e.g. 01); Level 2
categories have a fourdigit code (e.g. 0101); Level 3 categories have a five-digit code (e.g.
01011); and Level 4 categories, the most detailed level, have a six-digit code (e.g. 010111).
In particular, the 11 categories in Level 1 have been chosen based on all the four criteria above,
as well as by giving due attention to categories often used in national data, on the grounds of
228
facilitating the practical implementation of the ICCS. The same criteria are used to identify
categories at Levels 2, 3 and 4.
For example, based on the target of an act/event, sexual exploitation is disaggregated into
sexualexploitation of adults and sexual exploitation of children. Sexual exploitation of children is
furtherdisaggregated into four Level 4 categories based on policy relevance: child pornography;
childprostitution; sexual grooming of children; and other sexual exploitation of children.
The categories in Levels 1, 2 and 3 of the ICCS are intended to be complete and to encompass
everypossible criminal offence. However, not all Level 2 and 3 categories are further divided
into Level 4categories since the latter are not always necessary to identify policy-relevant
offences.
All categories at each level of the classification are described in detailed terms. Each offence has
an actorevent-based description, which is the core set of actions, behavioural and contextual
attributes thatdefine the offence. Descriptions are accompanied by legal inclusions and
exclusions to identify the mostcommon or important criminal offences included in, or excluded
from, the category. For example, theICCS defines negligence through the core behavioural
actions: the failure to exercise the care towardsothers which a reasonable or prudent person
would exert under the circumstances; or taking action that areasonable person would not take.
Furthermore, negligence in situations of persons under care is definedwith the addition of
contextual attributes — in this case, the victim — as behavioural attributes alonecannot define
acts that are criminalized separately (often with a higher penalty) due to the specificvulnerability
of the target of the act, rather than the overall behaviour itself.
3.3 Disaggregating variables as additional descriptors of criminal offences
The categories of the ICCS capture and describe the nature of criminal offences, but a number of
othercharacteristics are also essential to enable the full identification of policy-relevant patterns
and trends incrime and to conduct comprehensive and detailed analyses. For example, when
producing statistics on intentional homicide; additional value is provided, if data can be
disaggregated by the characteristics of thevictims; and the perpetrators, by the use of firearms or
by motives for killings. To this end, additionaldisaggregating variables (also called ―tags‖) that
229
enable the coding of additional information about anoffence are provided, which helps to enrich
the analysis with specific event, victim and perpetratorcharacteristics related to any particular
crime.
In the current practice of national crime recording systems, the number, structure and application
of suchadditional disaggregating variables to datasets on crime and criminal justice statistics vary
greatly, and areoften determined by factors such as specific policy needs; recording and
processing capacities at the local,regional and national levels of data collection; the level of
development and sophistication of the nationalcrime statistics system; and the degree of
automation and digitalization of data collection. In particular,the last of these criteria (i.e.
whether it is a paper or a computer-based system) determines if a nationalcrime statistics system
can support a comprehensive structure of disaggregating variables.
In systems where data collection, transmission and aggregation are automated through electronic
datacapture, storage, transfer and compilation, it is more likely that data are organized in a way
which allowsfor the capture and retrieval of every possible detail. For example, all relevant
details of a criminaloffence, such as the characteristics of the perpetrator and victim, can be
captured and stored electronicallyin a unit record. Multiple types of statistical outputs can then
be obtained, for example, by disaggregatingdata on individual offences by selected
disaggregating variables (for example, corruption offences byeconomic sector or trafficking in
persons by citizenship of the victims) or by using disaggregatingvariables in combination with
several crime categories (for example, by considering the sex and age ofvictims of all ―violent
offences‖ or the geographical location of all ―property crimes‖).The system of disaggregating
variables is thus an additional tool for use in a comprehensive system ofcrime and criminal
justice statistics, the realization of which relies heavily on the existence of anautomated data
collection system.
A large number of event, victim and perpetrator characteristics could theoretically be of interest
indifferent parts of the world. For practical reasons, not all possible disaggregations can be
mentioned in theICCS. Nevertheless, in cases where a system of disaggregating variables is
implemented or is planned tobe implemented in the future, it is beneficial to apply a harmonized
230
set of basic policy-relevantcharacteristics of crimes, perpetrators and victims for analytical and
comparative purposes. For example,using the same disaggregations for data on the victim-
perpetrator relationship (such as current intimatepartner/spouse, former intimate partner/spouse,
blood relative, etc.) would greatly assist the cross-nationalanalysis of patterns and trends in
violent crime and its enabling and mitigating factors. Based on theirpolicy relevance, the
supplementary table to the ICCS indicates that the following minimum set ofdisaggregating
variables should be applied to criminal offences where relevant:
i. event descriptions: degree of completion, type of weapon used, situational context,
geographical location, date and time, type of location, motive, cybercrime-related,
reporting entity;
ii. victim descriptions: sex, age, age status, citizenship, legal status, economic sector (of
victimized businesses), intoxication status;
iii. perpetrator descriptions: sex, age, age status, victim-perpetrator relationship, citizenship,
legal status, intoxication status, repeat offender.
The proposed system of disaggregating variables can be implemented by national crime

recordinginstitutions in a number of different ways. A comprehensive statistical solution would
integrate at leastthe minimum set of disaggregating variables in the template used for (electronic)
unit records of any typeof crime, thus allowing a full analysis of any offence, perpetrator or
victim by any relevant combinationof disaggregating variable required. A more limited option,
for example, would be the collection of onlycertain perpetrator or victim characteristics for all
crimes (separate counts for juvenile perpetrators, forexample) while an interim option would be
the collection of an expanded number of event, perpetratorand victim characteristics on a few
core crimes only (such as homicide, robbery or trafficking in persons).Given the specific value of
data on intentional homicide, due to the gravity of the crime and its impact onthe wider
community, additional disaggregating variables which provide a higher level of detail about
thesituational context, social relationships and killing mechanism are necessary to describe this
offence (seebelow).For any available dataset, further data descriptors should be made available
to facilitate the interpretationof statistical data. While most of the crimes, and their statistical
reporting, refer to offences actuallycommitted by one or more direct perpetrators (whether
231
known or not), data can also include cases of threats to commit a certain crime or when the
offence consisted of planning or assisting others to commit it. It is therefore important that
information be provided about whether available data on criminal offences (and perpetrators)
include or exclude the following behaviours in the counts for the categories:
a. threats to commit the crime
b. aiding/abetting/accessory to the crime
c. accomplice to the crime
d. conspiracy/planning the crime
e. incitement to commit the crime.
This information should ideally be captured and stored for every criminal offence to indicate
whether the recorded event refers to a threat, a case of aiding/abetting/accessory to the crime or
any other typology in the list above. In such cases, the desired statistical outputs can be produced
by either including or excluding such events from the aggregate counts. Alternatively, the
information on the inclusion of such cases can be provided at an aggregated level of crime
categories, in the form of meta-data.
Intentional homicide as a special case
The study of intentional homicide is relevant not only because of the gravity of the offence, but
also because intentional homicide is one of the most measurable and comparable indicators for
monitoring violent deaths and is often considered both a proxy for violent crime as well as an
indicator of levels of security within countries. According to the ICCS, intentional homicide is
―unlawful death inflicted upon a person with the intent to cause death or serious injury.‖ Such a
definition provides clear guidance for the determination of whether a specific act of killing is to
be considered intentional homicide for the purpose of producing statistics.
However, in some cases, contextual circumstances also have to be taken into account when
determining whether, for statistical purposes, certain killings have to be included in the count of
homicides. This occurs for killings during situations of collective violence — such as during
armed conflicts, or in situations of civil unrest — where it is important to distinguish between
different types of killings, as the context can determine if and how such acts should be coded in
232
the ICCS. Although producing statistical data in such situations can be very challenging, it is
nonetheless important to provide guidance on which killings should be considered within the
ICCS and about how to classify them for the purpose of producing internationally consistent
statistics on homicide.
Killings during civil unrest
Killings during civil unrest are those which occur during a situation of violent hostilities between
two or more parties that does not amount to an internal armed conflict, and may include riots or
other sporadic acts of violence linked to strikes or protests/demonstrations that turn violent. As
these situations do not usually amount to internal armed conflict, and thus are not to be
considered within the legal framework in force during conflicts, each violent death that occurs
during a situation of civil unrest should be classified according to the same standards applicable
to intentional homicide. This means that each killing needs to be examined and attributed to the
applicable type according to the factual circumstances, based on whether, for example, the
killing was unlawful and intentional. When such killings are classified as intentional homicides
in the ICCS, there is the option to use the disaggregating variable tag for intentional homicides,
―Situational Context — Related to civil unrest‖, which allows for the statistical identification of
the situational context in which killings of this nature take place (see Table: III ).
233
Killings during armed conflict
International humanitarian law distinguishes between two types of armed conflict (Schindler,
1979): (1) international armed conflicts, which exist wherever there is a resort to armed force
between States; and (2) non-international armed conflicts (or internal armed conflict), which
occur whenever there is protracted armed violence between governmental authorities and
organized armed groups or between such groups within a State. While the first type of conflict is
largely related to armed actions perpetrated by the military forces of States, non-international
armed conflicts are more difficult to define and identify. In particular, in the continuum of
situations of collective violence within a country, it is important to distinguish situations of civil
unrest from those of internal armed conflict. The elements that determine the difference are the
threshold of intensity of hostilities (whether hostilities are of a collective character, or whether
the Government uses military force rather than police force against insurgents), and the degree of
organization of the group (whether the armed group is sufficiently organized, with a command
structure, headquarters and the ability to plan and carry out military operations). In situations of
armed conflict, the following types of killings should be classified within the ICCS:
234
1) in situations of armed conflict, any targeted or excessive killing by a combatant (acting

inassociation with or in the context of the conflict) of a civilian taking no active part in
thehostilities can be recorded as a war crime in 11013 (Other criminal acts not
elsewhereclassified; Acts under universal jurisdiction; War crimes);
2) in situations of armed conflict, the killing of combatants by other combatants which is

inbreach of international humanitarian law can also be coded to 11013; for example,
wilfulkilling of parties to the conflict that are hors de combat; (Geneva Conventions
(1947).
3) a killing perpetrated by a combatant which is not directly in association with the

armedconflict, or by a civilian taking no active part in hostilities in a situation of armed
conflict should not be considered as associated with the conflict, and should be analysed
as any other killing, irrespective of the conflict situation, and classified into the existing
typologies of violent death according to the standard definitions;
4) killing by a combatant which is considered a criminal offence in the national

legislation(and is prosecuted as such) but does not amount to a war crime, should be
classifiedunder 0107 (Unlawful killing associated with armed conflict).
These standards can be very challenging to apply when there is a lack of operational capabilities
to measure and identify different killings, and, indeed, in situations of collective violence a large
share of killings may remain unreported. However, in the case of killings that are recorded,
establishing strict boundaries for this ambiguous field will help to distinguish intentional
homicide from other killings and increase data quality and comparability around the world.
Additional disaggregations of intentional homicide
Once it has been established whether a particular act of killing is to be classified and counted as
an intentional homicide, there is often a need for more detailed quantitative information on the
social contexts and mechanisms of intentional homicide that can help to design better evidence-
based policies for preventing and responding to this particular type of crime. For comparative
235
and analytical purposes, three classification criteria are particularly relevant for the
characterization of intentional homicide and can be used to define it in more detail. These three
criteria (Situational context; Relationship between victim and perpetrator; and Mechanism of
killing) have been used to build three additional disaggregation tables that are applicable for
intentional homicide only (see Tables III, IV and V).
182 Other household members include persons living in the same household as the victim.
236
4.0 Conclusion
Understanding and harmonizing the crime statistics to a very large extent (procedurally,
methodologically and analytically) have been made possible with the coming of theInternational
Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) especially in the area of standardizing
237
statistical applications to crime events in terms oftrend, occurrenceand variations across time and
space with easy of reportage as well.
5.0 Summary
This unit examines the underlining principles used in the International Classification of Crime
for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) for which categories of criminal offences have emerged,
classified and standardized under a four broad levels (1,2,3, and 4) and subcategories for
comparative and analytical purposes globally. Some of the challenges in arriving at a universal
classification of crime were highlighted especially those dealing with legislative changes across
boundary, in time and space. Last with relevant examples tabularized, the implications of
disaggregating variables for better understanding were discussed.

1. Continuous legislative changes have hampered the attempt to build a comprehensive
listing of all criminal offences that exist globally. Discuss any two legislative changes
known to you.
2. Criminal offences can be seen, and classified, from a multitude of angles. List and
discuss any two of these angles.
3. Identify the three minimum set of disaggregating variables that should be applied to
criminal offences where relevant?
4. In crime statistics, why is it important to distinguish between different types of
killings/homicide?
5. In situations of armed conflict, what are the four (4) types of classifications of killings by
the ICCS?
6. International humanitarian law distinguishes between two types of armed conflict. What
are they?
7. List five of those behaviours that are often included or excluded in the data on criminal
offences (and perpetrators) and explain at least three of them.
8. Specify the numerical coding each for Level 1, 2,3, and 4 criminal offences.
9. There are four criteria used to form categories of the ICCS. List and explain all.
238
10. What are the four criteria used in choosing the 11 categories in Level 1 criminal
offences?
11. What are the three (3) core characteristics of an international statistical classification as
implemented in the ICCS?
12. What are the three standardized criteria often used for comparative and analytical
purposes in intentional homicide?
13. What does statistical classification entails? and highlight the primary focus of
classification.
14. Why are non-international armed conflicts more difficult to define and identify?
15. Why is the study of intentional homicide relevant to crime statistician?
Geneva Conventions (1947).International Humanitarian Law prohibits wilful killing of parties to
the conflict that are hors de combat, as well as treacherous killing of parties to the conflict.
Hancock, A. (2013). Best Practice Guidelines for Developing International Statistical
Schindler, D.(1979). ―The Different Types of Armed Conflicts According to the Geneva
Conventions and Protocols‖.RCADI Vol. 163 1979-II, p. 147, and ICTY, The Prosecutor
v. FatmirLimaj, Judgement, IT-03-66-T, 30 November 2005, paras.94 134.
United Nations.Statistical Division.UN Glossary of Classification Terms."Group". Available at:
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/class/family/glossary_short.asp. For reasons of clarity and space,
categories at the higher levels that are not further disaggregated are not repeated at the
lower levels.
239

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF

NIGERIAFACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE: CSS 830

CSS 830: VICTIMOLOGY AND CRIME STATISTICS

Course Developer/Writer IKUOMOLA,AdediranDaniel (Ph.D)

Course Coordinator Prof. Sam Obadiah Smah

Course Editor Dr. Dickson Ogbonnaya Igwe

Programme Leader Dr. Dickson Ogbonnaya Igwe

What You Will Learn In This Course

 International Classification of Crime for Statistical (ICCS) Purposes (An Overview)

At the end of the course, you should be able to:

 Understand the meaning, nature and scope of victimology

Working through this course

Major component of the course include:

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAS)

Final examination and grading

Course Marking Scheme

Course overview and Presentation Schedule

Unit Title Week‘s Assessment

13. Measuring Crime and Crime 13.

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

 Key concepts in victimizations debate

Viano, E. C. (1976). Victimology and its pioneers.Victimology: An International Journal,

Unit 1. Introduction and Background to Victimology

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

3.0 Main Content

The holistic understanding of victims vis-à-vis victimology as study came to be championed in

Benjamin Mendelsohn (1900–1998)

Table 1.1 Mendelsohn’s (1956) Victim Culpability Spectrum With Examples

Level of Victim Culpability Examples

Most Guilty Victim An individual killed while committing a

Hans von Hentig (1887–1974)

Table 1.2 Von Hentig’s Thirteen (13) Victim Risk Factors

Victim Characteristics Proneness to Crime Stems From

2. Females Physical Vulnerability

3. The Old Mental and Physical Vulnerability; Access to

4. The Mentally Defective Vulnerability From Defect or

5. Immigrants Challenges in Assimilation into a New Culture

(Von Hentig, 1948; Schafer, 1977)

Ezzat A. Fattah (b. 1929)

Table 1.3 Fattah‘s Victim Classification Scheme

Sara Margery Fry (1874–1958)

Stephen Schafer (1911–1976)

Table 1.4 Schafer‘s Victim Responsibility Typology

Unrelated Victims Criminal is solely responsible; there is no

Provocative Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercise

2. What does the term Victimity

7.0 References/Further Reading

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

3.0 Main Content

responsible. An example of victim provocation would be if a person attempted to mug a man

Benjamin Mendelsohn Victim Culpability Spectrum

Marvin Wolfgang’s revelations from his Homicides Study

Menachem Amir’s rape study (Evidential but controversial)

Menachem Amir, a student of Wolfgang‘s, conducted an empirical investigation into rape

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercise