TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Lecture 5 – Cross Section Elements

Dr. Muhammad Abdullah

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Management and Technology
Roadside Design Guide - AASHTO

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Geometric Design of Highway Facilities > Factors Influencing Highway Design

Cross-Section Elements

• The cross-section of a highway includes a number of elements critical to the

design of the facility.

• The cross-section view of a highway is a 90o cut across the facility from
roadside to roadside. The cross-section includes the following features:
• Travel lanes
• Shoulders
• Side slopes
• Curbs
• Medians and median barriers
• Guardrails
• Drainage channels

• General design practice is to specify the cross-section at each station (i.e., at

points 100 ft apart and at intermediate points where a change in the cross-
sectional design occurs).
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Geometric Design of Highway Facilities > Factors Influencing Highway Design

Cross-Section Elements

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Geometric Design of Highway Facilities > Factors Influencing Highway Design

Cross-Section Elements

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Cross-Section Elements

• Right of Way The right of way is the total land area acquired for the
construction of a highway.

• The width should be sufficient to accommodate all the elements of

the highway cross section, any planned widening of the highway, and
public-utility facilities that will be installed along the highway.
• The right of way for two-lane urban collector streets should be between 40
and 60 ft, whereas the desirable minimum for two-lane arterials is 84 ft.
• Right-of-way widths for undivided four-lane arterials vary from 64 to 108 ft,
whereas for divided arterials, they range from about 120 to 300 ft, depending
on the numbers of lanes and whether frontage roads are included.

• The minimum right-of-way widths for freeways depend on the

number of lanes and the existence of a frontage road.
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Cross-Section Elements
• Right of Way

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 Cross-Section Elements

• Number of Lanes
• The number of lanes needed for a facility is usually determined
during the concept stage of project development.
• It is usually the number of lanes necessary to accommodate
expected traffic volumes at a level of service determined to be
appropriate for the facility

Amanamba, E. C. (2016). Performance Evaluation of a ‘Priority-Controlled’Intersection Converted to Signal-Controlled Intersection. International Journal of Urban and Civil Engineering, 10(7), 969-978. 8
Cross-Section Elements

• Width of Travel Lanes

• Travel lane widths usually vary from 9 to 12 ft.
• Most arterials have 12-ft travel lanes since the extra cost for
constructing 12-ft lanes over 10-ft lanes is usually offset by the
lower maintenance cost for shoulders and pavement surface,
resulting in a reduction of wheel concentrations at the pavement
edges.
• Lane widths of 10 ft are therefore used only on low-speed
facilities. Lanes that are 9 ft wide are used occasionally in urban
areas if traffic volume is low and there are extreme right-of-way
constraints.

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Cross-Section Elements
• Width of Travel Lanes

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Cross-Section Elements

• Shoulders
• A shoulder is the part of the highway near the edges of the paved surface
that is designed to provide structural lateral support for the pavement.
• A shoulder also provides additional space for drivers to make corrective
actions, for stopped vehicles and for bicycle use, to increase sight distance on
horizontal curves, and to provide clearance for placement of road signs and
guardrails.
• The slope of the shoulder should be designed to be steeper than the traveled
way to encourage rapid drainage of the collected runoff from the traveled
way to drainage conduit.
• On the other hand, the slope should not be too steep to pose difficulty for
vehicles to use.
• Typical range of the slope is from 2 to 6%.

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Cross-Section Elements
• Shoulders

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Cross-Section Elements

• Shoulders
• Shoulder widths typically vary from as little as 0.6 m (2 ft) on minor
rural roads, where there is no surfacing, to about 3.6 m (12 ft) on
major highways, where the entire shoulder may be stabilized or
paved.

• The treatment of shoulders is important from a number of

perspectives:
• safety,
• the capacity of the highway section,
• impact on the surrounding environment,
• and both the initial capital outlay and ongoing maintenance and operating costs.

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Cross-Section Elements

• Shoulders
• Even with a maximum lane width of 3.6 m (12 ft), the
absence of a shoulder or the presence of an obstruction
at the edge of the travel lane can result in a reduction in
capacity of as much as 30 percent, compared to an area
where shoulder or clear zone exists that is a minimum 1.8
m (6 ft) wide.
• On the other hand, significant environmental, scenic, or
historic resources may be adversely affected by a
widened shoulder.

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Cross-Section Elements

• Medians
• A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in
opposing directions.

• The width of a median is the distance between the edges of the inside
lanes, including the median shoulders. The functions of a median
include:
• Providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
• Separating opposing traffic
• Providing stopping areas during emergencies
• Providing storage areas for left-turning and U-turning vehicles
• Providing refuge for pedestrians
• Reducing the effect of headlight glare
• Providing temporary lanes and cross-overs during maintenance operations

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Cross-Section Elements

• Median widths vary from a minimum of 4 to 80 ft or more. Median

widths should be as wide as possible but should be balanced with
other elements of the cross section and the cost involved.

• In general, the wider the median, the more effective it is in providing

safe operating conditions and a recovery area for out-of-control
vehicles.

• A minimum width of 10 ft is recommended for use on four-lane

urban freeways, which is adequate for two 4-ft shoulders and a 2-ft
median barrier.

• A minimum of 22 ft, preferably 26 ft, is recommended for six or more

lanes of freeway.
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Cross-Section Elements
• Medians

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Cross-Section Elements

• Flush medians are commonly used on urban arterials.

They can also be used on freeways, but with a median
barrier.

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Cross-Section Elements

• Raised medians are frequently used in urban arterial

streets

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Cross-Section Elements

• Raised medians facilitate the control of left-turn traffic at

intersections by using part of the median width for left-
turn-only lanes.

• Some disadvantages associated with raised medians

include:
• possible loss of control of the vehicle by the driver if the median
is accidentally struck, and

• they cast a shadow from oncoming headlights, which results in

drivers finding it difficult to see the curb.

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Cross-Section Elements
• Raised medians

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Cross-Section Elements
• Raised medians

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Cross-Section Elements

• Depressed medians are generally used on freeways and

are more effective in draining surface water.
• A side slope of 6:1 is suggested for depressed medians,
although a slope of 4:1 may be adequate.

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Cross-Section Elements

• Median Barrier: A median barrier is defined as a longitudinal

system used to prevent an errant vehicle from crossing the
portion of a divided highway separating the traveled ways for
traffic in opposite directions.
• The provision of median barriers must be considered when traffic
volumes are high and when access to multilane highways and other
highways is only partially controlled.
• However, when the median of a divided highway has physical
characteristics that may create unsafe conditions, such as a sudden
lateral drop-off or obstacles, the provision of a median barrier should
be considered regardless of the traffic volume or the median width.

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Cross-Section Elements

• Median barriers can be composed of cable or post and

beam systems or concrete.

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Cross-Section Elements
• Median barriers

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Cross-Section Elements

• Roadside barriers: protect vehicles from obstacles or

slopes on the roadside.

• They also may be used to shield pedestrians and property

from the traffic stream.

• Roadside barriers should be provided whenever

conditions exist requiring the protection for vehicles
along the side of the road.
• For example, when the slope of an embankment is high or when
traveling under an overhead bridge, the provision of a roadside
barrier is warranted.
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Cross-Section Elements
• Roadside barriers

Steel-Backed Timber Guardrail

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Cross-Section Elements

• Curbs: are raised structures made of either Portland

cement concrete or bituminous concrete (rolled asphalt
curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to
delineate pavement edges and pedestrian walkways.

• Curbs are also used to control drainage, improve

aesthetics, and reduce right of way.

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Cross-Section Elements

• Curbs can be generally classified as either vertical or sloping.

• Vertical curbs, (which may be vertical or nearly vertical), range in
height from 6 to 8 with steep sides, and are designed to prevent
vehicles from leaving the highway.
• Vertical curbs should also be avoided on highways with design speeds
greater than 40 mi/h, because at such speeds it is usually difficult for
drivers to retain control of the vehicle after an impact with the curb.

• Sloping curbs are designed so that vehicles can cross them if

necessary.

• Both vertical and sloping curbs may be designed separately or

as integral parts of the pavement.
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Cross-Section Elements
• Curbs

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Cross-Section Elements

• Guard Rails: Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the

outside of sharp curves and at sections with high fills.

• Their main function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the

roadway.
• They are installed at embankments higher than 8 ft and when
shoulder slopes are greater than 4:1.

• Shapes commonly used include the W beam and the box beam.

• The weak post system provides for the post to collapse on impact,
with the rail deflecting and absorbing the energy due to impact.

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Cross-Section Elements
• Guard Rails

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Cross-Section Elements

• Sidewalks: Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in

urban areas, but are uncommon in rural areas.
• Sidewalks should have a minimum clear width of 4 ft in
residential areas and a range of 4 to 8 ft in commercial areas.

• To encourage pedestrians to use sidewalks, they should have all-

weather surfaces since pedestrians will tend to use traffic lanes
rather than unpaved sidewalks.

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Cross-Section Elements
• Sidewalks

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Cross-Section Elements

• Cross slope: Slope perpendicular to flow of traffic on tangent

section

• Rural – normal crown –uniform slope from center to edge of

pavement (cross slope break typically at centerline)

• Urban – parabolic shape

• Drivers cross the crown line during passing maneuvers

• Difficult to negotiate steep slopes

• AASHTO Recommends
• High 1.5 to 2% (0.015 ft/ft or m/m)
• Intermediate 1.5 to 3%
• Low 2 to 6%
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Cross-Section Elements
• Cross slope

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Cross-Section Elements

• Side slopes
• Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide
stability for earthworks.
• They also serve as a safety feature by providing a recovery area
for out-of-control vehicles

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Cross-Section Elements

• The hinge point should be rounded since it is potentially

hazardous and may cause vehicles to become airborne
while crossing it

• The foreslope serves principally as a recovery area where

vehicle speeds can be reduced and other recovery
maneuvers taken to regain control of the vehicle
• The gradient of the foreslope should therefore not be high

• Slopes of 3:1 (horizontal : vertical) or flatter are generally used for

high embankments

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Cross-Section Elements
• Side slopes

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THANKS

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