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u5: thirty useful unix commands

last updated: december 2002
this leaflet contains basic information on thirty of the most frequently used unix
commands. it is intended for unix beginners who need a guide to the names and details of
commands that are likely to be of use to them.
every effort has been made to make this leaflet as generally valid as possible, but there
are many different versions of unix available within the university, so if you should find a
command option behaving differently on your local machine you should consult the on-
line manual page for that command. some commands have numerous options and there is
not enough space to detail them all here, so for fuller information on these commands use
the relevant on-line manual page.
the names of commands are printed in bold, and the names of objects operated on by
these commands (e.g. files, directories) are printed in teletype.

index of commands
cat - display or concatenate files mkdir - make a directory
cd - change directory more - scan through a text file page by page
chmod - change the permissions on a file or mv - move or rename files or directories
directory nice - change the priority at which a job is
cp - copy a file being run
date - display the current date and time passwd - change your password
diff - display differences between text files ps - list processes
file - determine the type of a file pwd - display the name of your current
find - find files of a specified name or type directory
ftp - file transfer program quota - disk quota and usage
grep - searches files for a specified string or rm - remove files or directories
expression rmdir - remove a directory
gzip - compress a file sort - sort and collate lines
help - display information about bash builtin slogin - secure remote login program
commands telnet - remote login program
info - read online documentation
kill - kill a process
lpr - print out a file
ls - list names of files in a directory
man - display an on-line manual page

cat - display or concatenate files

cat takes a copy of a file and sends it to the standard output (i.e. to be displayed on your
terminal, unless redirected elsewhere), so it is generally used either to read files, or to
string together copies of several files, writing the output to a new file.
cat ex

displays the contents of the file ex.

cat ex1 ex2 > newex

creates a new file newex containing copies of ex1 and ex2, with the contents of ex2
following the contents of ex1.

cd - change directory
cd is used to change from one directory to another.
cd dir1

changes directory so that dir1 is your new current directory. dir1 may be either the
full pathname of the directory, or its pathname relative to the current directory.
cd

changes directory to your home directory.

cd ..

moves to the parent directory of your current directory.

chmod - change the permissions on a file or directory

chmod alters the permissions on files and directories using either symbolic or octal
numeric codes. the symbolic codes are given here:-
u user + to add a permission r read
g group - to remove a permission w write
o other = to assign a permission explicitly x execute
(for files),
access
(for directories)
the following examples illustrate how these codes are used.
chmod u=rw file1

sets the permissions on the file file1 to give the user read and write permission on
file1. no other permissions are altered.

chmod u+x,g+w,o-r file1

alters the permissions on the file file1 to give the user execute permission on file1,
to give members of the user's group write permission on the file, and prevent any
users not in this group from reading it.
chmod u+w,go-x dir1

gives the user write permission in the directory dir1, and prevents all other users
having access to that directory (by using cd. they can still list its contents using ls.)

cp - copy a file
the command cp is used to make copies of files and directories.
cp file1 file2

copies the contents of the file file1 into a new file called file2. cp cannot copy a
file onto itself.
cp file3 file4 dir1

creates copies of file3 and file4 (with the same names), within the directory dir1.
dir1 must already exist for the copying to succeed.

cp -r dir2 dir3

recursively copies the directory dir2, together with its contents and subdirectories, to
the directory dir3. if dir3 does not already exist, it is created by cp, and the contents
and subdirectories of dir2 are recreated within it. if dir3 does exist, a subdirectory
called dir2 is created within it, containing a copy of all the contents of the original
dir2.

date - display the current date and time

date returns information on the current date and time in the format shown below:-
tue mar 25 15:21:16 gmt 1997

it is possible to alter the format of the output from date. for example, using the command
line
date '+the date is %d/%m/%y, and the time is %h:%m:%s.'

at exactly 3.10pm on 14th december 1997, would produce the output

the date is 14/12/97, and the time is 15:10:00.
diff - display differences between text files
diff file1 file2 reports line-by-line differences between the text files file1 and
file2. the default output will contain lines such as n1 a n2,n3 and n4,n5 c n6,n7 ,
(where n1 a n2,n3 means that file2 has the extra lines n2 to n3 following the line that
has the number n1 in file1, and n4,n5 c n6,n7 means that lines n4 to n5 in file1 differ
from lines n6 to n7 in file2). after each such line, diff prints the relevant lines from the
text files, with < in front of each line from file1 and > in front of each line from file2.

there are several options to diff, including diff -i, which ignores the case of letters
when comparing lines, and diff -b, which ignores all trailing blanks.
diff -cn

produces a listing of differences within n lines of context, where the default is three
lines. the form of the output is different from that given by diff, with + indicating
lines which have been added, - indicating lines which have been removed, and !
indicating lines which have been changed.
diff dir1 dir2

will sort the contents of directories dir1 and dir2 by name, and then run diff on the
text files which differ.

file - determine the type of a file

file tests named files to determine the categories their contents belong to.
file file1

can tell if file1 is, for example, a source program, an executable program or shell
script, an empty file, a directory, or a library, but (a warning!) it does sometimes
make mistakes.

find - find files of a specified name or type

find searches for files in a named directory and all its subdirectories.
find . -name '*.f' -print

searches the current directory and all its subdirectories for files ending in .f, and
writes their names to the standard output. in some versions of unix the names of the
files will only be written out if the -print option is used.
find /local -name core -user user1 -print

searches the directory /local and its subdirectories for files called core belonging to
the user user1 and writes their full file names to the standard output.
ftp - file transfer program
ftp is an interactive file transfer program. while logged on to one machine (described as
the local machine), ftp is used to logon to another machine (described as the remote
machine) that files are to be transferred to or from. as well as file transfers, it allows the
inspection of directory contents on the remote machine. there are numerous options and
commands associated with ftp, and man ftp will give details of those.

a simple example ftp session, in which the remote machine is the central unix service
(cus), is shown below:-
ftp cus.cam.ac.uk
if the connection to cus is made, it will respond with the prompt:-
name (cus.cam.ac.uk:user1) :
(supposing user1 is your username on your local machine). if you have the same
username on cus, then just press return; if it is different, enter your username on cus
before pressing return. you will then be prompted for your cus password, which will not
be echoed.
after logging in using ftp you will be in your home directory on cus some unix
commands, such as cd, mkdir, and ls, will be available. other useful commands are:
help

lists the commands available to you while using ftp.

get remote1 local1

creates a copy on your local machine of the file remote1 from cus. on your local
machine this new file will be called local1. if no name is specified for the file on the
local machine, it will be given the same name as the file on cus.
send local2 remote2

copies the file local2 to the file remote2 on cus, i.e. it is the reverse of get.
quit

finishes the ftp session. bye and close can also be used to do this.

some machines offer a service called "anonymous ftp", usually to allow general access
to certain archives. to use such a service, enter anonymous instead of your username
when you ftp to the machine. it is fairly standard practice for the remote machine to ask
you to give your email address as a password. once you have logged on you will have
read access in a limited set of directories, usually within the /pub directory tree. it is good
etiquette to follow the guidelines laid down by the administrators of the remote machine,
as they are being generous in allowing such access. see the computing service file
transfer pages for more detailed examples of using ftp.

when you use ftp the communications between the machines are not encrypted. if
available, the commands sftp (secure file transfer program) or scp (secure remote file
copy program) provide encrypted file transfer.

grep - searches files for a specified string or expression

grep searches for lines containing a specified pattern and, by default, writes them to the
standard output.
grep motif1 file1

searches the file file1 for lines containing the pattern motif1. if no file name is
given, grep acts on the standard input. grep can also be used to search a string of
files, so
grep motif1 file1 file2 ... filen

will search the files file1, file2, ... , filen, for the pattern motif1.
grep -c motif1 file1

will give the number of lines containing motif1 instead of the lines themselves.
grep -v motif1 file1

will write out the lines of file1 that do not contain motif1.

gzip - compress a file

gzip reduces the size of named files, replacing them with files of the same name
extended by .gz . the amount of space saved by compression varies.
gzip file1

results in a compressed file called file1.gz, and deletes file1.

gzip -v file2

compresses file2 and gives information, in the format shown below, on the
percentage of the file's size that has been saved by compression:-
file2 : compression 50.26 -- replaced with file2.gz

to restore files to their original state use the command gunzip. if you have a compressed
file file2.gz, then
gunzip file2

will replace file2.gz with the uncompressed file file2.

help - display information about bash builtin commands

help gives access to information about builtin commands in the bash shell. using help on
its own will give a list of the commands it has information about. help followed by the
name of one of these commands will give information about that commands. help
history, for example, will give details about the bash shell history listings.

info - read online documentation

info is a hypertext information system. using the command info on its own will enter
the info system, and give a list of the major subjects it has information about. use the
command q to exit info. for example, info bash will give details about the bash shell.

kill - kill a process

to kill a process using kill requires the process id (pid). this can be found by using ps.
suppose the pid is 3429, then
kill 3429

should kill the process.

lpr - print out a file

lpr is used to send the contents of a file to a printer. if the printer is a laserwriter, and the
file contains postscript, then the postscript will be interpreted and the results of that
printed out.
lpr -pprinter1 file1

will send the file file1 to be printed out on the printer printer1. to see the status of
the job on the printer queue use
lpq -pprinter1

for a list of the jobs queued for printing on printer1. (this may not work for remote
printers.)

ls - list names of files in a directory

ls lists the contents of a directory, and can be used to obtain information on the files and
directories within it.
ls dir1

lists the names of the files and directories in the directory dir1, (excluding files
whose names begin with . ). if no directory is named, ls lists the contents of the
current directory.
ls -a dir1

will list the contents of dir1, (including files whose names begin with . ).
ls -l file1
 gives details of the access permissions for the file file1, its size in kbytes, and the
time it was last altered.
ls -l dir1

gives such information on the contents of the directory dir1. to obtain the
information on dir1 itself, rather than its contents, use
ls -ld dir1

man - display an on-line manual page

man displays on-line reference manual pages.
man command1

will display the manual page for command1, e.g man cp, man man.
man -k keyword

lists the manual page subjects that have keyword in their headings. this is useful if
you do not yet know the name of a command you are seeking information about.
man -mpath command1

is used to change the set of directories that man searches for manual pages on
command1

mkdir - make a directory

mkdir is used to create new directories. in order to do this you must have write
permission in the parent directory of the new directory.
mkdir newdir

will make a new directory called newdir.

mkdir -p can be used to create a new directory, together with any parent directories
required.
mkdir -p dir1/dir2/newdir

will create newdir and its parent directories dir1 and dir2, if these do not already
exist.

more - scan through a text file page by page

more displays the contents of a file on a terminal one screenful at a time.
more file1

starts by displaying the beginning of file1. it will scroll up one line every time the
 return key is pressed, and one screenful every time the space bar is pressed. type ? for
details of the commands available within more. type q if you wish to quit more before
the end of file1 is reached.
more -n file1

will cause n lines of file1 to be displayed in each screenful instead of the default
(which is two lines less than the number of lines that will fit into the terminal's
screen).

mv - move or rename files or directories

mv is used to change the name of files or directories, or to move them into other
directories. mv cannot move directories from one file-system to another, so, if it is
necessary to do that, use cp instead.
mv file1 file2

changes the name of a file from file1 to file2 unless dir2 already exists, in which
case dir1 will be moved into dir2.
mv dir1 dir2

changes the name of a directory from dir1 to dir2.

mv file1 file2 dir3

moves the files file1 and file2 into the directory dir3.

nice - change the priority at which a job is being run

nice causes a command to be run at a lower than usual priority. nice can be particularly
useful when running a long program that could cause annoyance if it slowed down the
execution of other users' commands. an example of the use of nice is
nice compress file1

which will execute the compression of file1 at a lower priority.

passwd - change your password

use passwd when you wish to change your password. you will be prompted once for your
current password, and twice for your new password. neither password will be displayed
on the screen.

ps - list processes
ps displays information on processes currently running on your machine. this information
includes the process id, the controlling terminal (if there is one), the cpu time used so far,
and the name of the command being run.
ps

gives brief details of your own processes in your current session.

to obtain full details of all your processes, including those from previous sessions use:-
ps -fu user1

using your own user name in place of user1.

ps is a command whose options vary considerably in different versions of unix (such as

bsd and systemv). use man ps for details of all the options available on the machine you
are using.

pwd - display the name of your current directory

the command pwd gives the full pathname of your current directory.

quota - disk quota and usage

quota gives information on a user's disk space quota and usage.
quota

will only give details of where you have exceeded your disc quota on local disks,
whereas
quota -v

will display your quota and usage, whether the quota has been exceeded or not, and
includes information on disks mounted from other machines, as well as the local
disks.

rm - remove files or directories

rm is used to remove files. in order to remove a file you must have write permission in its
directory, but it is not necessary to have read or write permission on the file itself.
rm file1

will delete the file file1. if you use

rm -i file1

instead, you will be asked if you wish to delete file1, and the file will not be deleted
unless you answer y. this is a useful safety check when deleting lots of files.
rm -r dir1

recursively deletes the contents of dir1, its subdirectories, and dir1 itself, and should
be used with suitable caution.
rmdir - remove a directory
rmdir removes named empty directories. if you need to delete a non-empty directory rm
-r can be used instead.

rmdir exdir

will remove the empty directory exdir.

sort - sort and collate lines

the command sort sorts and collates lines in files, sending the results to the standard
output. if no file names are given, sort acts on the standard input. by default, sort sorts
lines using a character by character comparison, working from left to right, and using the
order of the ascii character set.
sort -d

uses "dictionary order", in which only letters, digits, and white-space characters are
considered in the comparisons.
sort -r

reverses the order of the collating sequence.

sort -n

sorts lines according to the arithmetic value of leading numeric strings. leading blanks
are ignored when this option is used, (except in some system v versions of sort,
which treat leading blanks as significant. to be certain of ignoring leading blanks use
sort -bn instead.).

slogin - secure remote login program

slogin is used for logging onto a remote machine and for executing commands on a
remote machine, and provides secure encrypted communications between the local and
remote machines using an ssh protocol. the remote machine must be running an ssh
server for such connections to be possible. for example,
slogin cus.cam.ac.uk

will commence a login connection to the central unix service.

you can connect using your password for the remote machine, or you can set up a
system of passphrases to avoid typing login passwords directly (see the man page for
ssh-keygen for information on how to create these).

telnet - remote login program

telnet communicates with another computer using the telnet protocol.
 telnet host1
will connect to the remote machine host1 (if it allows telnet connections). for
example, using telnet to connect to the central unix service
telnet cus.cam.ac.uk

will, if the connection is successful, get a response such as:-

trying 131.111.8.18...
connected to cus.cam.ac.uk.
escape character is '^ ]'.
sunos 5.8
login:

you can then login using your user name on cus.cam.ac.uk. if you use the escape
character instead, you will enter telnet's command mode (you'll get the prompt
telnet > ), and the command quit will get you back to the command line of your
local machine.
as communications between the two machines are not encrypted when using telnet, it
is preferable to use ssh, if that is available.

the information in this document may be available in other forms. please telephone the
information group coordinator on 334598 or e-mail documentation@ucs.cam.ac.uk to
discuss what is available, any special requirements for presentation and how we could
meet them.
url of this document: http://www.cam.ac.uk/cs/docs/leaflets/u5/index.html
for more documentation and faqs see http://www.cam.ac.uk/cs/docs/
© 2007 university of cambridge computing service
information provided by documentation@ucs.cam.ac.uk