Renaissance architecture

Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and
early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of
certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically,
Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture.
Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style
quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to Spain, France, Germany, England,
Russia and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact.

Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio,

Rome, 1502, by Bramante. This small
temple marks the place where St.
Peter was crucified.[1]
 The Temple of Vesta in Tivoli was the
model for Bramante's Tempietto.[1]

Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts,
as demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman
architecture, of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and
lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aediculae
replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings.

Historiography

The word "Renaissance" derives from the term rinascita, which means rebirth, first appeared in
Giorgio Vasari's Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (Lives of the Most Excellent
Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, 1550).

Although the term Renaissance was used first by the French historian Jules Michelet, it was given
its more lasting definition from the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt, whose book Die Kultur der
Renaissance in Italien, 1860 (The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860, English translation, by
SGC Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878) was influential in the development of the modern
interpretation of the Italian Renaissance. The folio of measured drawings Édifices de Rome moderne;
ou, Recueil des palais, maisons, églises, couvents et autres monuments (The Buildings of Modern
Rome), first published in 1840 by Paul Letarouilly, also played an important part in the revival of
interest in this period. Erwin Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, (New York:
Harper and Row, 1960) The Renaissance style was recognized by contemporaries in the term
"all'antica", or "in the ancient manner" (of the Romans).

Principal phases

Palladio's engraving of
Bramante's Tempietto
 Plan of Bramante's Tempietto
in Montorio

Historians often divide the Renaissance in Italy into three phases.[note 1] Whereas art historians
might talk of an Early Renaissance period, in which they include developments in 14th-century
painting and sculpture, this is usually not the case in architectural history. The bleak economic
conditions of the late 14th century did not produce buildings that are considered to be part of the
Renaissance. As a result, the word Renaissance among architectural historians usually applies to
the period 1400 to c. 1525, or later in the case of non-Italian Renaissances.

Historians often use the following designations:

Quattrocento (c. 1400–1500)

During the Quattrocento,[note 2] sometimes known as the Early Renaissance,[note 3] concepts of

architectural order were explored and rules were formulated. The study of classical antiquity led in
particular to the adoption of Classical detail and ornamentation. Space, as an element of
architecture, was used differently than it was in the Middle Ages. Space was organised by
proportional logic, its form and rhythm subject to geometry, rather than being created by intuition as
in Medieval buildings. The prime example of this is the Basilica di San Lorenzo in Florence by Filippo
Brunelleschi (1377–1446).[3]

High Renaissance (c. 1500–1525)

During the High Renaissance, concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used
with greater confidence. The most representative architect is Donato Bramante (1444–1514), who
expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings. His Tempietto di San
Pietro in Montorio (1503) was directly inspired by circular Roman temples. He was, however, hardly
a slave to the classical forms and it was his style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the
16th century.[4]

Mannerism (c. 1520–1600)

 The Piazza del Campidoglio

During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize
solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more
imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style was
Michelangelo (1475–1564), who frequently used the giant order in his architecture, a large pilaster
that stretches from the bottom to the top of a façade.[5] He used this in his design for the Piazza del
Campidoglio in Rome. Prior to the 20th century, the term Mannerism had negative connotations, but
it is now used to describe the historical period in more general non-judgemental terms.[6]

From Renaissance to Baroque

As the new style of architecture spread out from Italy, most other European countries developed a
sort of Proto-Renaissance style, before the construction of fully formulated Renaissance buildings.
Each country in turn then grafted its own architectural traditions to the new style, so that
Renaissance buildings across Europe are diversified by region. Within Italy the evolution of
Renaissance architecture into Mannerism, with widely diverging tendencies in the work of
Michelangelo and Giulio Romano and Andrea Palladio, led to the Baroque style in which the same
architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric. Outside Italy, Baroque architecture was
more widespread and fully developed than the Renaissance style, with significant buildings as far
afield as Mexico[note 4] and the Philippines.[note 5]

History

Development in Italy

Italy of the 15th century, and the city of Florence in particular, was home to the Renaissance. It is in
Florence that the new architectural style had its beginning, not slowly evolving in the way that
Gothic grew out of Romanesque, but consciously brought to being by particular architects who
sought to revive the order of a past "Golden Age". The scholarly approach to the architecture of the
ancient coincided with the general revival of learning. A number of factors were influential in
bringing this about.
 The Romanesque Florence Baptistery
was the object of Brunelleschi's
studies of perspective

Architectural

Italian architects had always preferred forms that were clearly defined and structural members that
expressed their purpose.[7] Many Tuscan Romanesque buildings demonstrate these characteristics,
as seen in the Florence Baptistery and Pisa Cathedral.

Italy had never fully adopted the Gothic style of architecture. Apart from Milan Cathedral,
(influenced by French Rayonnant Gothic), few Italian churches show the emphasis on vertical, the
clustered shafts, ornate tracery and complex ribbed vaulting that characterise Gothic in other parts
of Europe.[7]

The presence, particularly in Rome, of ancient architectural remains showing the ordered Classical
style provided an inspiration to artists at a time when philosophy was also turning towards the
Classical.[7]

Political

In the 15th century, Florence, Venice and Naples extended their power through much of the area that
surrounded them, making the movement of artists possible. This enabled Florence to have
significant artistic influence in Milan, and through Milan, France.

In 1377, the return of the Pope from the Avignon Papacy[8] and the re-establishment of the Papal
court in Rome, brought wealth and importance to that city, as well as a renewal in the importance of
the Pope in Italy, which was further strengthened by the Council of Constance in 1417. Successive
Popes, especially Julius II, 1503–13, sought to extend the Pope’s temporal power throughout Italy.[9]
Commercial

In the early Renaissance, Venice controlled sea trade over goods from the East. The large towns of
Northern Italy were prosperous through trade with the rest of Europe, Genoa providing a seaport for
the goods of France and Spain; Milan and Turin being centres of overland trade, and maintaining
substantial metalworking industries. Trade brought wool from England to Florence, ideally located
on the river for the production of fine cloth, the industry on which its wealth was founded. By
dominating Pisa, Florence gained a seaport, and also maintained dominance of Genoa. In this
commercial climate, one family in particular turned their attention from trade to the lucrative
business of money-lending. The Medici became the chief bankers to the princes of Europe,
becoming virtually princes themselves as they did so, by reason of both wealth and influence. Along
the trade routes, and thus offered some protection by commercial interest, moved not only goods
but also artists, scientists and philosophers.[9]

Pope Sixtus IV, 1477, builder of the

Sistine Chapel. Fresco by Melozzo da
Forlì in the Vatican Palace.

Religious

The return of the Pope Gregory XI from Avignon in September 1377 and the resultant new emphasis
on Rome as the center of Christian spirituality, brought about a surge in the building of churches in
Rome such as had not taken place for nearly a thousand years. This commenced in the mid 15th
century and gained momentum in the 16th century, reaching its peak in the Baroque period. The
construction of the Sistine Chapel with its uniquely important decorations and the entire rebuilding
of St. Peter's Basilica, one of Christendom's most significant churches, were part of this process.[10]

In the wealthy Republic of Florence, the impetus for church-building was more civic than spiritual.
The unfinished state of the enormous Florence Cathedral dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary did
no honour to the city under her patronage. However, as the technology and finance were found to
complete it, the rising dome did credit not only to the Virgin Mary, its architect and the Church but
also to the Signoria, the Guilds and the sectors of the city from which the manpower to construct it
was drawn. The dome inspired further religious works in Florence.

Four Humanist philosophers under the

patronage of the Medici: Marsilio
Ficino, Cristoforo Landino, Angelo
Poliziano and Demetrius
Chalcondyles. Fresco by Domenico
Ghirlandaio.

Philosophic

The development of printed books, the rediscovery of ancient writings, the expanding of political
and trade contacts and the exploration of the world all increased knowledge and the desire for
education.[7]

The reading of philosophies that were not based on Christian theology led to the development of
humanism through which it was clear that while God had established and maintained order in the
Universe, it was the role of Man to establish and maintain order in Society.[11]

Civil

Through humanism, civic pride and the promotion of civil peace and order were seen as the marks
of citizenship. This led to the building of structures such as Brunelleschi's Hospital of the Innocents
with its elegant colonnade forming a link between the charitable building and the public square, and
the Laurentian Library where the collection of books established by the Medici family could be
consulted by scholars.[12]

Some major ecclesiastical building works were also commissioned, not by the church, but by guilds
representing the wealth and power of the city. Brunelleschi’s dome at Florence Cathedral, more than
any other building, belonged to the populace because the construction of each of the eight
segments was achieved by a different quarter of the city.[7][12]
 Cosimo de' Medici the Elder,
head of the Medici Bank,
sponsored civic building
programs. Posthumous
portrait by Pontormo.

Patronage

As in the Platonic academy of Athens, it was seen by those of Humanist understanding that those
people who had the benefit of wealth and education ought to promote the pursuit of learning and
the creation of that which was beautiful. To this end, wealthy families—the Medici of Florence, the
Gonzaga of Mantua, the Farnese in Rome, the Sforzas in Milan—gathered around them people of
learning and ability, promoting the skills and creating employment for the most talented artists and
architects of their day.[12]

Rise of architectural theory

During the Renaissance, architecture became not only a question of practice, but also a matter for
theoretical discussion. Printing played a large role in the dissemination of ideas.

The first treatise on architecture was De re aedificatoria ("On the Subject of Building") by Leon
Battista Alberti in 1450. It was to some degree dependent on Vitruvius's De architectura, a
manuscript of which was discovered in 1414 in a library in Switzerland. De re aedificatoria in 1485
became the first printed book on architecture.

Sebastiano Serlio (1475 – c. 1554) produced the next important text, the first volume of which
appeared in Venice in 1537; it was entitled Regole generali d'architettura ("General Rules of
Architecture"). It is known as Serlio's "Fourth Book" since it was the fourth in Serlio's original plan
of a treatise in seven books. In all, five books were published.

In 1570, Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) published I quattro libri dell'architettura ("The Four Books of
Architecture") in Venice. This book was widely printed and responsible to a great degree for
 spreading the ideas of the Renaissance through Europe. All these books were intended to be read
and studied not only by architects, but also by patrons.

Spread of the Renaissance in Italy

The Church of the Certosa di Pavia,

Lombardy

In the 15th century the courts of certain other Italian states became centres for spreading of
Renaissance philosophy, art and architecture.

In Mantua at the court of the Gonzaga, Alberti designed two churches, the Basilica of Sant'Andrea
and San Sebastiano.

Urbino was an important centre with the ancient Ducal Palace being extended for Federico da
Montefeltro in the mid 15th century. The Duke employed Luciano Laurana from Dalmatia, renowned
for his expertise at fortification. The design incorporates much of the earlier medieval building and
includes an unusual turreted three-storeyed façade. Laurana was assisted by Francesco di Giorgio
Martini. Later parts of the building are clearly Florentine in style, particularly the inner courtyard, but
it is not known who the designer was.[13]

Ferrara, under the Este, was expanded in the late 15th century, with several new palaces being built
such as the Palazzo dei Diamanti and Palazzo Schifanoia for Borso d'Este.

In Milan, under the Visconti, the Certosa di Pavia was completed, and then later under the Sforza,
the Castello Sforzesco was built.[7]

Scuola Grande di San Marco, Venice

Venetian Renaissance architecture developed a particularly distinctive character because of local
conditions. San Zaccaria received its Renaissance façade at the hands of Antonio Gambello and
Mauro Codussi, begun in the 1480s.[14] Giovanni Maria Falconetto, the Veronese architect-sculptor,
introduced Renaissance architecture to Padua with the Loggia Cornaro in the garden of Alvise
Cornaro.

In southern Italy, Renaissance masters were called to Naples by Alfonso V of Aragon after his
conquest of the Kingdom of Naples. The most notable examples of Renaissance architecture in that
city are the Cappella Caracciolo, attributed to Bramante, and the Palazzo Orsini di Gravina, built by
Gabriele d'Angelo between 1513 and 1549.

Characteristics

Raphael's unused plan for St.

Peter's Basilica

The Classical orders were analysed and reconstructed to serve new purposes.[note 6] While the
obvious distinguishing features of Classical Roman architecture were adopted by Renaissance
architects, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure of
cities. Among the earliest buildings of the reborn Classicism were the type of churches that the
Romans had never constructed. Neither were there models for the type of large city dwellings
required by wealthy merchants of the 15th century. Conversely, there was no call for enormous
sporting fixtures and public bath houses such as the Romans had built.
Plan

The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions
are usually based on a module. Within a church, the module is often the width of an aisle. The need
to integrate the design of the plan with the façade was introduced as an issue in the work of Filippo
Brunelleschi, but he was never able to carry this aspect of his work into fruition. The first building to
demonstrate this was St. Andrea in Mantua by Alberti. The development of the plan in secular
architecture was to take place in the 16th century and culminated with the work of Palladio.

Facade of Sant'Agostino, Rome, built

in 1483 by Giacomo di Pietrasanta

Façade

Façades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. Church façades are generally surmounted by a
pediment and organised by a system of pilasters, arches and entablatures. The columns and
windows show a progression towards the centre. One of the first true Renaissance façades was the
Cathedral of Pienza (1459–62), which has been attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo
Gambarelli (known as Rossellino) with Alberti perhaps having some responsibility in its design as
well.

Domestic buildings are often surmounted by a cornice. There is a regular repetition of openings on
each floor, and the centrally placed door is marked by a feature such as a balcony, or rusticated
surround. An early and much copied prototype was the façade for the Palazzo Rucellai (1446 and
1451) in Florence with its three registers of pilasters.
 Classical Orders, engraving from the
Encyclopédie vol. 18. 18th century.

Columns and pilasters

Roman and Greek orders of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. The
orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against
a wall in the form of pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters,
and entablatures as an integrated system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated
system was in the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) by Brunelleschi.

Arches

Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in arcades,
supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the
capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental
scale at the St. Andrea in Mantua.

Vaults

Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic
vault which is frequently rectangular. The barrel vault is returned to architectural vocabulary as at
the St. Andrea in Mantua.
Domes

The Dome of St Peter's Basilica,

Rome.

The dome is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the exterior,
and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally. After the
success of the dome in Brunelleschi's design for the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore and its use in
Bramante's plan for St. Peter's Basilica (1506) in Rome, the dome became an indispensable element
in church architecture and later even for secular architecture, such as Palladio's Villa Rotonda.[note 7]

Ceilings

Roofs are fitted with flat or coffered ceilings. They are not left open as in Medieval architecture.
They are frequently painted or decorated.

Doors

Doors usually have square lintels. They may be set with in an arch or surmounted by a triangular or
segmental pediment. Openings that do not have doors are usually arched and frequently have a
large or decorative keystone.
Windows

Windows may be paired and set within a semi-circular arch. They may have square lintels and
triangular or segmental pediments, which are often used alternately. Emblematic in this respect is
the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, begun in 1517.

Courtyard of Palazzo Strozzi, Florence

In the Mannerist period the Palladian arch was employed, using a motif of a high semi-circular
topped opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings. Windows are used to bring light
into the building and in domestic architecture, to give views. Stained glass, although sometimes
present, is not a feature.

Walls

External walls are generally constructed of brick, rendered, or faced with stone in highly finished
ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. The corners of buildings are often emphasized by
rusticated quoins. Basements and ground floors were often rusticated, as at the Palazzo Medici
Riccardi (1444–1460) in Florence. Internal walls are smoothly plastered and surfaced with lime
wash. For more formal spaces, internal surfaces are decorated with frescoes.

Details

Courses, mouldings and all decorative details are carved with great precision. Studying and
mastering the details of the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance
theory. The different orders each required different sets of details. Some architects were stricter in
their use of classical details than others, but there was also a good deal of innovation in solving
problems, especially at corners. Mouldings stand out around doors and windows rather than being
recessed, as in Gothic architecture. Sculptured figures may be set in niches or placed on plinths.
They are not integral to the building as in Medieval architecture.[7]
Early Renaissance

The leading architects of the Early Renaissance or Quattrocento were Brunelleschi, Michelozzo and
Alberti.

Brunelleschi

The person generally credited with bringing about the Renaissance view of architecture is Filippo
Brunelleschi, (1377–1446).[15] The underlying feature of the work of Brunelleschi was "order".

Ospedale degli Innocenti in

Florence.

In the early 15th century, Brunelleschi began to look at the world to see what the rules were that
governed one's way of seeing. He observed that the way one sees regular structures such as the
Florence Baptistery and the tiled pavement surrounding it follows a mathematical order – linear
perspective.

The buildings remaining among the ruins of ancient Rome appeared to respect a simple
mathematical order in the way that Gothic buildings did not. One incontrovertible rule governed all
Ancient Roman architecture – a semi-circular arch is exactly twice as wide as it is high. A fixed
proportion with implications of such magnitude occurred nowhere in Gothic architecture. A Gothic
pointed arch could be extended upwards or flattened to any proportion that suited the location.
Arches of differing angles frequently occurred within the same structure. No set rules of proportion
applied.

From the observation of the architecture of Rome came a desire for symmetry and careful
proportion in which the form and composition of the building as a whole and all its subsidiary
details have fixed relationships, each section in proportion to the next, and the architectural features
serving to define exactly what those rules of proportion are.[16] Brunelleschi gained the support of a
number of wealthy Florentine patrons, including the Silk Guild and Cosimo de' Medici.

The dome of Florence Cathedral (the

Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore)

Florence Cathedral

Brunelleschi's first major architectural commission was for the enormous brick dome which covers
the central space of Florence's cathedral, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in the 14th century but left
unroofed. While often described as the first building of the Renaissance, Brunelleschi's daring
design utilises the pointed Gothic arch and Gothic ribs that were apparently planned by Arnolfo. It
seems certain, however, that while stylistically Gothic, in keeping with the building it surmounts, the
dome is in fact structurally influenced by the great dome of Ancient Rome, which Brunelleschi could
hardly have ignored in seeking a solution. This is the dome of the Pantheon, a circular temple, now a
church.

Inside the Pantheon's single-shell concrete dome is coffering which greatly decreases the weight.
The vertical partitions of the coffering effectively serve as ribs, although this feature does not
dominate visually. At the apex of the Pantheon's dome is an opening, 8 meters across. Brunelleschi
was aware that a dome of enormous proportion could in fact be engineered without a keystone. The
dome in Florence is supported by the eight large ribs and sixteen more internal ones holding a brick
shell, with the bricks arranged in a herringbone manner. Although the techniques employed are
different, in practice, both domes comprise a thick network of ribs supporting very much lighter and
thinner infilling. And both have a large opening at the top.[7]
 The church of San Lorenzo

San Lorenzo

The new architectural philosophy of the Renaissance is best demonstrated in the churches of San
Lorenzo, and Santo Spirito in Florence. Designed by Brunelleschi in about 1425 and 1428
respectively, both have the shape of the Latin cross. Each has a modular plan, each portion being a
multiple of the square bay of the aisle. This same formula controlled also the vertical dimensions. In
the case of Santo Spirito, which is entirely regular in plan, transepts and chancel are identical, while
the nave is an extended version of these. In 1434 Brunelleschi designed the first Renaissance
centrally planned building, Santa Maria degli Angeli of Florence. It is composed of a central octagon
surrounded by a circuit of eight smaller chapels. From this date onwards numerous churches were
built in variations of these designs.[17]

Michelozzo

Michelozzo Michelozzi (1396–1472), was another architect under patronage of the Medici family,
his most famous work being the Palazzo Medici Riccardi, which he was commissioned to design for
Cosimo de' Medici in 1444. A decade later he built the Villa Medici at Fiesole. Among his other
works for Cosimo are the library at the Convent of San Marco, Florence. He went into exile in Venice
for a time with his patron. He was one of the first architects to work in the Renaissance style
outside Italy, building a palace at Dubrovnik.[10]
 Palazzo Medici Riccardi by
Michelozzo. Florence, 1444

The Palazzo Medici Riccardi is Classical in the details of its pedimented windows and recessed
doors, but, unlike the works of Brunelleschi and Alberti, there are no classical orders of columns in
evidence. Instead, Michelozzo has respected the Florentine liking for rusticated stone. He has
seemingly created three orders out of the three defined rusticated levels, the whole being
surmounted by an enormous Roman-style cornice which juts out over the street by 2.5 meters.[7]

Alberti

Leon Battista Alberti, born in Genoa (1402–1472), was an important Humanist theoretician and
designer whose book on architecture De re Aedificatoria was to have lasting effect. An aspect of
Renaissance humanism was an emphasis of the anatomy of nature, in particular the human form, a
science first studied by the Ancient Greeks. Humanism made man the measure of things. Alberti
perceived the architect as a person with great social responsibilities.[10]

Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua, the

façade

He designed a number of buildings, but unlike Brunelleschi, he did not see himself as a builder in a
practical sense and so left the supervision of the work to others. Miraculously, one of his greatest
designs, that of the Basilica of Sant'Andrea in Mantua, was brought to completion with its character
essentially intact. Not so the Church of San Francesco in Rimini, a rebuilding of a Gothic structure,
which, like Sant'Andrea, was to have a façade reminiscent of a Roman triumphal arch. This was left
sadly incomplete.[10]
Sant'Andrea is an extremely dynamic building both without and within. Its triumphal façade is
marked by extreme contrasts. The projection of the order of pilasters that define the architectural
elements, but are essentially non-functional, is very shallow. This contrasts with the gaping deeply
recessed arch which makes a huge portico before the main door. The size of this arch is in direct
contrast to the two low square-topped openings that frame it. The light and shade play dramatically
over the surface of the building because of the shallowness of its mouldings and the depth of its
porch. In the interior Alberti has dispensed with the traditional nave and aisles. Instead there is a
slow and majestic progression of alternating tall arches and low square doorways, repeating the
"triumphal arch" motif of the façade.[18]

Façade of Santa Maria Novella, 1456–

70

Two of Alberti’s best known buildings are in Florence, the Palazzo Rucellai and at Santa Maria
Novella. For the palace, Alberti applied the classical orders of columns to the façade on the three
levels, 1446–51. At Santa Maria Novella he was commissioned to finish the decoration of the
façade. He completed the design in 1456 but the work was not finished until 1470.

The lower section of the building had Gothic niches and typical polychrome marble decoration.
There was a large ocular window in the end of the nave which had to be taken into account. Alberti
simply respected what was already in place, and the Florentine tradition for polychrome that was
well established at the Baptistery of San Giovanni, the most revered building in the city. The
decoration, being mainly polychrome marble, is mostly very flat in nature, but a sort of order is
established by the regular compartments and the circular motifs which repeat the shape of the
round window.[7] For the first time, Alberti linked the lower roofs of the aisles to nave using two large
scrolls. These were to become a standard Renaissance device for solving the problem of different
roof heights and bridge the space between horizontal and vertical surfaces.[19]

High Renaissance

In the late 15th century and early 16th century, architects such as Bramante, Antonio da Sangallo
the Younger and others showed a mastery of the revived style and ability to apply it to buildings
such as churches and city palazzo which were quite different from the structures of ancient times.
The style became more decorated and ornamental, statuary, domes and cupolas becoming very
evident. The architectural period is known as the "High Renaissance" and coincides with the age of
Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael.

Bramante

Donato Bramante, (1444–1514), was born in Urbino and turned from painting to architecture, finding
his first important patronage under Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, for whom he produced a
number of buildings over 20 years. After the fall of Milan to the French in 1499, Bramante travelled
to Rome where he achieved great success under papal patronage.[10]

The crossing of Santa Maria della

Grazie, Milan (1490)

Bramante’s finest architectural achievement in Milan is his addition of crossing and choir to the
abbey church of Santa Maria delle Grazie (Milan). This is a brick structure, the form of which owes
much to the Northern Italian tradition of square domed baptisteries. The new building is almost
centrally planned, except that, because of the site, the chancel extends further than the transept
arms. The hemispherical dome, of approximately 20 metres across, rises up hidden inside an
octagonal drum pierced at the upper level with arched classical openings. The whole exterior has
delineated details decorated with the local terracotta ornamentation. From 1488 to 1492 he worked
for Ascanio Sforza on the cathedral of Pavia, on which he imposed a central plan scheme and built
some apses and the crypt, inspired by the thermal baths of the Roman age.[20][21]

In Rome Bramante created what has been described as "a perfect architectural gem",[7] the
Tempietto in the Cloister of San Pietro in Montorio. This small circular temple marks the spot where
St Peter was martyred and is thus the most sacred site in Rome. The building adapts the style
apparent in the remains of the Temple of Vesta, the most sacred site of Ancient Rome. It is
enclosed by and in spatial contrast with the cloister which surrounds it. As approached from the
cloister, as in the picture above, it is seen framed by an arch and columns, the shape of which are
echoed in its free-standing form.
Bramante went on to work at the Vatican, where he designed the Cortile del Belvedere. In 1506 his
design for Pope Julius II’s rebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica was selected, and the foundation stone
laid. After Bramante’s death and many changes of plan, Michelangelo, as chief architect, reverted to
something closer to Bramante’s original proposal.[7]

The Palazzo Farnese, Rome (1534–

1545). Designed by Sangallo and
Michelangelo.

Sangallo

Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1485–1546) was one of a family of military engineers. His uncle,
Giuliano da Sangallo was one of those who submitted a plan for the rebuilding of St Peter’s and was
briefly a co-director of the project, with Raphael.[10]

Antonio da Sangallo also submitted a plan for St Peter’s and became the chief architect after the
death of Raphael, to be succeeded himself by Michelangelo.

His fame does not rest upon his association with St Peter’s but in his building of the Farnese Palace,
“the grandest palace of this period”, started in 1530.[7] The impression of grandness lies in part in its
sheer size, (56 m long by 29.5 meters high) and in its lofty location overlooking a broad piazza.
Unusually for such a large and luxurious house of the time, it was built principally of stuccoed brick,
rather than of stone. Against the smooth pink-washed walls the stone quoins of the corners, the
massive rusticated portal and the repetition of finely detailed windows produce an elegant effect.
The upper of the three equally sized floors was added by Michelangelo. The travertine for its
architectural details came not from a quarry, but from the Colosseum.[7]
 Palazzo Pandolfini, Florence, by
Raphael

Raphael

Raphael (1483–1520), born in Urbino, trained under Perugino in Perugia before moving to Florence,
was for a time the chief architect for St. Peter’s, working in conjunction with Antonio Sangallo. He
also designed a number of buildings, most of which were finished by others. His single most
influential work is the Palazzo Pandolfini in Florence with its two stories of strongly articulated
windows of a "tabernacle" type, each set around with ordered pilasters, cornice and alternate arched
and triangular pediments.[7]

Mannerism

Mannerism in architecture was marked by widely diverging tendencies in the work of Michelangelo,
Giulio Romano, Baldassare Peruzzi and Andrea Palladio, that led to the Baroque style in which the
same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric.

Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne.

Peruzzi

Baldassare Peruzzi, (1481–1536), was an architect born in Siena, but working in Rome, whose work
bridges the High Renaissance and the Mannerist period. His Villa Farnesina of 1509 is a very regular
monumental cube of two equal stories, the bays being strongly articulated by orders of pilasters.
The building is unusual for its frescoed walls.[7]

Peruzzi’s most famous work is the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne in Rome. The unusual features of
this building are that its façade curves gently around a curving street. It has in its ground floor a
dark central portico running parallel to the street, but as a semi enclosed space, rather than an open
loggia. Above this rise three undifferentiated floors, the upper two with identical small horizontal
windows in thin flat frames which contrast strangely with the deep porch, which has served, from
the time of its construction, as a refuge to the city’s poor.[19]
 Palazzo Te, Mantua

Giulio Romano

Giulio Romano (1499–1546), was a pupil of Raphael, assisting him on various works for the
Vatican. Romano was also a highly inventive designer, working for Federico II Gonzaga at Mantua
on the Palazzo Te (1524–1534), a project which combined his skills as architect, sculptor and
painter. In this work, incorporating garden grottoes and extensive frescoes, he uses illusionistic
effects, surprising combinations of architectural form and texture, and the frequent use of features
that seem somewhat disproportionate or out of alignment. The total effect is eerie and disturbing.
Ilan Rachum cites Romano as “one of the first promoters of Mannerism”.[10]

Michelangelo

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) was one of the creative giants whose achievements mark
the High Renaissance. He excelled in each of the fields of painting, sculpture and architecture, and
his achievements brought about significant changes in each area. His architectural fame lies chiefly
in two buildings: the interiors of the Laurentian Library and its lobby at the monastery of San
Lorenzo in Florence, and St Peter's Basilica in Rome.

St. Peter's was "the greatest creation of the Renaissance",[7] and a great number of architects
contributed their skills to it. But at its completion, there was more of Michelangelo’s design than of
any other architect, before or after him.

St Peter's Basilica
St. Peter's

The plan that was accepted at the laying of the foundation stone in 1506 was that by Bramante.
Various changes in plan occurred in the series of architects that succeeded him, but Michelangelo,
when he took over the project in 1546, reverted to Bramante’s Greek-cross plan and redesigned the
piers, the walls and the dome, giving the lower weight-bearing members massive proportions and
eliminating the encircling aisles from the chancel and identical transept arms. Helen Gardner says:
"Michelangelo, with a few strokes of the pen, converted its snowflake complexity into a massive,
cohesive unity."[12]

Michelangelo’s dome was a masterpiece of design using two masonry shells, one within the other
and crowned by a massive roof lantern supported, as at Florence, on ribs. For the exterior of the
building he designed a giant order which defines every external bay, the whole lot being held
together by a wide cornice which runs unbroken like a rippling ribbon around the entire building.

There is a wooden model of the dome, showing its outer shell as hemispherical. When Michelangelo
died in 1564, the building had reached the height of the drum. The architect who succeeded
Michelangelo was Giacomo della Porta. The dome, as built, has a much steeper projection than the
dome of the model. It is generally presumed that it was della Porta who made this change to the
design, to lessen the outward thrust. But, in fact it is unknown who it was that made this change,
and it is equally possible and a stylistic likelihood that the person who decided upon the more
dynamic outline was Michelangelo himself at some time during the years that he supervised the
project.[note 8]

The vestibule of the Laurentian Library

Laurentian Library

Michelangelo was at his most Mannerist in the design of the vestibule of the Laurentian Library,
also built by him to house the Medici collection of books at the convent of San Lorenzo in Florence,
the same San Lorenzo’s at which Brunelleschi had recast church architecture into a Classical mold
and established clear formula for the use of Classical orders and their various components.
Michelangelo takes all Brunelleschi’s components and bends them to his will. The Library is
upstairs. It is a long low building with an ornate wooden ceiling, a matching floor and crowded with
corrals finished by his successors to Michelangelo’s design. But it is a light room, the natural
lighting streaming through a long row of windows that appear positively crammed between the
order of pilasters that march along the wall. The vestibule, on the other hand, is tall, taller than it is
wide and is crowded by a large staircase that pours out of the library in what Nikolaus Pevsner
refers to as a “flow of lava”, and bursts in three directions when it meets the balustrade of the
landing. It is an intimidating staircase, made all the more so because the rise of the stairs at the
center is steeper than at the two sides, fitting only eight steps into the space of nine.

The space is crowded and it is to be expected that the wall spaces would be divided by pilasters of
low projection. But Michelangelo has chosen to use paired columns, which, instead of standing out
boldly from the wall, he has sunk deep into recesses within the wall itself. In the Basilica di San
Lorenzo nearby, Brunelleschi used little scrolling console brackets to break the strongly horizontal
line of the course above the arcade. Michelangelo has borrowed Brunelleschi’s motifs and stood
each pair of sunken columns on a pair of twin console brackets. Pevsner says the "Laurenziana [...]
reveals Mannerism in its most sublime architectural form".[19][22]

Il Gesù, designed by Giacomo della

Porta.

Giacomo della Porta

Giacomo della Porta, (c.1533–1602), was famous as the architect who made the dome of St.
Peter's Basilica a reality. The change in outline between the dome as it appears in the model and the
dome as it was built, has brought about speculation as to whether the changes originated with della
Porta or with Michelangelo himself.
Della Porta spent nearly all his working life in Rome, designing villas, palazzi and churches in the
Mannerist style. One of his most famous works is the façade of the Church of the Gesù, a project
that he inherited from his teacher Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola. Most characteristics of the original
design are maintained, subtly transformed to give more weight to the central section, where della
Porta uses, among other motifs, a low triangular pediment overlaid on a segmental one above the
main door. The upper storey and its pediment give the impression of compressing the lower one.
The center section, like that of Sant'Andrea at Mantua, is based on the triumphal arch, but has two
clear horizontal divisions like Santa Maria Novella. See Alberti above. The problem of linking the aisles
to the nave is solved using Alberti’s scrolls, in contrast to Vignola’s solution which provided much
smaller brackets and four statues to stand above the paired pilasters, visually weighing down the
corners of the building. The influence of the design may be seen in Baroque churches throughout
Europe.

Andrea Palladio

Andrea Palladio, (1508–80), "the most influential architect of the whole Renaissance",[7] was, as a
stonemason, introduced to Humanism by the poet Giangiorgio Trissino. His first major architectural
commission was the rebuilding of the Basilica Palladiana at Vicenza, in the Veneto where he was to
work most of his life.[10]

Villa Capra "La Rotonda"

Palladio was to transform the architectural style of both palaces and churches by taking a different
perspective on the notion of Classicism. While the architects of Florence and Rome looked to
structures like the Colosseum and the Arch of Constantine to provide formulae, Palladio looked to
classical temples with their simple peristyle form. When he used the triumphal arch motif of a large
arched opening with lower square-topped opening on either side, he invariably applied it on a small
scale, such as windows, rather than on a large scale as Alberti used it at Sant’Andrea’s. This Ancient
Roman motif[23] is often referred to as the Palladian Arch.

The best known of Palladio’s domestic buildings is Villa Capra, otherwise known as "La Rotonda", a
centrally planned house with a domed central hall and four identical façades, each with a temple-
like portico like that of the Pantheon in Rome.[24] At the Villa Cornaro, the projecting portico of the
north façade and recessed loggia of the garden façade are of two ordered stories, the upper
forming a balcony.[25]

Like Alberti, della Porta and others, in the designing of a church façade, Palladio was confronted by
the problem of visually linking the aisles to the nave while maintaining and defining the structure of
the building. Palladio’s solution was entirely different from that employed by della Porta. At the
church of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice he overlays a tall temple, its columns raised on high
plinths, over another low wide temple façade, its columns rising from the basements and its narrow
lintel and pilasters appearing behind the giant order of the central nave.[7]

Progression from Early Renaissance through to Baroque

Keystone with a profile of a man,

Palazzo Giusti, Verona, Italy

In Italy, there appears to be a seamless progression from Early Renaissance architecture through
the High Renaissance and Mannerism to the Baroque style. Pevsner comments about the vestibule
of the Laurentian Library that it "has often been said that the motifs of the walls show Michelangelo
as the father of the Baroque".

While continuity may be the case in Italy, it was not necessarily the case elsewhere. The adoption of
the Renaissance style of architecture was slower in some areas than in others, as may be seen in
England, for example. Indeed, as Pope Julius II was having the Old St. Peter's Basilica demolished to
make way for the new, Henry VII of England was adding a glorious new chapel in the Perpendicular
Gothic style to Westminster Abbey.

Likewise, the style that was to become known as Baroque evolved in Italy in the early 17th century,
at about the time that the first fully Renaissance buildings were constructed at Greenwich and
Whitehall in England,[note 9] after a prolonged period of experimentation with Classical motifs
applied to local architectural forms, or conversely, the adoption of Renaissance structural forms in
the broadest sense with an absence of the formulae that governed their use. While the English were
just discovering what the rules of Classicism were, the Italians were experimenting with methods of
breaking them. In England, following the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, the architectural
climate changed, and taste moved in the direction of the Baroque. Rather than evolving, as it did in
Italy, it arrived fully fledged.

In a similar way, in many parts of Europe that had few purely classical and ordered buildings like
Brunelleschi’s Santo Spirito and Michelozzo’s Medici Riccardi Palace, Baroque architecture
appeared almost unheralded, on the heels of a sort of Proto-Renaissance local style.[26] The spread
of the Baroque and its replacement of traditional and more conservative Renaissance architecture
was particularly apparent in the building of churches as part of the Counter Reformation.[19]

Spread in Europe

The 16th century saw the economic and political ascendancy of France and Spain, and then later of
England, Germany, Poland and Russia and the Low Countries. The result was that these places
began to import the Renaissance style as indicators of their new cultural position. This also meant
that it was not until about 1500 and later that signs of Renaissance architectural style began to
appear outside Italy.

Though Italian architects were highly sought after, such as Sebastiano Serlio in France, Aristotile
Fioravanti in Russia, and Francesco Fiorentino in Poland, soon, non-Italians were studying Italian
architecture and translating it into their own idiom. These included Philibert de l'Orme (1510–1570)
in France, Juan Bautista de Toledo (died: 1567) in Spain, Inigo Jones (1573–1652) in England and
Elias Holl (1573–1646) in Germany.[26]

Books or ornament prints with engraved illustrations demonstrating plans and ornament were very
important in spreading Renaissance styles in Northern Europe, with among the most important
authors being Androuet du Cerceau in France, and Hans Vredeman de Vries in the Netherlands, and
Wendel Dietterlin, author of Architectura (1593–94) in Germany.

Baltic States

The House of the Blackheads in Riga,

Latvia
The Renaissance arrived late in what is today Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the so-called Baltic
States, and did not make a great imprint architecturally. It was a politically tumultuous time, marked
by the decline of the State of the Teutonic Order and the Livonian War.

In Estonia, artistic influences came from Dutch, Swedish and Polish sources.[27] The building of the
Brotherhood of the Blackheads in Tallinn with a façade designed by Arent Passer, is the only truly
Renaissance building in the country that has survived more or less intact.[28] Significantly for these
troubled times, the only other examples are purely military buildings, such as the Fat Margaret
cannon tower, also in Tallinn.[29]

Latvian Renaissance architecture was influenced by Polish-Lithuanian and Dutch style, with
Mannerism following from Gothic without intermediaries. St. John's Church in the Latvian capital of
Riga is an example of an earlier Gothic church which was reconstructed in 1587–89 by the Dutch
architect Gert Freze (Joris Phraeze). The prime example of Renaissance architecture in Latvia is the
heavily decorated House of the Blackheads, rebuilt from an earlier Medieval structure into its
present Mannerist forms as late as 1619–25 by the architects A. and L. Jansen. It was destroyed
during World War II and rebuilt during the 1990s.[30]

Lithuania meanwhile formed a large dual state with Poland, known as the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth. Renaissance influences grew stronger during the reign of the Grand Dukes of
Lithuania Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus. The Palace of the Grand Dukes of
Lithuania (destroyed in 1801, a copy built in 2002–2009) show Italian influences. Several architects
of Italian origin were active in the country, including Bernardino Zanobi de Gianotis, Giovanni Cini
and Giovanni Maria Mosca.[31]

Bohemia

Royal Summer Palace in Prague is

considered the purest Renaissance
architecture outside of Italy.[32]

The Renaissance style first appeared in the Crown of Bohemia in the 1490s. Bohemia together with
its incorporated lands, especially Moravia, thus ranked among the areas of the Holy Roman Empire
with the earliest known examples of the Renaissance architecture.[33]

The lands of the Bohemian Crown were never part of the ancient Roman Empire, thus they missed
their own ancient classical heritage and had to be dependent on the primarily Italian models. As
well as in other Central European countries the Gothic style kept its position especially in the church
architecture. The traditional Gothic architecture was considered timeless and therefore able to
express the sacredness. The Renaissance architecture coexisted with the Gothic style in Bohemia
and Moravia until the late 16th century (e. g. the residential part of a palace was built in the modern
Renaissance style but its chapel was designed with Gothic elements). The façades of Czech
Renaissance buildings were often decorated with sgraffito (figural or ornamental).

During the reign of Holy Roman Emperor and Bohemian King Rudolph II, the city of Prague became
one of the most important European centers of the late Renaissance art (so-called Mannerism).
Nevertheless, not many architecturally significant buildings have been preserved from that time.

Croatia

Cathedral of St James, Šibenik

In the 15th century, Croatia was divided into three states: the northern and central part of Croatia
and Slavonia were in union with the Kingdom of Hungary, while Dalmatia, with the exception of
independent Dubrovnik, was under the rule of the Venetian Republic. The Cathedral of St James in
Šibenik, was begun in 1441 in the Gothic style by Giorgio da Sebenico (Juraj Dalmatinac). Its unusual
construction does not use mortar, the stone blocks, pilasters and ribs being bonded with joints and
slots in the way that was usual in wooden constructions. In 1477 the work was unfinished, and
continued under Niccolò di Giovanni Fiorentino, who respected the mode of construction and the
plan of the former architect, but continued the work which includes the upper windows, the vaults
and the dome, in the Renaissance style. The combination of a high barrel vault with lower half-barrel
vaults over the aisles the gives the façade its distinctive trefoil shape, the first of this type in the
region.[34] The cathedral was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage List in 2001.
England

English Renaissance: Hardwick Hall

(1590–1597).

Renaissance architecture arrived in England during the reign of Elizabeth I, having first spread
through the Low countries where among other features it acquired versions of the Dutch gable, and
Flemish strapwork in geometric designs adorning the walls. The new style tended to manifest itself
in large square tall houses such as Longleat House.

The first great exponent of Italian Renaissance architecture in England was Inigo Jones (1573–
1652), who had studied architecture in Italy where the influence of Palladio was very strong. Jones
returned to England full of enthusiasm for the new movement and immediately began to design
such buildings as the Queen's House at Greenwich in 1616 and the Banqueting House at Whitehall
three years later. These works, with their clean lines, and symmetry were revolutionary in a country
still enamoured with mullion windows, crenellations and turrets.[7][35]

France

French Renaissance: Château de

Chambord (1519–39)

During the early years of the 16th century the French were involved in wars in northern Italy, bringing
back to France not just the Renaissance art treasures as their war booty, but also stylistic ideas. In
the Loire Valley a wave of building was carried and many Renaissance châteaux appeared at this
time, the earliest example being the Château d'Amboise (c. 1495) in which Leonardo da Vinci spent
his last years. The style became dominant under Francis I (See Châteaux of the Loire Valley).[7][16]
Germany

The Renaissance in Germany was inspired first by German philosophers and artists such as
Albrecht Dürer and Johannes Reuchlin who visited Italy. Important early examples of this period are
especially the Landshut Residence, the Castle in Heidelberg, Johannisburg Palace in Aschaffenburg,
Schloss Weilburg, the City Hall and Fugger Houses in Augsburg and St. Michael in Munich. A
particular form of Renaissance architecture in Germany is the Weser Renaissance, with prominent
examples such as the City Hall of Bremen and the Juleum in Helmstedt.

Juleum in Helmstedt, Germany

(example of Weser Renaissance)

In July 1567 the city council of Cologne approved a design in the Renaissance style by Wilhelm
Vernukken for a two storied loggia for Cologne City Hall. St Michael in Munich is the largest
Renaissance church north of the Alps. It was built by Duke William V of Bavaria between 1583 and
1597 as a spiritual center for the Counter Reformation and was inspired by the Church of il Gesù in
Rome. The architect is unknown.[7][9][16] Many examples of Brick Renaissance buildings can be
found in Hanseatic old towns, such as Stralsund, Wismar, Lübeck, Lüneburg, Friedrichstadt and
Stade. Notable German Renaissance architects include Friedrich Sustris, Benedikt Rejt, Abraham
van den Blocke, Elias Holl and Hans Krumpper.

Hungary

One of the earliest places to be influenced by the Renaissance style of architecture was the
Kingdom of Hungary. The style appeared following the marriage of King Matthias Corvinus and
Beatrice of Naples in 1476. Many Italian artists, craftsmen and masons arrived at Buda with the new
queen. Important remains of the Early Renaissance summer palace of King Matthias can be found
in Visegrád. The Ottoman conquest of Hungary after 1526 cut short the development of
Renaissance architecture in the country and destroyed its most famous examples. Today, the only
completely preserved work of Hungarian Renaissance architecture is the Bakócz Chapel
(commissioned by the Hungarian cardinal Tamás Bakócz), now part of the Esztergom Basilica.[36]
Habsburg Netherlands

Antwerp City Hall (finished in 1564)

As in painting, Renaissance architecture took some time to reach the Habsburg Netherlands and did
not entirely supplant the Gothic elements. An architect directly influenced by the Italian masters
was Cornelis Floris de Vriendt, who designed the city hall of Antwerp, finished in 1564. The style is
sometimes called the Flemish-Italian Renaissance style and is also known as the Floris style.[37] In
this style the overall structure was similar to that of late-Gothic buildings, but with larger windows
and much florid decoration and detailing in the Renaissance styles. This style became widely
influential across Northern Europe, for example in Elizabethan architecture, and is part of the wider
movement of Northern Mannerism.

Dutch Republic

In the early 17th century Dutch Republic, Hendrick de Keyser played an important role in developing
the "Amsterdam Renaissance" style, which has local characteristics including the prevalence of tall
narrow town-houses, the trapgevel or Dutch gable and the employment of decorative triangular
pediments over doors and windows in which the apex rises much more steeply than in most other
Renaissance architecture, but in keeping with the profile of the gable. Carved stone details are often
of low profile, in strapwork resembling leatherwork, a stylistic feature originating in the School of
Fontainebleau. This feature was exported to England.[7][16]

Poland

Courtyard of Wawel Castle

exemplifies first period of Polish
Renaissance
Polish Renaissance architecture is divided into three periods: The first period (1500–50) is the so-
called "Italian" as most of Renaissance buildings of this time were designed by Italian architects,
mainly from Florence, including Francesco Fiorentino and Bartolomeo Berrecci. Renowned
architects from Southern Europe became sought-after during the reign of Sigismund I the Old and
his Italian-born wife, Queen Bona Sforza. Notable examples from this period include Wawel Castle
Courtyard and Sigismund's Chapel.

In the second period (1550–1600), Renaissance architecture became more common, with the
beginnings of Mannerist and under the influence of the Netherlands, particularly in northern Poland
and Pomerania, but also in parts of Lesser Poland. Buildings of this kind include the Cloth Hall in
Kraków and city halls of Tarnów and Sandomierz. The most famous example is the 16th-century
Poznań Town Hall, designed by Giovanni Battista di Quadro.

In the third period (1600–50), the rising power of sponsored Jesuits and Counter Reformation gave
impetus to the development of Mannerist architecture and Baroque. Most notable example of this
peroid is Kalwaria Zebrzydowska park, mannerist architectural and park landscape complex and
pilgrimage park, which consists Basilica of St. Mary and 42 chapels modelled and named after the
places in Jerusalem and Holy Land. This is an UNESCO World Heritage Site. Another great example
from this peroid is Krasiczyn Castle, which is an palazzo in fortezza with a unique sgraffito wall
decorations, whose total area is about 7000 square meters. [38]

Portugal

Cloister of the Convent of Christ,

Tomar, Portugal, (1557–1591), Diogo
de Torralva and Filippo Terzi.

As in Spain, the adoption of the Renaissance style in Portugal was gradual. The so-called Manueline
style (c. 1490–1535) married Renaissance elements to Gothic structures with the superficial
application of exuberant ornament similar to the Isabelline Gothic of Spain. Examples of Manueline
include the Belém Tower, a defensive building of Gothic form decorated with Renaissance-style
loggias, and the Jerónimos Monastery, with Renaissance ornaments decorating portals, columns
and cloisters.

The first "pure" Renaissance structures appear under King John III, like the Chapel of Nossa Senhora
da Conceição in Tomar (1532–40), the Porta Especiosa of Coimbra Cathedral and the Graça Church
at Évora (c. 1530–1540), as well as the cloisters of the Cathedral of Viseu (c. 1528–1534) and
Convent of Christ in Tomar (John III Cloisters, 1557–1591). The Lisbon buildings of São Roque
Church (1565–87) and the Mannerist Monastery of São Vicente de Fora (1582–1629), strongly
influenced religious architecture in both Portugal and its colonies in the next centuries.[7]

Russia

Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to Russia by inviting a number of architects from
Italy, who brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance style elements with them,
while in general following the traditional designs of the Russian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese
architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow
Kremlin, damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th-century Vladimir Cathedral as a
model, and produced a design combining traditional Russian style with a Renaissance sense of
spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.

The Palace of Facets on the Cathedral

Square of the Moscow Kremlin.

In 1485, Ivan III commissioned the building of a royal Terem Palace within the Kremlin, with Aloisio
da Milano being the architect of the first three floors. Aloisio da Milano, as well as the other Italian
architects, also greatly contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. The small
banqueting hall of the Russian Tsars, called the Palace of Facets because of its facetted upper
story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario, and shows a more Italian style.

In 1505, an Italian known in Russia as Aleviz Novyi built twelve churches for Ivan III, including the
Cathedral of the Archangel, a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition,
Orthodox requirements and Renaissance style.
Scandinavia

Nordic Renaissance: Frederiksborg

Palace (1602–20)

The Renaissance architecture that found its way to Scandinavia was influenced by the Flemish
architecture, and included high gables and a castle air as demonstrated in the architecture of
Frederiksborg Palace. Consequently, much of the Neo-Renaissance to be found in the Scandinavian
countries is derived from this source.

In Denmark, Renaissance architecture thrived during the reigns of Frederick II and especially
Christian IV. Inspired by the French castles of the times, Flemish architects designed masterpieces
such as Kronborg Castle in Helsingør and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød. The Frederiksborg
Palace (1602–1620) is the largest Renaissance palace in Scandinavia.

Elsewhere in Sweden, with Gustav Vasa's seizure of power and the onset of the Protestant
reformation, church construction and aristocratic building projects came to a near standstill. During
this time period, several magnificent so-called "Vasa castles" appeared. They were erected at
strategic locations to control the country as well as to accommodate the travelling royal court.
Gripsholm Castle, Kalmar Castle and Vadstena Castle are known for their fusion of medieval
elements with Renaissance architecture.

The architecture of Norway was influenced partly by the occurrence of the plague during the
Renaissance era. After the Black Death, monumental construction in Norway came to a standstill.
There are few examples of Renaissance architecture in Norway, the most prominent being
renovations to the medieval Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen, Barony Rosendal in Hardanger, and the
contemporary Austrat manor near Trondheim, and parts of Akershus Fortress.

There is little evidence of Renaissance influence in Finnish architecture.

Spain

The Escorial (1563–1584), Madrid

In Spain, Renaissance began to be grafted to Gothic forms in the last decades of the 15th century.
The new style is called Plateresque, because of the extremely decorated façade, that brought to the
mind the decorative motifs of the intricately detailed work of silversmiths, the Plateros. Classical
orders and candelabra motifs (a candelieri) combined freely. As decades passed, the Gothic
influence disappeared and the research of an orthodox classicism reached high levels. Although
Plateresco is a commonly used term to define most of the architectural production of the late 15th
and first half of 16th century, some architects acquired a more sober personal style, like Diego Siloe,
and Andrés de Vandelvira in Andalusia, and Alonso de Covarrubias and Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón in
Castile. This phase of Spanish Renaissance is called Purism. From the mid-sixteenth century, under
such architects as Pedro Machuca, Juan Bautista de Toledo and Juan de Herrera there was a closer
adherence to the art of ancient Rome, sometimes anticipating Mannerism, examples of which
include the palace of Charles V in Granada and the Escorial.[7][9][16] This Herrerian style or
arquitectura herreriana of architecture was developed during the last third of the 16th century under
the reign of Philip II (1556–1598),[39] and continued in force in the 17th century, but transformed by
the Baroque style of the time.

Spread in the Colonial Americas

Cathedral Basilica of Salvador built

between 1657 and 1746, a UNESCO
WHS.[40]

Bolivia
Renaissance architecture spread to Colonial Bolivia, with examples being the Church of Curahuara
de Carangas built between 1587 and 1608[41] known as the "Sistine Chapel of the Andes" by the
Bolivians for its rich Mannerist decoration in its interior;[41] and the Basilica of Our Lady of
Copacabana built between 1601 and 1619[42] designed by the Spanish architect Francisco Jiménez
de Siguenza.

Brazil

The best-known examples of the Renaissance architecture in the Colonial Brazil are the Mannerist
Cathedral Basilica of Salvador built between 1657 and 1746[43] and the Franciscan Convent of Santo
Antônio in João Pessoa built between 1634 and 1779.[44]

The large Basilica of San Francisco in Quito, built

between 1535 and 1650,[45] a UNESCO World
Heritage Site city.

Dominican Republic

The House of the Five Medallions is a historic house built in 1540, located in Santo Domingo, this
preserves a Plateresque Renaissance facade.

Ecuador

The large Basilica of San Francisco in Quito, built between 1535 and 1650, is of Mannerist
Renaissance style.

Mexico

A notable example of Renaissance architecture in Colonial Mexico is the Cathedral of Mérida,

Yucatán, one of the oldest cathedrals in the Americas,[46] built between 1562 and 1598[47] and
designed by Pedro de Aulestia and Juan Miguel de Agüero.

Peru

Several of the churches of the city of Cusco were begun during the Renaissance period, including
Cusco Cathedral, (1539). Many others are Baroque in style.[48]
Legacy

During the 19th century there was a conscious revival of the style in Renaissance Revival
architecture, that paralleled the Gothic Revival. Whereas the Gothic style was perceived by
architectural theorists[note 10] as being the most appropriate style for Church building, the
Renaissance palazzo was a good model for urban secular buildings requiring an appearance of
dignity and reliability such as banks, gentlemen's clubs and apartment blocks.[note 11] Buildings that
sought to impress, such as the Paris Opera, were often of a more Mannerist or Baroque style.[note 12]
Architects of factories, office blocks and department stores continued to use the Renaissance
palazzo form into the 20th century, in Mediterranean Revival Style architecture with an Italian
Renaissance emphasis.[19][note 13]

Many of the concepts and forms of Renaissance architecture can be traced through subsequent
architectural movements—from Renaissance to High-Renaissance, to Mannerism, to Baroque (or
Rococo), to Neo-Classicism, and to Eclecticism. While Renaissance style and motifs were largely
purged from Modernism, they have been reasserted in some Postmodern architecture. The
influence of Renaissance architecture can still be seen in many of the modern styles and rules of
architecture today.

See also

List of Renaissance structures

Architecture portal

Notes

1. Some architectural histories e.g. Sir Banister Fletcher, include Baroque as a phase of Renaissance
architecture. Because of its extent, diversity and deviation from the Classical it is not included here and is
the subject of a main article.

2. The Italian translates literally to "fourteen-hundred" and coincides with the English "fifteenth century".

3. The Early Renaissance in architecture is most applicable to developments in Venice, where there was a
more fluid development between medieval and Renaissance styles than in Florence.[2]

4. Cathedral of Chihuahua, 1725–1826

5. Basilica Minore del Santo Niño, present structure 1735–39

6. The list of characteristics below is expanded from a list based on Banister Fletcher. See below.
 7. A major use of this feature is great dome of the US Capitol Building (begun 1856) in Washington, D.C. and
all the subsequent State Capitals buildings in the Renaissance Revival style.

8. Pevsner and Gardener suggest that Michelangelo began with the idea of a pointed dome, as in Florence,
then in his old age reverted to the lower silhouette, and that della Porta stuck to Michelangelo's original
concept. Mignacca, on the other hand, suggests that the pointed dome was Michelangelo's final, and
brilliant, solution to the apparent visual tension within the building.

9. The Queen's House, Greenwich and the Banqueting House, Whitehall

10. John Ruskin

Cambridge Camden Society

11. An influential example, The Reform Club in London (1841) by Charles Barry was closely inspired by the
Palazzo Farnese, discussed above Photos and commentary (http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/englan
d/london/barry/reform.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070929111457/http://www.bluff
ton.edu/~sullivanm/england/london/barry/reform.html) 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine

12. Charles Garnier

13. Louis Sullivan

References

1. Grundmann, Stefan, ed. (1998). "High Renaissance and Mannerism – Tempietto" (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Se1BbQ99KGUC&pg=PA123) . The Architecture of Rome: An Architectural History in 400
Individual Presentations (2nd Revised ed.). Stuttgart and London: Edition Axel Menges. pp. 123–125.
ISBN 978-3-936681-16-1.

2. John McAndrew Venetian Architecture of the Early Renaissance (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1980).

3. Howard Saalman. Filippo Brunelleschi: The Buildings. (London: Zwemmer, 1993).

4. Arnaldo Bruschi. Bramante (London: Thames and Hudson, 1977).

5. Mark Jarzombek, "Pilaster Play" (http://web.mit.edu/mmj4/www/downloads/thresholds28.pdf) (PDF),

Thresholds, 28 (Winter 2005): 34–41, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121026091320/http://we
b.mit.edu/mmj4/www/downloads/thresholds28.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2012,
retrieved 27 December 2010

6. Arnold Hauser. Mannerism: The Crisis of the Renaissance and the Origins of Modern Art. (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press,1965).

7. Banister Fletcher, History of Architecture on the Comparative Method(first published 1896, current edition
2001, Elsevier Science & Technology ISBN 0-7506-2267-9).

8. Joëlle Rollo-Koster, Raiding Saint Peter: Empty Sees, Violence, and the Initiation of the Great Western Schism
(1378), (Brill, 2008), 182.
 9. Andrew Martindale, Man and the Renaissance, 1966, Paul Hamlyn, ISBN unknown

10. Ilan Rachum, The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1979, Octopus, ISBN 0-7064-0857-8

11. J.R.Hale, Renaissance Europe, 1480–1520, 1971, Fontana ISBN 0-00-632435-5

12. Helen Gardner, Art Through the Ages, 5th edition, Harcourt, Brace and World.

13. UNESCO, Historic Centre of Urbino (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/828) Archived (https://web.archive.org/

web/20130119121157/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/828) 19 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine,
(retrieved 10-12-20123)

14. Marion Kaminski, Art and Architecture of Venice, 1999, Könemann, ISBN 3-8290-2657-9

15. Cropplestone, Trewin, World Architecture, 1963, Hamlyn. Page 243

16. Robert Erich Wolf and Ronald Millen, Renaissance and Mannerist Art, 1968, Harry N. Abrams.

17. Giovanni Fanelli, Brunelleschi, 1980, Becocci editore Firenze

18. Joseph Rykwert, Leonis Baptiste Alberti, Architectural Design, Vol 49 No 5–6, Holland St, London

19. Nikolaus Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture, Pelican, 1964, ISBN unknown

20. Benevolo, Leonardo (2002). The Architecture of the Renaissance. London- New York: Routledge. p. 250.
ISBN 0-415-26709-9.

21. "Duomo di Pavia" (https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/architetture/schede/PV240-00052/) .

Lombardia Beni Culturali. Retrieved 30 July 2022.

22. Ludwig Goldscheider, Michelangelo, 1964, Phaidon.

23. described by the architectural writer Sebastiano Serlio (1475–1554) in Tutte l'opere d'architettura et
prospetiva

24. Manfred Wundram, Thomas Pape, Paolo Marton, Andrea Palladio, Taschen, ISBN 3-8228-0271-9

25. Branco Mitrovic and Stephen R. Wassell, Andrea Palladio: Villa Cornaro in Piombino Dese (New York:
Acanthus Press, 2006, ISBN 0-926494-36-8

26. Janson, H.W., Anthony F. Janson (1997). History of Art, New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.. ISBN 0-8109-
3442-6.

27. Miljan, Toivo (2004). Historical Dictionary of Estonia. Scarecrow Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780810865716.

28. Viirand, Tiiu (2004). Estonia. Cultural Tourism. Kunst Publishers. p. 23. ISBN 9949407184.

29. Campbell, Gordon, ed. (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Northern Renaissance Art. Vol. 1. Oxford
University Press. pp. 601–602. ISBN 9780195334661.

30. Campbell, Gordon, ed. (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Northern Renaissance Art. Vol. 2. Oxford
University Press. p. 441. ISBN 9780195334661.
31. Campbell, Gordon, ed. (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Northern Renaissance Art. Vol. 2. Oxford
University Press. pp. 486–487. ISBN 9780195334661.

32. Prague : City Guidebook (1st ed.). Prague: Kartografie. 2000. p. 40. ISBN 80-7011-597-1.

33. Hamlin, Alfred D. (2010). History of architecture (https://books.google.com/books?id=g89phgpRZOEC&pg

=PA338) . Bremen: Salzwasser-Verlag. p. 338. ISBN 9783861952503. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20160304073634/https://books.google.cz/books?id=g89phgpRZOEC&pg=PA338&dq=) from the
original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2015.

34. "St James's Cathedral" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090506013344/http://www.sibenik.hr/vodic-eng/s

ibenik/kulturno_povijesna_bastina2.asp) . Archived from the original (http://www.sibenik.hr/vodic-eng/si
benik/kulturno_povijesna_bastina2.asp) on 6 May 2009.

35. John Summerson, Architecture in Britain 1530–1830, 1977 ed., Pelican, ISBN 0-14-056003-3

36. Image of Bakócz Chapel (http://www.hung-art.hu/kep/zmisc/faragvan/162_sz/bakocz01.jpg) Archived

(https://web.archive.org/web/20061023123437/http://www.hung-art.hu/kep/zmisc/faragvan/162_sz/bak
ocz01.jpg) 23 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine (1506–08)

37. Antwerp City Hall (http://www.citymayors.com/cityhalls/antwerp_cityhall.html) – detailed description

and history

38. Harald Busch, Bernd Lohse, Hans Weigert, Baukunst der Renaissance in Europa. Von Spätgotik bis zum
Manierismus, Frankfurt af Main, 1960
Wilfried Koch, Style w architekturze, Warsaw 1996
Tadeusz Broniewski, Historia architektury dla wszystkich Wydawnictwo Ossolineum, 1990
Mieczysław Gębarowicz, Studia nad dziejami kultury artystycznej późnego renesansu w Polsce, Toruń 1962

39. "Arquitectura Herreriana" (https://www.arteespana.com/arquitecturaherreriana.htm) .

www.arteespana.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 5 January 2019.

40. "Historic Centre of Salvador de Bahia" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/309) , World Heritage List (https://
whc.unesco.org/en/list/) , Paris: UNESCO

41. "Iglesia Curahuara de Carangas" (https://www.ibolivia.org/iglesia-curahuara-de-carangas) . ibolivia.org

(in Spanish). 7 August 2019.

42. Pepe Barrascout (5 August 2015). "Nuestra Señora de Copacabana – Bolivia" (https://catedraldeescuintla.
com/nuestra-senora-de-copacabana-bolivia/) . Cathedral of Escuintla website (in Spanish).

43. Flexor, Maria Helena Ochi. "Catedral Basílica". In: Igrejas e Conventos da Bahia. Series Roteiros do
Patrimônio, vol. II. Brasília: Iphan / Programa Monumenta, 2010, pp. 11-36

44. "João Pessoa – Convento e Igreja de Santo Antônio e Casa de Oração e Claustro da Ordem Terceira de
São Francisco" (http://www.ipatrimonio.org/?p=20302#!/map=38329&loc=-7.072784929445514,-34.5724
2965698242,11) . Brazilian heritage government Official website.
45. Instituto Cervantes Virtual Center. "16. Iglesia de San Francisco" (https://cvc.cervantes.es/artes/ciudades
_patrimonio/quito/paseo/igl_francisco.htm) . Spain.

46. Andrews, Anthony (1981). "Historical Archaeology in Yucatán: A Preliminary Framework". Historical
Archaeology. 15 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1007/BF03374010 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03374010) .
JSTOR 25615385 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25615385) . S2CID 163244523 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:163244523) .

47. A. Gutiérrez R. (24 May 2017). "Historia" (http://catedraldemerida.org.mx/historia/) . Merida Cathedral

Official website (in Spanish).

48. "Lima Cathedral" (http://www.famous-historic-buildings.org.uk/lima_cathedral_108.html) . famous-

historic-buildings.org.uk.

Bibliography

Christy Anderson. Renaissance Architecture. Oxford 2013. ISBN 978-0192842275

Sir Banister Fletcher; Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture, Architectural Press,
20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0-7506-2267-9.

Tadeusz Broniewski, Historia architektury dla wszystkich Wydawnictwo Ossolineum, 1990

Arnaldo Bruschi, Bramante, London: Thames and Hudson, 1977. ISBN 0-500-34065-X

Harald Busch, Bernd Lohse, Hans Weigert, Baukunst der Renaissance in Europa. Von Spätgotik bis zum
Manierismus, Frankfurt af Main, 1960

Trewin Cropplestone, World Architecture, 1963, Hamlyn. ISBN unknown

Giovanni Fanelli, Brunelleschi, 1980, Becocci editore Firenze. ISBN unknown

Christopher Luitpold Frommel, The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance, London: Thames and Hudson,
2007.

Helen Gardner, Art through the Ages, 5th edition, Harcourt, Brace and World, inc., ISBN 978-0-15-503752-6

Mieczysław Gębarowicz, Studia nad dziejami kultury artystycznej późnego renesansu w Polsce, Toruń 1962

Ludwig Goldscheider, Michelangelo, 1964, Phaidon, ISBN 0714832960

J.R.Hale, Renaissance Europe, 1480–1520, 1971, Fontana ISBN 0-00-632435-5

Arnold Hauser, Mannerism: The Crisis of the Renaissance and the Origins of Modern Art, Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1965, ISBN 0-674-54815-9

Brigitte Hintzen-Bohlen, Jurgen Sorges, Rome and the Vatican City, Konemann, ISBN 3-8290-3109-2

Janson, H.W., Anthony F. Janson, History of Art, 1997, New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.. ISBN 0-8109-3442-6

Marion Kaminski, Art and Architecture of Venice, 1999, Könemann, ISBN 3-8290-2657-9
 Wilfried Koch, Style w architekturze, Warsaw 1996, ISBN 83-7129-288-0

Andrew Martindale, Man and the Renaissance, 1966, Paul Hamlyn, ISBN

Anne Mueller von der Haegen, Ruth Strasser, Art and Architecture of Tuscany, 2000, Konemann, ISBN 3-8290-
2652-8

Nikolaus Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture, Pelican, 1964, ISBN 978-0-14-020109-3

Ilan Rachum, The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1979, Octopus, ISBN 0-7064-0857-8

Joseph Rykwert, Leonis Baptiste Alberti, Architectural Design, Vol 49 No 5–6, Holland St, London

Howard Saalman, Filippo Brunelleschi: The Buildings, London: Zwemmer, 1993, ISBN 0-271-01067-3

John Summerson, Architecture in Britain 1530–1830, 1977 ed., Pelican, ISBN 0-14-056003-3

Paolo Villa: Giardino Giusti 1993–94, pdf with maps and 200 photos

Robert Erich Wolf and Ronald Millen, Renaissance and Mannerist Art, 1968, Harry N. Abrams, ISBN not known

Manfred Wundram, Thomas Pape, Paolo Marton, Andrea Palladio, Taschen, ISBN 3-8228-0271-9

Further reading

Alberti, Leon Battista. 1988. On the Art of Building in Ten Books. Translated by Joseph Rykwert.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Anderson, Christy. 2013. Renaissance Architecture. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Buddensieg, Tilmann. 1976. "Criticism of Ancient Architecture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries." In Classical Influences on European Culture A.D. 1500–1700, 335–348. Edited by R. R.
Bolgar. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Hart, Vaughan, and Peter Hicks, eds. 1998. Paper Palaces: The Rise of the Architectural Treatise in
the Renaissance. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

Jokilehto, Jukka. 2017. A History of Architectural Conservation. 2d ed. New York: Routledge.

Koortbojian, Michael. 2011. "Renaissance Spolia and Renaissance Antiquity (One Neighborhood,
Three Cases)." In Reuse Value: Spolia and Appropriation in Art and Architecture, from Constantine to
Sherrie Levine. Edited by Richard Brilliant and Dale Kinney, 149–165. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.

Serlio, Sebastiano. 1996–2001. Sebastiano Serlio on Architecture. 2 vols. Translated by Vaughan

Hart and Peter Hicks. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

Smith, Christine. 1992. Architecture in the Culture of Early Humanism: Ethics, Aesthetics, and
Eloquence 1400–1470. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
 Waters, Michael J. 2012. "A Renaissance Without Order Ornament, Single-Sheet Engravings, and
the Mutability of Architectural Prints." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 71:488–
523.

Tafuri, Manfredo. 2006. Interpreting the Renaissance: Princes, Cities, Architects. New Haven: Yale
University Press.

Wittkower, Rudolf. 1971. Architectural Principles In the Age of Humanism. New York: Norton.

Yerkes, Carolyn. 2017. Drawing after Architecture: Renaissance Architectural Drawings and their
Reception. Venice: Marsilio.

External links

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