Types of Chemical Reactions

Ionic theory of solutions

 Certain substances produce freely
moving ions when they dissolve in water,
and these ions conduct an electric current in
an aqueous solution  “ ions in aqueous
solution”

Svante Arrhenius
(1884)

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 Electrolytes & Nonelectrolytes
• Motion of ions in solution:
• Solid crystals  ions are in fixed positions

• Solution  (dissolving process)  ions leave the crystal and become freely
moving  forming electrolyte

• An Electrolyte: is a substance that dissolves in water to give an electrically

conducting solution

Note that Na ions (small gray spheres) are attracted to the

negative wire, whereas Cl ions (large green spheres) are
attracted to the positive wire.

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Electrolytes & Nonelectrolytes

• Note that Not all electrolytes are ionic substances.

• Certain molecular substances dissolve in water to form ions  resulting

solution is electrically conducting  the molecular substance is an electrolyte.

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Electrolytes & Nonelectrolytes

• A nonelectrolyte: is a substance that dissolves in

water to give a nonconducting or very poorly
conducting solution.
• Example: Methanol (CH3OH)

• The solution process occurs because molecules of the

substance mix with molecules of water.

• Molecules are electrically neutral and cannot carry an

electric current the solution is electrically
nonconducting
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 Strong and Weak Electrolytes

 A strong electrolyte is an electrolyte that exists in solution almost entirely as ions. Most ionic solids that
dissolve in water do so by going into the solution almost completely as ions, so they are strong electrolytes.

 A weak electrolyte is an electrolyte that dissolves in water to give a relatively small percentage of ions.
These are generally molecular substances.
Solubility Rules

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 Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds
Soluble Statement Exceptions that makes it insoluble

Group IA and ammonium compounds are soluble

Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+ ------

CH3COO-, NO3- Acetates and nitrates are soluble

-----
Cl-, Br-, I- Most chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble AgCl, Hg2Cl2, PbCl2, AgBr, HgBr2, PbBr2, AgI,
HgI2, Hg2I2, PbI2

SO42- Most sulfates are soluble CaSO4, SrSO4, BaSO4, Ag2SO4, Hg2SO4, PbSO4

Insoluble Statement Exceptions that makes it soluble

CO32- Most carbonates are insoluble Group IA carbonates, (NH4)2CO3

PO43- Most phosphates are insoluble Group IA phosphate, (NH4)3PO4

S2- Most sulfides are insoluble Group IA sulfides, (NH4)2S

OH- Most hydroxides are insoluble Group IA hydroxides, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2
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Type of Chemical Equations

• A chemical reaction can be represented by:

 A molecular equation

 A complete ionic equation

 A net ionic equation

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The Molecular Equation
• Definition: A chemical equation in which the reactants and products are
written as if they were molecular substances, even though they may actually
exist in solution as ions.

• The equation tells that:

• Aqueous solutions of calcium hydroxide and sodium carbonate were added to the
reaction vessel  results  a precipitation of a white salt of calcium carbonate
(insoluble solid) & sodium hydroxide (soluble compound)

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The Complete Ionic Equation
• It is a chemical equation in which strong electrolytes (such as soluble ionic

compounds) are written as separate ions in the solution.

• (aq)  for soluble substances

• (s)  for insoluble substances

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The Net Ionic Equation
• It is an ionic equation from which spectator ions have been canceled.
• A spectator ion is an ion in an ionic equation that does not take part in the
reaction.

• Example: Write the net ionic equation for these reactions.

Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + NaOH (aq) Al(OH)3 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq) not balanced
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 TYPE OF
• Precipitation Reactions
CHEMICAL • Acid-Base Reactions
REACTIONS • Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions
PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
• Forms by mixing solutions of two ionic substances, and a solid ionic substance.
• Occurs in aqueous solution because one product is insoluble
• A precipitate: is an insoluble solid that separates from the solutions.

STRATEGIES FOR PREDICTING PRECIPITATION REACTION

 Determine if the reaction has a form of an exchange reaction
• A reaction between compounds that appears to involve the
exchange of parts between the two reactants 
• Anions exchange between two cations (or vice versa)
 Use the Solubility rules to predict if a precipitate will form
during the reaction
 Write the appropriate phase labels.
 SOLUBILITY RULES FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS
Rule Soluble Statement Exceptions that makes it insoluble

Group IA and ammonium

1 Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+ compounds are soluble ------

CH3COO-, NO3- Acetates and nitrates are soluble

2 -----
Cl-, Br-, I- Most chlorides, bromides, and AgCl, Hg2Cl2, PbCl2, AgBr, HgBr2,
3 iodides are soluble PbBr2, AgI, HgI2, Hg2I2, PbI2

SO42- Most sulfates are soluble CaSO4, SrSO4, BaSO4, Ag2SO4,

4 Hg2SO4, PbSO4

Insoluble Statement Exceptions that makes it soluble

CO32- Most carbonates are insoluble Group IA carbonates, (NH4)2CO3

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6 PO43- Most phosphates are insoluble Group IA phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
7 S2- Most sulfides are insoluble Group IA sulfides, (NH4)2S
8 OH- Most hydroxides are insoluble Group IA hydroxides, Ca(OH)2,
Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2
 PREDICTING PRECIPITATION REACTION

1. Exchange anions will get AgCl & Mg(NO3)2

2. Write the molecular equation

3. Verify the solubilities of the reactants (MgCl2 & AgNO3)  are they soluble?
4. In Rule 3 AgCl  insoluble & In Rule 2 Mg(NO3)2  soluble
We can write the appropriate phase labels
 Predicting Precipitation Reaction

• Molecular equation

• Net ionic equation

• Canceling spectator ions to obtain net ionic

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 Predicting Precipitation Reaction
Example:

1. What are the chemical formulas?

NaCl + Fe2+(NO3)2
2. What are the exchanging anions?
NaNO3 FeCl2

3. Write the molecular equation?

4. Check the solubility Rules?

NaCl + Fe2+(NO3)2 NR (no reaction) 18
Predicting Precipitation Reaction
Example:

1. What are the chemical formulas?

Al2(SO4)3 + NaOH
2. What are the exchanging anions?
Na2SO4 Al(OH)3
3. Write the molecular equation?

4. Check the solubility Rules?

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 Acid–Base Reactions

 An acid substance reacts with a substance called a base. Such reactions involve the transfer of a proton
between reactants
Name Formula Remarks
Acids
Acetic acid C2H4O2 Found in vinegar
Acetylsalicylic acid C9H8O4 Aspirin
Ascorbic acid C6H8O6 Vitamin C
Citric acid C6H7O7 Found in lemon juice
Hydrochloric acid HCl Found in gastric juice (digestive fluid in
stomach)
Bases
Ammonia NH3 Aqueous solution used as a household
cleaner
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime (used in mortar for building
construction)
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Milk of magnesia (antacid and laxative)
Citric acid Acetic acid
Acid–Base Reactions
An acid–base indicator is a dye used to distinguish between acidic and basic solutions by means of the
color changes it undergoes in these solutions. Such dyes are common in natural materials.

Litmus indicator solution turns red in acidic

solutions and blue in alkaline solutions. It
turns purple in neutral solutions.

Phenolphthalein is colorless in acidic

solution and pink in basic solution.
22
 Examples of Common Acids and Base
Name Formula Remarks
Acids
Acetic acid C2H4O2 Found in vinegar
Acetylsalicylic acid C9H8O4 Aspirin
Ascorbic acid C6H8O6 Vitamin C
Citric acid C6H7O7 Found in lemon juice
Hydrochloric acid HCl Found in gastric juice (digestive fluid in
stomach)
Bases
Ammonia NH3 Aqueous solution used as a household cleaner
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime (used in mortar for building
construction)
Magnesium Mg(OH)2 Milk of magnesia (antacid and laxative)
hydroxide
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 According to Arrhenius, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H,
when it dissolves in water.

 An Arrhenius base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions, OH, when it

dissolves in water.

Arrhenius
concept
 Brønsted and Lowry defined an acid as the species (molecule or ion) that
donates a proton to another species in a proton-transfer reaction. They defined
a base as the species (molecule or ion) that accepts a proton in a proton-transfer
reaction. According to this theory, acid–base reactions are proton-transfer
reactions.

H2O is said to donate a proton to NH3, and NH3 is said to accept a proton from H2O.

Brønsted-Lowry
concept
 • Structure of the hydrogen ion

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Strength of Acids & Base

Acid &Base
Classified to

Strong Weak
Strong electrolyte Weak electrolyte
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 Strength of Acids
• A strong acid is an acid that ionizes completely in water; it is a strong electrolyte.

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases

• A weak acid is an acid that only partly ionizes in water; it is a weak electrolyte.

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 Strength of Bases
 A strong base is a base that is present in aqueous solution entirely as ions, one of which is OH; it is a strong
electrolyte.
 A weak base is a base that is only partly ionized in water; it is a weak electrolyte.
Strong Acids & Bases List

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Neutralization (Acid-Base) Reactions
A reaction of an acid and a base that results in an ionic compound and possibly water. When a base is
added to an acid solution, the acid is said to be neutralized. The ionic compound that is a product of a
neutralization reaction is called a salt.
Neutralization (Acid-Base) Reactions

Although water is one of the products in most neutralization reactions, the reaction of an acid with
the base ammonia provides a prominent exception. Consider the reaction of sulfuric acid with
ammonia:
Important Terms
 Acids such as HCl and HNO3 that have only one acidic hydrogen atom per acid molecule are called
monoprotic acids.

 A polyprotic acid is an acid that yields two or more acidic hydrogens per molecule.

 Salts such as NaH2PO4 and Na2HPO4 that have acidic hydrogen atoms and can undergo neutralization with
bases are called acid salts.

Write the molecular equation and then the net ionic equation for the neutralization of nitrous acid, HNO2, by
sodium hydroxide, NaOH, both in aqueous solution. Use an arrow with H over it to show the proton transfer.
Acid–Base Reactions with Gas Formation
Salts like:
Carbonate, sulfites, & sulfide + acid  Salt + water + gaseous products

2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + 2H+ + 2Cl-  2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The net ionic equation for this reaction is:

CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)

 Some Ionic Compounds That Evolve Gases When Treated with Acids

Ionic compound Gas Example

Carbonate (CO32-) CO2 Na2CO3 + 2HCl  2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Sulfite (SO32-) SO2 Na2SO3 + 2HCl  2NaCl + H2O + SO2
Sulfide (S2-) H2S Na2S + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + H2S

Write the molecular equation and the net ionic equation for
the reaction of zinc sulfide with hydrochloric acid.
 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (RedOx Reactions)
These reactions involve the transfer of electrons between reactants.

An oxidation occurs when an atom or ion loses electrons.

A reduction occurs when an atom or ion gains electrons.

One cannot occur without the other.

 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (RedOx Reactions)
These reactions involve the transfer of electrons between reactants.

Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) Molecular equation

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s) Net ionic equation

 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (RedOx Reactions)

 Oxidation = loss of electrons Reducing agent = species that is oxidized

Reduction = gain of electrons Oxidizing agent = species that is reduced
 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions

• Oxidation number: The count of

electrons that atoms in a molecule
can share, lose or gain while forming
chemical bonds with other atoms of a
different element.

Remember that: oxidation number ≠ ionic charge

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 Oxidation Number Rules
1. The oxidation number of an atom in an elemental form = zero
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion = to the ion’s charge.
3. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a neutral compound is zero
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is = the charge on the ion
5. Hydrogen: +1 when combined with nonmetals, -1 when combined with metals
6. Oxygen: The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 in most of its compounds. (An exception is O in H2O2 and
other peroxides, where the oxidation number is -1.)
7. Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation numbers, although some are positive in certain compounds or ions
8. Fluorine always has an oxidation number of −1.
9. The other halogens have an oxidation number of −1 when they are negative; they can have positive oxidation
numbers, however, most notably in oxyanions.

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 Example 1

Since the oxidation number of an atom in an element is always zero, Ca and O in O2 have
oxidation number zero.
The oxidation number of Ca in CaO is +2
The oxidation number of O in CaO is –2
Calcium has gained an oxidation number from 0 to +2 so we say the calcium has been
oxidized
Oxygen has decreased from 0 to –2, we say oxygen has been reduced.

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• Oxidation number of N in N2O5

• Oxidation number of Mn in Mn2O7

• Oxidation number of Mn in MnO2

 Half-reaction
A half-reaction is one of two parts of an oxidation–reduction reaction, one part of which involves a
loss of electrons (or increase of oxidation number) and the other a gain of electrons (or decrease of
oxidation number).
 Oxidation = loss of electrons Reducing agent = species that is oxidized
Reduction = gain of electrons Oxidizing agent = species that is reduced
Half Reactions
Started with a neutral atoms

Na Cl

-e

Na Cl
Half Reactions

Na+ Cl- Oxidation

Na+ Cl- Reduction

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Stick together
Important Note

Oxidation  lose of e-  Oxidation number

0

Reduction  gain of e-  Oxidation number

0

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Steps to Balance the Half- Reactions
Step 1. Write an unbalanced equation
Step 2. Separate the process into half reactions
a) Assign oxidation numbers for each atom
b) Identify and write out all redox couples in reaction
c) Combine these redox couples into two half-reactions
Step 3. Balance the atoms in each half reaction
a) Balance all other atoms except H and O
b) Balance the charge with H+ or OH-
c) Balance the oxygen atoms with H2O
Step 4. Make electron gain equivalent to electron loss in the half-reactions
Step 5. Add the half-reactions together
Step 6. Simplify the equation
Finally, check that the elements and charges are balanced 47
Steps to Balance the Half- Reactions

FeI3 (aq) + Mg (s) Fe(s) + MgI2 (aq)

START TO TAKE NOTE

48
Steps to Balance the Half- Reactions

START TO TAKE NOTE

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Some Common Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
 Combination reaction

 Decomposition reaction

 Displacement reaction

 Combustion reaction
 Combination Reactions
A combination reaction is a reaction in which two substances combine to form a third substance.
Note that not all combination reactions are oxidation–reduction reactions.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

2Sb + 3Cl2 2SbCl3

Some combination reactions involve
compounds as reactants and are not
oxidation– reduction reactions. For
example:

CaO(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s)

Left: Sodium metal and chlorine gas.

Right: The spectacular combination reaction of sodium and chlorine.
 Decomposition Reactions

A decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a single compound reacts to give

two or more substances. Often these reactions occur when the temperature is
raised.

Not all decomposition reactions are of the oxidation–reduction type. For example,
calcium carbonate at high temperatures decomposes into calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide.
  Displacement Reactions
A displacement reaction (also called a single replacement reaction) is a reaction in which
an element reacts with a compound, displacing another element from it. Since these
reactions involve an element and one of its compounds, these must be oxidation–
reduction reactions.

Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

Activity Series of the Elements

The metals listed at the top are the strongest reducing agents
(they lose electrons easily); those at the bottom, the weakest. A
free element reacts with the monatomic ion of another element if
the free element is above the other element in the activity series.

*Cu, Hg, and Ag react with HNO3 but do not

produce H2. In these reactions, the metal is
oxidized to the metal ion, and NO3 ion is
reduced to NO2 or other nitrogen species.
 Combustion Reactions

A combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen, usually with the rapid
release of heat to produce a flame. The products include one or more oxides. Oxygen changes
oxidation number from 0 to -2, so combustions are oxidation–reduction reactions.

2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)

• Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

• Qualitative analysis involves the identification of substances or species

present in a material. For instance, you might determine that a sample of
water contains lead(II) ion.
• Quantitative analysis, involves the determination of the amount of a
substance or species present in a material.

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 Gravimetric analysis is a type of quantitative analysis in which the amount of a species in a material is
determined by converting the species to a product that can be isolated completely and weighed.
Precipitation reactions are frequently used in gravimetric analyses. In these reactions, you determine
the amount of an ionic species by precipitating it from solution. The precipitate, or solid formed in the
reaction, is then filtered from the solution, dried, and weighed. The advantages of a gravimetric
analysis are its simplicity (at least in theory) and its accuracy.
• Left: A solution of potassium chromate
(yellow) is poured down a stirring rod into a
solution containing an unknown amount of
barium ion, Ba2+. The yellow precipitate that
forms is barium chromate, BaCrO4.
•
Right: The solution is filtered by pouring it into
a crucible containing a porous glass partition.
Afterward, the crucible is heated to dry the
barium chromate. By weighing the crucible
before and afterward, you can determine the
mass of precipitate.

58
Volumetric Analysis
Volumetric analysis is a widely-used quantitative analytical method. As the name implies, this
method involves the measurement of volume of a solution of known concentration which is used
to determine the concentration of the analyte.
Example: Consider the reaction of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, with sodium hydroxide, NaOH.

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq)

Suppose a beaker contains 35.0 mL of 0.175 M H2SO4. How many milliliters of 0.250 M NaOH must
be added to react completely with the sulfuric acid?

Nickel sulfate, NiSO4, reacts with sodium phosphate, Na3PO4, to give a pale
yellow-green precipitate of nickel phosphate, Ni3(PO4)2, and a solution of
sodium sulfate, Na2SO4.

3NiSO4(aq) + 2Na3PO4(aq)  Ni3(PO4)2(s) + 3Na2SO4(aq)

How many milliliters of 0.375 M NiSO4 will react with 45.7 mL of 0.265 M
Na3PO4?

Answer:0.048 L NiSO4
 Titration is a procedure for determining the amount of substance A by adding a carefully measured
volume of a solution with known concentration of B until the reaction of A and B is just complete.
 Volumetric analysis is a method of analysis based on titration

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

An indicator is a substance that

undergoes a color change when a reaction
approaches completion
A flask contains a solution with an unknown amount of HCl. This solution is titrated with
0.207M NaOH. It takes 4.47 mL NaOH to complete the reaction. What is the mass of the HCl?

First, in order to determine the stoichiometry of the reaction, you start by writing the balanced
chemical equation.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Once you know the moles of HCl, you can use the molar mass of HCl to calculate the mass of
HCl.

A 5.00-g sample of vinegar is titrated with 0.108 M NaOH. If the vinegar requires 39.1 mL of the NaOH
solution for complete reaction, what is the mass percentage of acetic acid,CH3COOH, in the vinegar? The
reaction is:
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)  CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

Answer: 50.7%