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Written Assignment Unit 5

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Written Assignment Unit 5

Even without disease presence, an individual’s body will alter its function and structure.

According to Gschwind et al. (2013), several things may bring about this change in the body’s

cardiovascular system, which impacts the affected tissue or muscle’s function in the body. These

anatomical changes’ effects including aging are extensively diverse and may be pointed out at

the tissue, system, organ, cellular or molecular levels as playing a part in the cardiovascular

system’s altered function.

With aging, these changes entail the heart’s wall from the exterior to deeper, which are

the endocardium, myocardium as well the cardiac conduction systems. The cardiac conduction

system comprises the sinoatrial node, the atrioventricular bundle, the atrioventricular node, the

Purkinje cells and the atrioventricular bundle branches (OpenStax, 2018).

Aging comes with the cardiac structures’ progressive degeneration. This includes fibrotic

changes and adjustments in heart valves, elasticity loss, and infiltration and invasion with

amyloid. Notably, the age-related structural attributes that have the most significant effect entail

the heart’s left ventricular wall’s contractility. According to OpenStax, 2018 the heart’s pumping

capacity is lowered with age because of various changes impacting the heart muscle’s function

and structure compared with 220 beats a minute in youngsters.

For years, it was presumed that the heart goes through atrophy with proceeding and

advancing age. However, evidence indicates that an age-linked expansion in the left ventricular

posterior wall broadness of about 25% has been established between the 2nd and 7th decades. A

surge in the mass of the heart with aging, by and large, is attributable to a surge in the standard

and average cardiac myocyte size, while myocardial cells’ numbers reduce.
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Also, age causes a change in arterial vessels’ structure, which reduces the arterial vessel’s

elasticity, which might result in an increase in wall rigidity and vessel diameter, which impede

the vessel’s function. Aging factors like collagen lower elastin and coagulation calcification

increases the wall’s stiffening and thickening. Additionally, aging increases in valvular diameter

has been outlined in the entire four cardiac valves including the semilunar valve, aortic semilunar

valve, bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve. Notably, the greatest changes happened in the aortic

valve, which comprises the valve located between the aorta and the left ventricle. Here, calcific

deposits are frequently present.

Further, another anatomical adjustment and change is associated with the aorta. Here, the

aorta increases stiffness and becomes inflexible. The blood moving from the heart’s left ventricle

faces more opposition and resistance and hence cannot move as deep into the arteries. Also,

changes happen in the considerably peripheral vessel. Specifically, the arteries’ walls all through

the human body get thicker in order that they are stiffer and less flexible as well. The veins’

walls might get thicker with advancing years due to a surge in calcium deposits and increased

connective tissue. Also, the valves specifically tend to get incompetent and stiff and the varicose

veins grow. Due to the lower blood pressure in the veins, such changes are likely insignificant

for heart function. According to Jakovljevic 2018), the changes might of concern due to the

likelihood of thrombus formation and phlebitis.

The key changes to the changes in the cardiovascular system’s anatomical structure

caused by aging may be evident in heart rate and cardiac output. It is worth noting that cardiac

output during rest is not affected by age; instead, by aerobic capacity and maximum cardiac

output are lowered with age because of the vessel wall’s thickening. Additionally, changes in the
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volume of stroke are experienced with aging since aging impacts the structure. It is worth noting

that even healthy person might encounter a slight surge in stroke volume during rest.

It is also worth noting that arterial blood pressure comprises a cardiovascular efficiency

measure. Even though blood pressure is distinctively heightened amongst older adults, evidence

suggests that aging does not affect this cardiovascular index. Receptors known as baroreceptors

keep track of the blood pressure. Also, the baroreceptors adjust to assist in maintaining a

constant arterial blood pressure when an individual alters their positioning or is working on more

strenuous tasks. The baroreceptors are presumed to get less sensitive as age advances. This might

explain why the aged individuals experience orthostatic hypotension, where the blood pressure

suddenly falls when an individual goes from sitting or lying to standing (Dani et al., 2021). It is

worth noting that this results in dizziness due to less flow of blood to the human brain.

It is worth noting that Chapter 19 discussed the heart’s anatomy and its role and function.

Also, the heart is placed in the pericardial sac and resides within the mediastinal space in the

thoracic cavity. According to Klein et al. (2020), the pericardial sac comprises two combine

layers including a superficial fibrous capsule together with an innermost parietal pericardium

interlined with a serous membrane. Notably, the heart via the vein and the artery drives out blood

and returns the same blood to the heart to finish its full cycle. This also entails the process of

oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange that happens in the lungs. OpenStax (2018) reports that

several factors impact heart rate and stroke volume and jointly, they play a part in cardiac

function. Hormones and autonomic stimulation largely determine and regulate heart rate. Many

feedback loops play a part in maintaining homeostasis based on activity levels like the arterial

reflex, which the venous return determines. Blood volume, skeletal muscles’ activity and
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peripheral circulation changes determine venous return. Additionally, venous return affects and

determines the arterial reflex and preload. The filling duration directly associated with heart rate

also affects and determines preload. Then, preload affects both the end-diastolic volume and the

end-systolic volume. Notably, hormones and autonomic innervation predominantly regulate

contractility where contractility affects end-diastolic volume as does systolic afterload. Cardiac

output is the product of heart rate multiplied by stroke volume and stroke volume is the

difference between end-diastolic volume and end-systolic volume.

Chapter 20 discusses the blood vessels’ structure and function, which depicts the blood

vessels’ physiological function and anatomical structure and how they assist the blood perform

its function and role. Blood pressure’s components comprise diastolic pressure, which stems

from ventricular relaxation and systolic pressure, which stems from ventricular contraction. The

variables impacting blood pressure and flow in the systemic circulation comprise compliance,

cardiac output, blood viscosity, the blood vessels’ diameter and length and blood volume. In the

arterial system, the arterioles’ vasoconstriction and vasodilation are a considerable factor and

element in the systemic arterial blood pressure. According to OpenStax (2018), slight

vasodilation significantly reduces resistance and enhances flow, while slight vasoconstriction

significantly enhances resistance and reduces flow. Notably, any small changes and adjustments

in this structure affects the function too.

In summary, a change within the anatomical structure will lead to a change in the

cardiovascular system’s function, which would either reduce o increase blood flow and will

necessitate treatment to remedy excepting in growing older when it is unavoidable.

References

Dani, M., Dirksen, A., Taraborrelli, P., Panagopolous, D., Torocastro, M., Sutton, R., & Lim, P.

B. (2021). Orthostatic hypotension in older people: considerations, diagnosis and

management. Clinical Medicine, 21(3), e275.

Gschwind, Y. J., Kressig, R. W., Lacroix, A., Muehlbauer, T., Pfenninger, B., & Granacher, U.

(2013). A best practice fall prevention exercise program to improve balance,

strength/power, and psychosocial health in older adults: study protocol for a randomized

controlled trial. BMC geriatrics, 13, 1-13.

Jakovljevic, D. G. (2018). Physical activity and cardiovascular aging: Physiological and

molecular insights. Experimental gerontology, 109, 67-74.

Klein, A. L., Ming Wang, T. K., & Reyaldeen, R. (2020). Mortality and the Pericardial Sac: Are

We Only Scratching the Surface? Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 76(22),

2632-2634.

OpenStax. (2018). Anatomy & physiology. Houston, TX: Rice University. Retrieved from:

https://cnx.org/contents/FPtK1zmh@12.6:fEI3C8Ot@16/Preface