Professional Documents
Culture Documents
WC2 2
WC2 2
Figure: A single reflector and a cluster of closely-spaced reflectors. The reflector cluster
generates multipath components that are typically resolvable in wideband channels and non-
resolvable in narrowband channels.
OR
• With αn(t), τn(t), & ϕn(t) changing over time, they are characterized as
random processes which are assumed to be both stationary & ergodic.
• αn(t) is a function of path loss & shadowing while ϕn(t) depends on delay & Doppler,
hence the two random processes are assumed to be independent.
• Received signal may be considered as convolution of baseband input signal u(t) with
the equivalent lowpass time-varying channel impulse response c(τ,t) of the channel and
then up-converting to carrier frequency
where
τ is how long ago impulse was put into the channel for the current observation path delay
for MPC currently observed
Channel delay spread commonly characterized by average delay spread and rms delay
spread
Suppose the delay spread Tm of a channel is small relative to the inverse baseband
signal bandwidth Bu of the transmitted signal; that is, suppose Tm<< B u−1. We refer to
the fading in this scenario as narrowband fading which is a function of both the signal
bandwidth Bu and the channel delay spread Tm.
• When average delay spread ETm is small relative to inverse bandwidth of signal (ETm
≪ 1/Bu), it can be assumed that u(t − τn(t)) ≈ u(t), for all MPCs (for all n and t) i.e. the
signals “overlap"
• Compared to s(t) this shows that channel behaves as time-varying random coefficient
(complex scale factor) g(t) (i.e. as a random process). i.e. signal suffers only scaling by
a complex factor g(t)
• Assuming that u(t) = 1 (tone transmission) then g(t) = r(t)
• Hence
• Assuming αn(t), τn(t) & fDn(t) are changing slowly & considered constant over time
intervals of interest:
• αn(t) ≈ αn, τn(t) ≈ τn, & fDn(t)≈ fDn. Assumptionvalid for models without
dominant LOS
component
• With these assumptions, one can verify that
E[rQ(t)] = 0
E[r(t)] = 0
• If ϕn(t) uniform, in-phase/quad components are zero-mean Gaussian processes, indep.,
and stationary.
Also
i.e. autocorrelation does not depend on t and thus rI(t) and rQ(t) are wide-sense stationary
(WSS) random processes.
with autocorrelation
WIDEBAND FADING MODELS
• Multipath delay spread is greater than pulse width hence individual MPCs resolvable
• True when time difference between components exceeds signal bandwidth
• MPCs interfere with subsequently transmitted pulses; causing ISI
• This distortion can be mitigated through equalization, multicarrier modulation, and
spread spectrum.
• Note now that since we cannot set u(t−τn(t)) ≈ u(t), it may be possible to resolve the
different MPCs.
• As in narrowband case, rI(t) and rQ(t) components of c(τ, t) are independent Gaussian
processes with same autocorrelation, a mean of zero, and a cross-correlation of zero.
• Autocorrelation function of c(τ, t) is given by
• In practice, most channels are WSS, such that joint statistics of a channel measured at
two different times t & t+∆t depends only on time difference ∆t.
• Hence modelling channel as WSS, autocorrelation is independent of t
• Ac(τ; ∆t) = average output power associated with the channel as a function of multipath
delay τ = τ1 = τ2 and difference ∆t in observation time.
• Ac(τ, 0) = Ac(τ) is called multipath intensity profile or power delay profile and it
represents average power of the channel response at time τ to an impulse at time zero
i.e. power distributed over different paths
Multipath Intensity Profile
For Ac(τ, ∆t = 0)= Ac(τ)
Determines average delay spread or mean of TM and rms delay spread or standard
deviation of TM
Approximate max delay of significant MPC.
PARAMETERS OF MOBILE MULTIPATH CHANNELS
Power delay profiles are averaging instantaneous power delay profile over a local
area to determine an average small-scale power delay profile. Parameters of
mobile multipath channels includes
Time dispersion parameters
Coherence bandwidth
Doppler spread & Coherence time
Parameters that describes the time dispersive nature of the channel in a local area are
Delay spread
Coherence bandwidth
Parameters that describes the time varying nature of the channel in a small
scale region are
Doppler spread
Coherence time
The following multipath parameters are used to quantify the time dispersive
properties of wide bandmultipath channels:
The rms delay spread and mean excess delay are defined from a single power delay
profile which is thetemporal or spatial average of consecutive impulse response
over a local area.
This is the most important single measure for the delay times extent of a
multipath delay channel.
This parameter calculates the standard deviation value of the delay
of reflections.
The standard deviation value will be weighted proportional to the energy in
the reflected waves. The rms delay spread is the square root of the second
central moment of the power delay profile.
c. Maximum excess delay
The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile is defined to be
the time delay duringwhich multipath energy falls to X dB below the
maximum.
Figure 1.13:
Measured multipath
power delay
profiles
COHERENCE BANDWIDTH
The maximum frequency separation for which the signals are still strongly
correlated is calledcoherence bandwidth (Bc).
Coherence bandwidth, Bc, is derived from the rms delay spread.
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over
which the channel isconsidered to be flat .
If the signal bandwidth larger than Bc is transmitted through the channel, it will
subject to Frequencyselective distortion.
The channel will be referred as a frequency selective channel.
If the signal bandwidth is larger than Bc , it will experience amplitude attenuation
only with nodistortion.
This channel will be referred as a frequency non-selective fading channel.
Coherence time is the range of time over which similar fading occurs.
The Doppler spread and coherence time are inversely proportional to
one another.
Thus, if the transmitter, receiver, or the intermediate objects move very fast, the
Doppler spread is largeand the coherence time is small, i.e., the channel changes
fast.
That is,
If the reciprocal bandwidth of the baseband signal is greater than the coherence time of
the channel, then the channel will change during the transmission of the baseband
message, thus causing distortion at the receiver.
Figure 1.15: Types of small scale fading (Based on Multipath time delay spread)
a.Flat Fading:
Time characteristics
Received signal changes with time due to fluctuations in the gain of the
channel caused bymultipath.
Spectral characteristics
Multipath structure of the channel is such that the spectral characteristics
of the transmittedsignal are preserved at the receiver.
Channel characteristics
The amplitude and channel gain varies with time, but the spectrum of the
transmission ispreserved.
Flat fading channels are also known as amplitude varying channels (or)
narrowband channels ( since, the bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow
than the channel bandwidth).
Flat fading channels cause deep fades and requires 20 or 30 dB more
transmitter power toachieve low bit error rates.
Time varying statistics are like Rayleigh flat fading.
Rayleigh distribution channels are used to measure variations of amplitude.
A signal undergoes flat fading if
BS Bc and TS
Where
Bs Signal Bandwidth.
Bc Coherence bandwidth
Ts Reciprocal bandwidth (symbol period)
rms delay spread
b.Frequency Selective Fading
Time characteristics
For this, the received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitted
waveform whichare attenuated (delayed) and delayed in time. Hence the
received signal is distorted.
Spectral characteristics
Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted
symbols within thechannel. Thus the channel induces intersymbol
interference (ISI).
The received signal spectrum has greater gains than others.
Channel characteristics
The relation between the various multipath parameters and the type of
fading experienced by the signalare summarized in Figure.