Formalism

 Emphasizes close reading and analysis of the text to uncover its meaning and artistic
value

Formalism argues that everything needed to understand a work of literature can be

found within the text itself. Here are some key aspects of formalism:

1. Close Reading: Formalism emphasizes a detailed, careful examination of the text's

language, including word choice, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices.
The goal is to uncover layers of meaning that contribute to the overall interpretation of
the work.
2. Structure and Form: Formalists pay close attention to the organization of the text — its
narrative structure, use of chapters, stanzas, rhyme schemes in poetry, and other formal
elements. The way a story is told or a poem is structured is seen as crucial to its
interpretation.
3. Literary Devices and Techniques: Formalism involves analyzing the use of literary
devices such as metaphor, simile, alliteration, assonance, and others. By examining how
these devices contribute to the text's meaning, formalists argue that one can gain a
deeper understanding of the work's artistic value.

EXAMPLE

The Tyger by William Blake REPITION AND METER (AABB)

In what distant deeps or skies,

Burnt the fire of thine eyes?

On what wings dare he aspire?

What the hand, dare seize the fire?

Structuralism
Explores the underlying structures and patterns in literature to understand how meaning is
constructed. Theories that question the stability of meaning and the possibility of truly
understanding the structures that underlie language and culture.

EXAMPLE : Structuralist Criticism in "The Story of an Hour"

The subject of "A Story of an Hour" Kate Chopin is the liberation of a repressed housewife in the 1800s.
Analyzing the symbols and the language used by the authors the reader to this conclusion

Signs and Symbols:

"She could see in the open square before her house the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the
new spring life."

The trees "aquiver with new life" are symbols that act as a contradiction to Louise Mallard's husband's
death. This line is arranged in the location where the main character is beginning to come to terms with
the sudden death. As Mrs. Mallard is gazing out the window, seeing the new life around her, the
realization of a new life begins to dawn on her. The signs and symbols in this line are important in the
development of the purpose of "The Story of an Hour!"

Poststructuralism
Emphasizes the role of language, power, and subjectivity in shaping meaning.

Theories focus on how meaning is constructed through language and how language is used to shape
power dynamics. In everyday life, people can apply these theories by critically examining the language
they use and the meanings that are attached to it.

Feminist
Focuses on the representation of women, gender roles, and the social and cultural context of literary
works.

explores gender inequality, aiming to understand its roots and nature. In sociology, feminism is a key
conflict theory, which argues that society is in continuous conflict due to the inequalities between men
and women
Geoffrey Chaucer's text 'The Wife of Bath' in his collection of stories The Canterbury Tales (1392).

In 'The Wife of Bath', the narrator, Alison, is portrayed as a strong-willed woman who subverts
traditional expectations of femininity. She argues for women's right to marry freely. The Wife of Bath
represents feminism and the belief that women should be given power and control. She also represents
the idea that women do not need to conform to the norms of the time and can enjoy their own
sexuality.
Postcolonial Theory
Explores themes of power, resistance, and the legacy of colonialism. Explores literature from the
perspective of colonized peoples and their experiences. Body of thought that is most concerned with
the economic, historical, and cultural impact of European colonial rule.
Many famous authors have written classic, transformative novels that have realistically portrayed the
way native communities were affected by colonialism.
EXAMPLE

Chinua Achebe's 'An Image of Africa' (1975) Beautifully written yet highly controversial, An Image
of Africa asserts Achebe's belief in Joseph Conrad as a 'bloody racist' and his conviction that
Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness only serves to perpetuate damaging stereotypes of black
people.

Marxism
Deals with the theory and practice of socialism. It propagates the establishment of a
classless society. Examines how literature reflects and reinforces power dynamics, social
structures, and economic inequalities within society.

MODERN CRITICISM
These CRITICISM offer unique insights into the ways in which literature engages with and reflects
societal issues, power dynamics, and cultural norms, providing valuable frameworks for interpreting
and analyzing literary texts in a modern context.
Criticism values judgment not based on taste but evaluates the influence of texts upon each other,
their contribution to innovation in literary practice, and their impact upon readers and societies,
but only if historical and cultural evidence or textual examples from close readings can support
those judgments.

New Criticism Also known as formalism

This approach encourages readers to explore the nuances of language and form within a text to
derive meaning and appreciate the artistry of the work itself.

The New Critics' Method for Interpreting Texts

• Places a strong emphasis on analyzing language, structure, symbolism, and imagery in detail.
• Ignores the author's intentions as being important when interpreting the text.
• Supports an unbiased examination of formal components.
• Looks for tensions and paradoxes in a text as well as coherence and unity.
Reader-Response Criticism
Emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting and creating meaning from a text.

Critical Reading as a Literary Theory

• Emphasizes reader interpretation and interpretation of text.
• Tenets include Subjective Interpretation, Active Reading, Intertextuality, and Identity Themes.
• Emphasizes the role of personal experiences and psychological dynamics in text interpretation.
• Focuses on the act of reading over the conclusions drawn from it.

Structuralism
In literary criticism, Structuralism focuses on the underlying narrative structures and symbolic
systems within texts. It looks at recurring motifs, themes, and narrative devices to uncover the deeper
meanings embedded in literary works. By analyzing the structural elements of literature, scholars can
interpret how texts convey meaning and resonate with readers.

Deconstruction
Refers to the process of dismantling language to discover what is really being said beneath the
surface; usually, this will be different from what is already considered to be known about the text.

Ambiguities: It explores how language can be open to multiple interpretations and how ambiguity
can disrupt fixed or stable meanings.

Derrida introduced the concept of "differance," which plays on the dual meanings of the French
word "différer" (to differ and to defer). Differance suggests that meaning is deferred and deferred,
never fully present or fixed, leading to a constant play of differences and deferrals in language.

SCHOOL OF THOUGHT Schools of thought play a crucial role in the advancement of academic
disciplines. They provide a framework for analyzing and interpreting complex concepts, phenomena,
and theories. By grouping together scholars with similar perspectives, schools of thought facilitate
intellectual dialogue, collaboration, and the evolution of knowledge within a specific field.

Romanticism
The primary concepts explored during the Romantic Period included nature, myth, emotion,
symbols, and ideas about the self and individualism
Example: Beauty and the Beast. Belle is the youth and innocence part of the story because she
is young, loving, pure, and sees nothing wrong in life.

Realism
Very powerful theory in the study of international relations. The theory claims that states pursue
their own interests in the international system. a school of thought in international relations
theory, is a theoretical framework that views world politics as an enduring competition among
self-interested states vying for power and positioning within an anarchic global system devoid of
a centralized authority.

Moderism
a global movement in society and culture that from the early decades of the twentieth century
sought a new alignment with the experience and values of modern industrial life.
Modernism in literature was a literary movement that focuses on contemporary elements. The rise of
capitalism, along with rapid industrialization, helped bring about the modernist literary movement.
These authors used multiple narrators, nonlinear plot, and introspection.

The experimental novel Ulysses (1922) by James Joyce is an example of a Modernist text
as Joyce uses symbolism, stream of consciousness and various types of narration to explore
the complexity of the inner consciousness.

Postmodern
Postmodernism is associated with relativism and a focus on the role of ideology in the
maintenance of economic and political power.

New criticism
New criticism believes in analysing the value of literary works based only on the text itself, without
taking into account the following:

 The author's background or intentions while writing the text

 The reader's emotional or physical response to the text
 The social, economic, political or historical context of the text
 The moral or philosophical importance of the text
Once the context of the text has been removed, the meaning and value of the text should only rely
on what is seen on the page. This means focusing the literary study on the text's aesthetic qualities, such
as its

 Form
 Structure
 Language and tone
 Literary devices and techniques
 Characterisation
 Symbols and metaphors
 Actual setting (not context)
 Marxism

 Marxist critics examine the ways in which literature reinforces or challenges the
dominant ideologies and structures of society.

 They also explore the role of literature in shaping social consciousness and
promoting social change.

EXAMPLE

Interpretation of George Orwell's novel "Animal Farm." In this novel, Orwell uses allegorical
characters and events to critique the Russian Revolution and the rise of Stalinism.

1. Marxist criticism would highlight the central theme of class struggle in "Animal Farm." The animals'
rebellion against the oppressive human farmer, Mr. Jones, represents the proletariat's struggle
against the bourgeoisie. The subsequent emergence of a new ruling class (the pigs) who exploit and
oppress the other animals mirrors the dynamics of class conflict in society.

CRITICAL THEORY

 In literary analysis, critical theory examines the ways in which literature reflects
and perpetuates social inequalities and challenges dominant ideologies.
 It aims to uncover hidden meanings and ideologies in literary works and promote
social justice and equality.