Pak-studies (2059/01)

Exam Type QUESTIONS

SECTION 1

History and the political

background of Pakistan
Movement
Q:Who was Ranjit Singh? [4 Marks]
Ranjit Singh was the Sikh ruler of Punjab. He annexed Punjab, Kashmir and most of Afghanistan. In Sindh
he signed a treaty with Great Britain in 1809. He was also the one whose army defeated and killed Syed
Ahmed at Balakot. Great Britain worried about Russian expansion into Afghanistan so agreed with Ranjit
Singh, ruler of Punjab, that it should be independent. Ranjit Singh didn’t support Great Britain and they
went ahead anyway but in 1841 Great Britain troops were killed in Afghanistan. Great Britain decided to
annex Sindh and later Punjab.
Q:Who was Titu Mir? [4 marks]
Titu Mir was an Islamic revivalist in West Bengal and a disciple of Syed Ahmed Shaheed Bareilvi. He was
horrified by the sufferings of Muslim farmers in West Bengal during the 1830s, especially the tax on beard.
He organised a stand against zamindars, set up his own rule near Calcutta in Nakarbalia with small army.
He provoked British who sent an army against him and he was killed in battle 1831.
Q: Who was Tipu Sultan? [4 Marks]
He was the son of Haider Ali of Mysore, both of whom resisted British rule. Tipu received support from
the French and the British were concerned about this. He was known as the Tiger of Mysore and ruled
there from 1782 to 1799. He won important victories against the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War,
and negotiated the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore with them after his father died the previous year. He
remained an enemy of the British, bringing them into renewed conflict with an attack on Travancore in
1789. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu was forced into a humiliating treaty, losing a number of
previously conquered territories, including Malabar and Mangalore. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, the
combined forces of the British and the Nizam of Hyderabad defeated Tipu and he was killed on 4 May
1799, while defending his fort.
Q:Why did Syed Ahmed Shaheed Bareilvi Fail? [4 marks]
There were a number of reasons for which Syed Ahmed Shaheed Bareilvi failed in his mission of a
separate Muslim rule. There were disagreements over his military tactics among themselves and other
minor disputes led to disunities among Muslims. Moreover, many local chieftains such as Yar Muhammad
and Sultan Muhammad opposed his ideas and stood against him and killed many of his people over his
policies especially taxes. He was also confronted by the strong opposition of the Sikhs and British who
eventually defeated him and he failed.
Q:What was the East India Company? [4 marks]
East India Company was a trading company set up by the British in 1600 to trade with the East. It was
granted permission by Jahangir in 1615 to trade. Therefore, trading settlements were set up in Bombay,
Surat, Madras and Calcutta. At first it was only interested in trade and not taking power but seeing that no
settled government was there, it began to draw in politics. The PIT India Act turned the company into a
sovereign body and soon it gained control of most of India. But the British government took over and the
Company soon lost its monopoly and was dissolved in 1873.
Q:What was The Black Hole event? [4 marks]
The Black Hole event took place in 1756 when the East India Company began to fortify posts at Calcutta
which was against agreement with the Siraj-ud-Duala who seized the fort and captured British residents
were locked up in a small room. Next day, 23 of the 64 captives were found dead which many British
exaggerated and which led to British going against the Siraj and defeating him in the Battle of Plassey in
1757.
Q:Who was Robert Clive? [4 Marks]
He was a British officer who is known as founder of British rule in India. He first became a clerk for the
company but soon became a general in EIC armed forces in India. He defeated the French in south India
but he showed his true skills in the Battle of Plassey 1757 where he showed qualities as a soldier and
leader by defeating Nawab of Bengal. He was known as Lord Clive of Plassey and was made Governor of
Bengal and enabled British supremacy there, increased power of merchants and established Oudh as a
buffer state between Bengal and the Marathas. Later he was accused of ‘plundering India’ but found not
guilty. He became addicted to opium and in 1773 committed suicide.
Q:Describe the events of the 1857 War of Independence. [4 Marks]
At Meerut, sepoys refused to use the newly introduced cartridges on which they were imprisoned and
Mangla Pandey executed. But their fellow sepoys broke in and freed them. Then began a violent attack in
which any British officer or European found was put to death in Meerut. They then advanced to Delhi
where under the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II, Indians captured it. The influence spread and British lost
Jhansi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad and Mathura. In Kanpur Nana Sahib took revenge for stopping his
pension killing many Europeans. The British then recaptured with reinforcements. Soon, Delhi and
Lucknow were also regained along with all others except Jhansi. Sepoys led by Rani of Jhansi, Lakshmibai
and assisted by Tatya Topee resisted but were killed and all opposition removed, ending the War in
August 1958.
Q:Describe the Battle of Kanpur? [4 Marks]
The battle of Kanpur Troops was an event of the war of independence 1857. Rebel troops led by Nana
sahib joined revolt, killing British officers and many Europeans. British held out a defensive position for 3
weeks but then surrendered on the promise of safe passage. But Nana sahib attacked and almost all
soldiers and 300 women and children slaughtered. The remainder were kept as prisoners. When British
reinforcements arrived, Nana Sahib had the prisoners killed. British carried out acts of revenge on the
captured sepoys but Nana Sahib escaped.
Q:Who was Sir Syed Ahmed? [4 Marks]
Sir Syed was a Muslim nationalist reformer of the 19 th century. He was born in Delhi and studied to
become a judge. He served as a lawyer and judge in the East India Company and saved many European
lives at Bijnaur during the War of Independence 1857 due to which he was liked by the British. After the
war he saw the situation of the Muslims and worked for their welfare. He wrote books such as the Loyal
Mohammadens of India to gain trust of the British and tried to bridge the gap b/w Muslims and the
British. He opened the MAO College later known as the Aligarh College in 1875 as well as the scientific
society in 1873 to teach Muslims western ideas. He is famous for presenting his Two Nation Theory at
Banaras as well. He kept working until his death in 1898. He is considered the greatest Muslim reformer of
19th century.
Q:What was the Aligarh Movement? [4 marks]
The Aligarh Movement was a movement started by Sir Syed Ahmed in the 1870’s for the betterment of
Muslims. Muslims were blamed for the War of Independence 1857 and they were deserted and miserable
under Hindu dominance and British targets. Therefore, Sir Syed started the Aligarh Movement for the
social, political and educational welfare of the Muslims. It resulted in the setting up of many schools and
the MAO College to teach western ideas and to bring Muslims closer to British to succeed and overthrow
Hindu dominance.
Q:What was the two-nation theory? [4 Marks]
The two-nation theory was represented in 1869 by Sir Syed Ahmed khan. At first he was a favourer of
Hindu Muslim unity. But after the Urdu Hindi controversy and the INC interests of Hindu interests, he
knew that they were two separate nations. Therefore, he went to the governor of Banaras and stated that
Muslim and Hindus were two different nations with divisions in religion, cultures, languages and many
other differences. Thus, it was unsuitable to bring western democracy. This further became the basis of
Pakistan Movement.
Q:What was the Urdu Hindi controversy? [4 marks]
It was a controversy between Hindus and Muslims over the official language in 1867. Urdu had been
declared official language in 1825. Hindus demanded Hindi be the official language instead of Urdu, Sir
Syed and Muslims shocked at attack on Urdu as it had a special meaning to them. Even Hindu members of
his Scientific Society wanted their journal published in Hindi. The growing belief that Hindus were working
against the interests of Muslims made Syed insecure of the future of Urdu and it eventually led to him
presenting his Two Nation Theory.
Q:Why did the British become involved in India? [7 Marks]
Firstly, India was a source of several products which attracted the British. They were granted permission
by the Mughals to trade with India. Trade seemed profitable as India was a source of raw material s such
as spices, silk, cotton and cotton goods and potassium. With the industrial revolution going, it seemed
quite profitable to use cheap raw material from India to produce high quality goods. Therefore they were
eager to trade in India.
Secondly, India was a major source of wealth as well. The wealth of the subcontinent appealed to the
British a lot especially Delhi. The subcontinent was known as the Golden Sparrow and it attracted the
British as trade seemed to go to a higher level with the vast riches demonstrating wealth such as the
Peacock Throne. Additionally, the Dutch had taken control of spice trade in the East Indies therefore the
British saw it a chance to oust the Dutch and Portuguese by controlling trade in India
Thirdly, the subcontinent provided huge markets for the British to sell their goods and earn profit.
Moreover, the climate of the subcontinent was favourable for agriculture and produced cotton whereas
British climate hindered such activities to be held. In addition, the location of the subcontinent provided
the British an easier opportunity to trade with other countries especially the Middle East. Therefore, they
were eager to trade with India.
India had strategic position on the globe. It would give regional supremacy to the British and Royal Navy.
They would control the sea routes and hence trade with the East. The company also wanted to westernize
the Indians. The British believed that western culture is superior and must be spread in the world. They
thought themselves the most civilized nation of the world.
The decline of Mughal Empire and the demolition of Maratha Power in 1761 by Ahmad Shah Abdali
prepared the gateway for the British to take over India. Lack of a strong central government attracted the
British attention for interfering with Indian political affairs.
Q:Why were there attempts to revive Islam in the subcontinent? [7 Marks]

 Shah Wali Ullah

1. Mughal Empire declined.
2. Weak leadership meant vulnerable attacks on religion
3. Muslims lacked Islamic knowledge
4. Muslims divided in sectarian groups
5. Strong Islamic principles needed for social, economic and political welfare.
 Syed Ahmed Shaheed Bareilvi
1. Oppressed by Non-Muslim forces.
2. Beliefs and customs contrary to Islam had crept into Muslim’s lives.
3. Difficulties in performing religious practices
4. Wanted to restore the supremacy of Islamic ideology and to establish a system that was to
be based of Islamic principles.
  Haji Shariatullah
1. Muslims had moved away from Faraiz
2. Oppressed by Hindu landlords and ill-treated by British
3. India was Dar-ul-Harb where Eid and Friday prayers couldn’t be offered
Q:Why was Shah Wali Ullah a major influence in the revival of Islam? [7 Marks]

 First to realize the decline of Mughal Empire and vulnerable position was due to Islamic negligence.
 The Madrassa Rahimiya played a vital role in teaching Islamic principles.
 His writings and translations in Persian made teachings available to a large community as most
couldn’t understand Urdu.
 Concentrated on strong bonds b/w Muslims through Islam putting aside sectarian divisions.
Q:Why was Syed Ahmed a major influence in the revival of Islam? [7 Marks]

 First movement against Non-Muslim tyranny.

 Attempt to achieve religious and spiritual freedom.
 The fore-runner of the Pakistan Movement as it inspired Muslims defending their religion, culture
and freedom.
Q:Why was Haji Shariatullah a major influence in the revival of Islam? [7 Marks]

 Gave encouragement to the oppressed Muslims.

 Became united against harsh treatment and became aware of their rights.
 Hindu influences removed from Islamic practices and Islam gained a firm footing.
Q:Why was the Aligarh Movement found? [7 Marks]

 Improve relations between Muslims and the British.

 Improve the social and economic position of Muslims by receiving Western education.
 Increase the political awareness of the Muslim community in order to tackle Hindus.
Q: Why was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan known as pro-British? [7 marks]

 Saved European lives in Bijnaur during the War of Independence 1857

 Encouraged western ideas and education
 Lifestyle western and in Tabbayan-ul-Kalam defined similarities b/w Christianity and Islam
Q:Why was Urdu chosen as a national language? [7 Marks]

 It had a long history

1. Used widely in Mughal period
2. Dated back to the Sultans of Delhi
3. Bahadur Shah II and Muhammad Shah were prominent poets
4. Widely spoken in Muslim armies
5. Well-known and established from times of the subcontinent Mughal rule
 It had a rich literary background
1. Poets like Amir Khusro , Iqbal, Ghalib and later Mil, Hali and many others produced high
quality and later famous poetry and prose
2. Aligarh college centre for Urdu study
3. Religious books most prominently the Quran were translated into urdu
 It was closely associated with the Pakistan movement
1. A reason for formation of Muslim League was protection of Urdu
2. Sir Syed presented the Two Nation Theory after the Urdu-Hindi controversy which became
the sole basis of the Pakistan Movement
3. Jinnah considered it as a unifying force
Q:Why have regional languages been promoted by the Pakistan government since 1947? [7 marks]
  Literature by authors needed to be kept alive
The literature they produced must be kept alive for the coming generations. Works like of Munir
Niazi, Atta Shad, Ashfaq Ahmad and others in areas of regional languages should be protected. So
because of this thinking, govt. of Pakistan had made every possible attempt to promote the
regional languages.
 Had played important part in the history of regions
For example, Pashto literature had played a very important part in creating opposition to British
rule and in the movement for independence. There to elevate the standard of such languages,
govt. of Pakistan has tried to promote the regional languages since 1947.
 Threat of losing less developed languages especially Balochi from culture
Q:Did Hajji Shariat Ullah contribute more to the spread of Islam than anyone else in the sub-continent
before 1850? Explain your answer. [14]

 Shah Wali Ulla

1. Knowledgeable scholar.
2. Translated Quran into Persian
3. Madrassa Rahimiya in Delhi
4. Wrote 51 books including Hujjat-ul-Balighaand Izlat-Akhfa
5. A group of learned students prepared to spread teachings
6. Emphasized on social justice for peasants and craftsmen
7. Wrote to Muslim nobles to save the Mughal Empire against Sikhs and Marathas
8. Ahmed Shah Abdali called who defeated Marathas at Battle of Panipat in 1761
9. Wrote accounts of Khalifas acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis in order to overcome
sectarian divisions
 Syed Ahmed Shaheed Bareilvi
1. Jihad Movement
2. Toured Punjab and NWFP to enlist men to fight Sikhs
3. Established headquarters near Peshawar under Shariat rule for Muslims to establish
practices with freedom
4. Defeated the Sikhs at Okara and Hazrothe in 1826
5. Helped unite Muslim groups into forming the mujahidin forces
 Haji Shariatullah
1. Started the Faraizi Movement
2. Faraiz and praying emphasized on
3. Muslims united against British and Hindus.
4. Faraizis prepared.
5. Non-Muslim practices given up
Q:Why were the British able to take over such a vast land? [14 Marks]

 Weakness of Indians
1. No strong united force
2. Mughal Empire on the decline
3. Weak Indian rulers
4. Disunited territories with leaders of different religions and cultures
5. No major stance taken against British authority
6. Clashes among territories, chose British as allies
7. Divided along religious, linguistic and ethnic lines. Local rulers were interested only to their
own territories.
 Some Indians supported British
1. Fed up of the arrogant Mughals and favoured British
 2. They gained the support of a number of local rulers. They were shrewd in purchasing the
loyalties of influential Indians. They signed “subsidiary alliances” with local rulers under
which the rulers were granted protection by the British troops. In return, they paid the
salaries of the soldiers and provided residence to a British advisor. These were lucrative
deals and control on the affairs.
3. Some princely states even supplied troops to the British when they were fighting against
their countrymen.
4. Some states preferred British control rather than their rivals coming into power
5. Majority of the well-off Indians stayed away from the wars. They were making profits by
trading with the English merchants. They were also happy with the infrastructure the British
were developing including schools, hospitals, roads, railway networks and irrigation
systems.
 British strength
1. Industrial revolution made British technically advanced
2. Control over cotton trade enhanced control
3. Superior weapons and means of communication
4. Believed in success and thought progress was inevitable.
5. Superior tactics and techniques
8. Cleverness came into play when controlling areas such as Bengal and Mysore by joining
forces with Indians themselves. Expert in bribing and conspiring with the key persons like
Mir Jafar and Mir Sadiq with the help of whom they defeated their strong rivals in the
battlefields.
6. In order to further reinforce its control, Britain established an administrative system that
took over all duties and responsibilities of the East India Company and imposed
government control through an efficient administrative system, that featured such
personalities as Lord Wellesley, Robert Clive and Warren Hastings as Governors Generals,
who through their administrative skills were further able to exert greater control of India.
7. The vast riches of Bengal made them capable to extend control. This provided massive new
resources which Britain could use to consolidate its control.
Q:How successful were the British in expanding their control over India? [14 Marks]

 Made local princes accept their authority.

 Battle OF Plassey 1757.
1. French encourage Siraj-ud-Duala to attack EIC base at Calcutta.
2. Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar who withdrew support of the Nawab.
3. Clive able to defeat Siraj-ud-Duala’s troops
4. Jafar made Nawab of Bengal
 Battle of Buxar 1764
1. Mir Qasim joined forces with the Nawab of Oudh and Mughal emperor Shah Alam II
2. Attempted to drive British out of Bengal
3. British defeated the army
4. Gained firm control of profitable trade in Bengal
 The Pitt India Act 1784
1. Passed by PM William Pitt
2. Governor General appointed by British royal
3. British government took direct control of Indian possessions.
4. Later administrative system set up by British which increased their hold on India
 1798, subsidiary alliances
1. Lord Wellesley enforced
2. Local rulers ran affairs and British provided security
3. Rulers would pay for troops and accept British advisors.
 4. Under this, Hyderabad, Oudh and Maratha Peshwa came under British advisory from 1800
to 1802.
 Tipu Sultan successful in first and second Anglo Mysore war but defeated in 3 rd Anglo Mysore War
and in 1799 killed in Mysore in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war and British took control
 1803, Mughal emperor accept British rule at Delhi
 1818, Marathas defeated in the Deccan and Marathas accept British control
 1841, tried to gain Afghanistan but all births troops in Afghanistan killed.
 1843, Charles Napier provokes Amirs of Sindh to attack British residency on which British annexed
Sindh and took control in fear of Sikh expansion by Ranjit Singh as well as to cover the humiliation
they faced in Afghanistan.
 1846, after death of Ranjit Singh in 1939, British broke treaty with the Sikhs and defeated the Sikhs
for the first time in 1846 and then for a second time in 1848-49 after which Sikh rule ended and
Punjab as well as modern day NWFP came under British control.
 1852, Doctrine of Lapse, implemented by Lord Dalhousie, any ruler without natural male heir, his
state annexed by British, Under this Jhansi Satara and Nagpur came under British control
Q:“The introduction of greased cartridges was the major reason for the War of Independence of 1857” Do
you agree? Explain your answer. [14 Marks]

 Greased cartridge incident

1. January 1857, new rifle introduced by British
2. It was covered in grease and end had to be bitten off for use
3. Rumours spread that the grease was made of cow and pig fat
4. Unacceptable for Indians as cow had religious importance for Hindus and pig was haram for
Muslims.
5. At Meerut, Sepoys refused to use the cartridge on which they were put into prison and
some executed
6. It became an immediate cause of the uprising
 Religious
1. 1833, Christian missionaries allowed to enter India to spread Christianity
2. Insulted Hindu and Muslim beliefs
3. Religious customs banned.
Hindus: Suttee and thugee banned, female infanticide declared murder and banned
Muslims: Pardah was banned.
4. Religious education removed
5. Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism under threat from British rule.
6. Forceful conversions to Christianity
 Economic
1. Imposed high taxation
2. Exploited India’s wealth to the full
3. The British were financially exploiting the Indians. Cotton produced in India was taken to
the textile industries in Britain. As a result, the local cotton industries collapsed which
created unemployment and poverty.
4. Peasants and the tenants had difficulties in paying
5. Cheap goods filled in markets
6. High salary posts kept by Indians whereas Indians given low salary posts.
7. Civil posts not given to Indians
8. Profit from trade used in Britain
9. Poverty increased
10. British seized lands of local rulers
 Westernizing
1. 1834, English replaced Persian and Sanskrit as the official language
 2. Forced to send children to co-educational schools
3. 1835, English made medium of education in schools
4. Thomas Macaulay introduced European ideas
5. Persian and Hindi education removed
6. Telegraphs, means of communication, telegraph and other western influences spread which
were a thread to culture
 Doctrine of Lapse 1852
Q:“Strength of British was the main reason why the War of Independence failed” Do you agree? Explain
your answer. [14 marks]

 Strength of the British

1. One of the most powerful nations in the world
2. Troops experienced in warfare
3. Modern weaponry
4. Well-planned
5. Disciplined army and well organized
6. Skilled officers and better tactics
7. Had continuous fresh supply of men and weapons
 Disunity Among Indians
1. No proper planning
2. No proper aim, everyone fought for their own cause
Rani of Jhansi, Nana Sahib, Muslims
3. Lacked modern weapons
4. Differences in cultures and religions remained a gap
5. No proper leadership
6. No sense of national patriotism
7. Internal disunities; Indians and Sikhs couldn’t see Muslim restore powers to Mughals
 Indians supporting British
1. Most locals didn’t want imperial power to be restored
2. The British were very skilled diplomatic experts.
3. Therefore, they never took part in the war thus Indians were deserted
4. Some still benefited from trade with the British and supported them
5. Some helped British in war; Kashmir ruler sent 2000 troops to the British, Nepal and other
states also assisted British
6. Punjab was uninterested in helping the rebellion
Q:”The most important of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s work was his political work.” Do you agree? Explain
your answer. [14 Marks]

 Improve relations b/w British and Muslims

1. Muslims blamed for the War of Independence and so treated Muslims in a hostile manner
as well as punishing them and not cooperating with them but with Hindus.
2. Muslims called British invaders and rejected western ideas
3. Sir Syed tried to bridge this gap
4. On a visit to England he was so offended by an English Book on the life of Holy Prophet
(PBUH) that he immediately wrote his own work correcting many errors.
5. He wrote the Loyal Mohammadens OF India in which he rejected the idea of British that the
Muslims were disloyal to them, named Muslims who showed particular loyalty towards
British, wanted British to end hostility
6. Wrote the Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (Causes of Indian Revolt), stated that they wrongly
blamed Muslims for the war, claimed that the war started due to under representation for
Indians in government, forcible conversions to Christianity and poor management of army,
 listed measured made by British that led to resentment, also stated that Muslims were
dragged into the war by Hindus and so wrongly blamed
7. Wrote Tabbayan-ul-Kalam to point out similarities b/w Christianity and Islam to enable
Muslims cooperate with British as they knew little about Christianity and just opposed it.
He declared dining with Christians not forbidden in Islam
8. He also tried to clear up the misunderstanding among the British who resented being called
“Nadarath” by Muslims. The Britain thought it was an insult, but Sir Syed pointed out that
the word came from “Nasir” an Arabic word, meaning Helper. So the term was the
reflection of the positive image Muslims had of the British, not an insult.
9. Insisted Muslims to learn western education to communicate with British to overlap Hindu
domination
10. Established the British Indian Association to increase cooperation

 Political work
1. Believed that supporting British is the only way to gain power as British were too powerful
to be overthrown so any say in government would be given by working with British
2. INC had been established in 1885 to work with the British and to present views of all
Indians, soon realized it works for Hindu beliefs and interests, demanded similar political
representation which would undermine Muslims as the minority and cause Hindu to win all
elections as the majority, also demanded competitive examinations which Muslims couldn’t
give due to lack of education, thus Sir Syed stopped Muslims from joining the Congress.
3. Organized the United Patriotic Alliance instead which came to be known as the
Mohammaden Defence Alliance in 1893. Opposed to the Indian National Congress, the
group aimed to develop close ties between the Muslim community and the British Raj.
4. The Urdu-Hindi controversy of 1867 made Sir Syed realize that Hindu Muslim unity had no
chance. He then presented the Two Nation Theory in 1869 stating Hindus and Muslims as
two different nations from all angles.
 Educational work
1. 1859, opened a school in Moradabad
2. Tahzib-ul-Ikhlaq published stating the need for education
3. 1863, Scientific Society found at Ghazipore making scientific works available in Urdu
4. 1864, school opened in Ghazipore
5. 1869, Visited UK to observe modes of instruction of Oxford and Cambridge
6. Greatly Impressed and tended to open University to follow same pattern but couldn’t
because of circumstances
7. 1875, MAO school set up to teach western education long with Indian and Islamic
education
8. Upgraded to Aligarh college in 1877(Became University in 1920)
9. 1886, Mohammaden Educational Conference set up to raise educational standards and
publicize new educational method as well as to provide a political platform to Muslims.
Q:Urdu has been promoted more than any other language spoken in Pakistan. “Do you agree? Explain
your answer. [14 Marks] (Note: If question demands only promotion of regional languages then that of
Urdu shall not be added in the answer)

 Promotion of Urdu
1. Urdu dictionaries and grammar guides published
2. Books of different languages translated into Urdu and vice versa
3. Compulsory subject in all schools in Pakistan
4. Medium of instruction in most schools
5. Attempts to bring Urdu as official language replacing English
6. Taught in universities and MA available
7. Medium for radio and TV programs as well as news channels
 8. Urdu plays, films and novels produced regularly
9. Newspapers such as Jang Nama and Nawa-e-Waqt published
 Promotion of Sindhi
1. 1948, Sindhi Literary board set up to promote Sindhi
2. Authors like Pir Ali Muhammad Rashidi prominent in promoting
3. Books written on Sindhi folklore and Sindh libraries
4. Bazm-e-Talib-Ul-Maula set up
5. Sarmast academy established in memory of famous Sindhi poet Sachal Sarmast
6. Sindhiology department in Sindh University at Jamshoro
7. Taught as compulsory subject till 10th grade in Sindh
8. Newspapers such as Ibrat and Nawa-e-Sindh published
 Promotion of Punjabi
1. Quran translated into Punjabi by Muhammad Ali Faiq
2. Writers like Munir Niazi, Ashfaq Ahmed and Ahmad Rahi
3. Taught up to MA in Punjab University
4. Books on academic subjects produced and introduced in schools and colleges
5. CSS exams available in Punjabi
6. Radio, TV and stage dramas promote Punjabi
7. Newspapers like Jung Nama, Punjabi Adab and Lahrain published
 Promotion of Pashto
1. Peshawar University in 1951 and Pashto academy established in 1954
2. Well accepted Pashto dictionaries
3. Post graduate classes in Pashto available at University Level
4. Khushal Khan Khattak library opened in memory of Pashto poet Khushal Khan Khattak
5. Taught as compulsory subject in KPK in schools
6. Islamia college centre of higher education in Pashto
7. Magazines like Janat-e-Firdous and Newspapers like Wahadat published
8. News and TV channels broadcast and film in Pashto
 Promotion of Balochi
1. Radio Pakistan Karachi broadcasted in Balochi
2. The Balochi Literary association opened
3. Quetta television Station broadcast in Balochi
4. Modern poets like Atta Shad and Ishaq Shamin and writers like Gul Khan Nazir
5. Gosh-e-Adab established to promote Balochi education
6. Balochi department in Balochistan University
7. Newspapers like Bakhabar and magazines like Balochi
8. Baloch academy set up
Q: Aurangzeb’s policies were the most important cause of the decline of Mughal Empire” Do you agree?
Explain your answer. [14]

 Aurangzeb’s policies
1. Re-introduced the Jizya tax on Non-Muslims
2. Destroyed temples
3. Banned Hindu traditions such as suttee
4. Islamic laws which Sikhs and Hindus also implemented
5. Banned alcohol, singing, dancing and other measures
6. Local taxes abolished and used on building places
 Weakness of successors
1. Wars of succession
2. Weak leaders
3. Extravagant
4. Personal benefits and cared less of the Empire
 5. Treasury empty due to expenditures on army
6. Incapable of administering
 Invasions
1. Persians, Nadir Shah, captured Delhi and stole most of the gold, jewels and booty returning
soon.
2. Afghans, Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded many times capturing Kabul, Peshawar Kashmir
Punjab Lahore and Multan. Soon returned after looting
3. Marathas, Guerrilla fighters, formed Hindu empire in the Deccan, 1737 plundered Delhi.
Became most powerful force in India
 British
1. East India Company became a powerful company.
2. British government took interest
3. Saw the weakness of the Empire and so attacked gaining control one by one and defeating
the Mughals until the last Bahadur Shah II killed
4. Mughal Empire ended
 Other
1. Locals rebelled the ineffective government and started become independent
2. The Empires vastness became a reason as such far flung areas couldn’t be administered
 SECTION 2

Emergence of Pakistan (1906-1947)

Q.What was Curzon’s mistake? (4 marks)
Curzon’s mistake was that he partitioned Bengal in 1905. He thought that the province was too big to be
governed so it was split into western and eastern parts. Although the Muslims were satisfied, it brought a
great change in Hindus. They were furious as they saw it a blow against their demand for self-government.
The Congress led a swadeshi movement against the British in which they boycotted British goods. Then a
non-cooperation movement was lead in which every British thing was boycotted to show anger to Lord
Curzon’s decision. In the end the partition of Bengal was reversed in 1911.
Q.What was Swadeshi Movement? (4 marks)
The Swadeshi Movement was a movement led by Gandhi and the congress put pressure on British. Hindus
had started to show anger on British’s decision of partition of Bengal. They made protests, marches,
meeting and started a movement to boycott British made goods and used local goods. They even burnt
their cloth in bonfire. This showed the British how determined the Hindus were and that they really
disliked Britain’s decision of partition of Bengal. The outcome was that British reversed the partition of
Bengal.
Q.Why did Muslim League demand self-government? (4-7 marks)
The main reason for Muslim’s league demand for self-government was that British reversed the decision
of partition of Bengal in 1911. It proved that protests and violence resulted in victory for Hindus while
their loyalty had been of no use. So, Muslims felt that they can’t trust the British anymore. There were a
number of small reasons too: demolishing of a mosque at Kanpur, Aligarh College was stopped; British
sided with Italy against Turkey and moved the British capital to Delhi.
Q.Why did Muslims not demand complete independence from Britain? (4 -7marks)
Muslims although wanted to run their own land, there was a danger for them. If the British were put on
pressure too hard, they may leave India which would leave Muslims and Hindus. With Hindus having
majority of the population of the sub-continent, it was clear that the future rule would be in the hands of
Hindus which would be even worse. Muslims may be removed and Islam would be swept from the sub-
continent. This is why Muslims didn’t demand complete independence from Britain.

Q.What was Rowlett Act? (4 marks)

The Rowlett act was introduced along with Mont ford Reforms in 1919. It was aimed at curtailing any kind
of revolutionary or communist activity. Under this, people could not hold meetings, could be arrested
without warrant, detained without the right of bail, and be ordered by the police to live in some particular
area. They could be tried privately by 3 high court judges and had no right to appeal. Indians protested on
it violently.
Q.Describe the Amritsar Massacre (4 marks)
At Amritsar, Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus had organized a peaceful demonstration against the Rowlett act.
The British banned the protest but the organizers decided to press ahead. A large crowd of about 20000
gathered at jallianwala bagh. To strike fear into people, general dyer ordered his soldiers to seal the exits
and fire at the crowd. As the people tried to run, the soldier kept firing until they ran out of ammunition.
In the end, 379 people died and 1200 were wounded. General Dyer was hailed by a hero by many British
but most called him an excitable lunatic. The effect of all this on Indian opinion was disastrous.
Q.What was Hijrat Movement? (4 marks)
In 1920, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari gave fatwa that the sub-continent was dar-ul-
harb for the Muslims so they should migrate to some other Muslim area. Therefore about 18000 Muslims
sold their houses and packed up their possessions to migrate to Afghanistan. When they reached the
border, Afghanis refused to keep so many refugees and were sent back. Many Muslims died on the way
back due to severe cold and starvation. Hence this hijrat led to a great misery for Muslims.
Q.What was Simon Commission? (4 marks)
In 1927 a commission named as Simon commission was set up by secretary of state for India, lord
Birkenhead. Sir John Simon was declared head of commission. It was made with the aim of setting up a
commission for the Indian subcontinent. There was an opposition to the commission as there was no
Indian representatives & all were British members. The Indian started to protest by saying ‘Simon go
back’.
Q.What was Nehru report? (4 marks)
The Nehru Report was a report containing the proposals of the Nehru Committee launched in 1928. This
Report was presented in return to the Simon Commission which asked the Indians to present their
constitution. The Indian presented their Nehru Report whose main proposals were immediate
independence as a commonwealth country and a British Head of State universal suffrage, everyone’s right
to vote, a strong central government, no reserved seats or separate electorates, Hindi as official language
and full fundamental rights. The Muslims rejected this as it contained cruelty for Muslims say in politics.
Q.What was the Day of Deliverance? (4 marks)
The Day of Deliverance was the day on which Muslims celebrated the end of Congress rule on 22
December 1939. After the disastrous period of The Congress Tyranny from 1937-39, the Muslims were
able to live their lives again as during the congress rule their rights weren’t safeguarded. Muslims faced
hardships; Anti-Muslim policies were made, Wardha scheme was introduced and Muslims weren’t
allowed to practice their religion. The Day of deliverance was very joyful for them and it was a great relief
for them. When war broke out in 1939, British asked for Indian support. Congress rejected and said would
accept on promise of full independence. But British rejected on which Congress resigned from ministries
and the tyranny ended.
Q.What was August offer? (4 marks)
In August 1940, the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow made an offer to the Muslim League. He promised that there
would be no final decision on a new constitution without the agreement of the Muslims. However, he
failed to agree to equal Muslim membership and so Muslim League turned down the offer and resigned
their positions.
Q.What was Direct Action Day? (4 marks)
The Direct-action Day was called by Muslim League on 16 August 1946. The Viceroy attempted to form an
interim government which had failed. The Cabinet Mission had issued its plan which was accepted by
Muslim but not the congress. The Muslim League feared that the British Government might give rule to
Congress and so called Direct Action Day. It was a peaceful protest against British but it caused rioting In
Calcutta.
Q.What was the Quit India Movement? (4 marks)
Gandhi and Congress launched another Anti-British campaign known as the Quit India Movement. The
idea was that to arrange British in war and leave India. Chaos was caused and communications were
disrupted. British lost control of Bombay and Calcutta. Many buildings were destroyed. The British reacted
with great force and regained control. About 1000 were killed. The Muslim League opposed this
movement as it was bound to provoke British.
Q.What was 3 June plan? (4 marks)
The 3 June plan was the plan made by British to grant independence to Indians. Britain appointed
Mountbatten to serve as the final Viceroy and to transfer power to Indians. Mountbatten had very little
time. On 3 June, he announced the government plan for the handovers to two separate states- India and
Pakistan. The interim constitution was to be the Government of India Act 1935. Muslim majority areas
were to decide whether to join Pakistan or India. Boundary was still not solved.
Q.Who was Lord Mountbatten? (4 marks)
Mountbatten was the great grandson of Queen Victoria. At the age of 16 he joined the Royal navy. He was
appointed as the last Viceroy of the sub-continent because of his popularity and seemed a good choice.
After independence, he became the first Governor General of India. Following that, he continued to serve
his country. In 1979, he was murdered by Irish republican army while sailing.
Q.How was independence actually achieved? (4 marks)
Transfer of power was hurried. Ministers in London feared that civil war might break out at any moment.
On 4 June 1947 Mountbatten announced that independence had been brought forward to 15 august 1947.
So, on 14 to 15 august 1947 the Indian subcontinent achieved independence has two separate states. The
state of Pakistan came into existence. Both Pakistan and India were members of the British
Commonwealth. The rushes to independence lead to serious disturbances.
Q.What was the All India Khilafat Conference? (4 marks)

 Held in 1919 in Delhi.

 Try to persuade British on keeping promises on maintaining the Turkish Empire.
 Lead by Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Shaukat Ali.
 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad from Congress.
 Passed a resolution calling a Delegation sent to make sure British were aware of Indians’ strength
and support for the Khalifa.
Q.What were the Delhi proposals? (4 marks)

 Proposals set out by Muslims in 1927.

 Jinnah called all Muslim leaders to Delhi to discuss protection of Muslims interests in the future.
 The conference agreed that Muslims should be given 1/3 rd reserved seats in the Central Legislative,
Provincial status for Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan with British reforms in these areas as well and
seats given to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal according to population.
 Proposals for Muslim constitutional reforms.
Q:What were the outcomes of the provincial elections of 1937? (4 marks)

 Congress won absolute majorities in five provinces. Won 26 Muslim seats.

 Congress was the single largest party in 4 provinces.
 Disappointing for Muslim League.
 Won only 102 of 489 seats reserved for them. Only 1 out of 86 in Punjab.
 Led to Congress Rule from 1937-39. Setting ministries in 7 and later 8 provinces.
Q:What was the Cabinet Mission Plan? (4 marks)

 March 1946, final effort to settle differences

 Three-man delegation sent to India and met the Indians
 It was decided that an interim government would be set up to rule India whilst the British
withdrew.
 Later after rejection of the All-India Commission, the final plan consisted of three divisional
categories; A. Hindu majority area, B. Muslim majority area C. Bengal and Assam
 It was dropped due to the disagreements in Congress and Muslim League.
Q:What was Quit India Resolution? (4 marks)

 May 1942, Gandhi spoke at a meeting in Allahabad

 Argued that if British left, Japanese wouldn’t invade
  So, a Quit India Resolution passed calling for British withdrawal from India through non-violent
protest.
 Gandhi and Nehru arrested and rioting started in which British lost control of many areas
 Reinforced its control through strong measures with many Indians losing their lives
 Muslims didn’t approve of this resolution
Q:What was The Simon Report? (4 marks)

 Report launched by Simon Commission in 1930.

 Called for a federal system with more powers to the provinces
 Diarchy was to be ended at provincial level and provincial PM’s would be free from central control.
 NWFP was to be given a legislative council and there was no real change in central executive.
 Rejected by the League and Congress.
Q:Why was partition of Bengal reversed in 1911? (7 marks)
There were many reasons for which partition of Bengal was reversed in 1911.
Firstly, the Swadeshi Movement was led by Gandhi and the congress put pressure on British. Hindus
had started to show anger on British’s decision of partition of Bengal. They made protests, marches, and
meetings and started a movement to boycott British made goods and used local goods. They even burnt
their cloth in bonfire and wore locally made clothes. This showed the British how determined the Hindus
were and that they really disliked Britain’s decision of partition of Bengal.
Secondly, another movement was started against the British known as the non-cooperation
movement. In this movement, the Hindus boycott every single British thing. They stopped cooperating
with the British and became more disloyal to them. Government colleges with English education were
closed and the Hindus tried to uphold the Indian values of honour. Workers in Calcutta and many places
began strikes to show opposition. The British feared that the movement might lead to popular violence.
Thirdly, the Hindus in western Bengal were so deeply opposed to the British that they led two
assassinations on Lord Minto, at that time the Viceroy of India. This showed how opposed they were to
British decisions and so the British were forced to reverse the partition of Bengal. Moreover, the British
took several measures to bring the situation under control but political unrest kept on growing.
Restrictions were imposed on newspapers and public gatherings. Editors were imprisoned. The prisons
were filled with revolutionary activists. Tilak was also arrested in June 1908 and put behind the bars for 6
years. Apart from repressive measures, the British turned to reconciliation also by introducing Morley-
Minto reforms in 1909 to win support of the Hindus, but the reforms also could not pacify them. The
situation was becoming difficult for peaceful administration and ultimately the British had to move
towards annulment of the partition.
Q:Why was the Simla deputation an important event for the Muslims in the subcontinent?(7 marks)
There were many reasons for which Simla deputation was an important event for the Muslims.
Firstly, the Muslims were given the rights of separate electorates and one third of the seats in
election. This was a great achievement for the Muslims from the political side of view. Muslims could
know have separate elections and they could be a separate nation with their separate way of life. Weigh
age in all elected bodies was also accepted by British and know was the chance for Muslims to gain their
own status.
Secondly, the immediate outcome of the Simla deputation was the formation of Muslim League.
Muslims were given their say in politics which was a great political achievement for the Muslims. Now
they needed a political party to uphold and protect Muslim rights and interests. So, the Muslim League
was formed as a future political party of Muslims and it also played a very great part in the achievement
of Pakistan.
 Thirdly, the British accepted Muslim demands and the agreement of the Simla deputation showed
good Britain and Muslim relations. The Muslims were accepted as a separate nation by the British and
were given their rights by the British which showed that the status of Muslims was raised and that the
British showed some respect to Muslims. Sir Syed’s attempts had been successful
Q:Why was Khilafat Movement found in 1909? (7 marks)
There were many reasons for which Khilafat Movement was found in 1909.
Firstly, the Muslims wanted to protect the Ottoman Empire. Turkey was the only Muslim country at
that time which was independent. It was a vast empire containing most of the south Eastern Europe and
north western Asia. The main capital was in Constantinople were the Caliph sat. After the war, the
Ottoman Empire was under threat because turkey had sided with Germany and that the Ottoman Empire
may be destroyed.
Secondly, Muslims wanted to protect the seat of Caliphate which they held in high regard. Before the
war, British had promised that no harm would come to the seat of Caliphate as it was an honour for the
Muslims. But after the war, reports showed that Britain and France wanted to punish Turkey for its
support of Germany and thus the caliphate must be removed. The Muslims were not ready and thus they
started the Khilafat movement. Thirdly, Muslims wanted to protect the sacred places from the non-
Muslims. Madina, Hejaz and Makah were the main holy places which were under the threat that after the
war, the western powers may treat them unjustly.
During World War I, Indians were supporting the British against Germany. When Turkish Empire joined
the war on the side of Germany, Indian Muslims came in a very awkward position because it was very
difficult for them to fight against their Muslim brothers. The British realized the situations and put a
number of prominent Muslim leaders behind the bars, which obviously offended their feelings. Secondly,
the British prime minister had given assurances that Turkey would be protected, but later on the allied
powers changed their mind and decided to remove the Caliph as they had sided Germany.
Treaty of Versailles was signed after the World War 1 which caused Germany and Austria, British’s rivals in
the war, to be split up and measures taken to reduce their armed forces as well as paying a huge sum of
money to the British. Similarly, the British PM Lloyd George felt that the Turkish Empire should be divided
saying, “Austria has had justice, Germany has had justice, pretty terrible justice! Why should Turkey
escape”
British policies towards Muslims were also of concern. Russia and Britain agreed on running Afghanistan
and Persia without keeping in mind the needs of the native Muslims. This was done to inflict threats to be
loyal to British which were a concern to Muslims who feared influence of Hindus on them and thus started
the movement as resentment towards such policies. Later the Treaty of Sevres was passed which showed
what was to happen to Turkey. It stated that the Ottoman Empire was to be split up with Arabia as an
independent and the Middle Eastern possessions to be allocated under the League of Nations to British
and France. Turkish land was to be given to Greece with only a small area around Istanbul under Turks.
This was enough for the Indians to start the movement after the Viceroy rejected any compromise.
When the Khilafat Conference was held lead by Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Shaukat Ali delegation was
sent, it also failed to insist the British. These actions were convincing the Indian Muslims to launch
massive protests against the British Government in the shape of Khilafat Movement.
For these reasons the Khilafat Movement was found in 1919.
Q:Why did Jinnah produce his fourteen points? (7 marks)
Firstly the fourteen points were put forward in response to Nehru report. The report contained several
points which were against Muslims interests such as joint elections and Hindi as officially language. It also
claimed no reserved seats and separate electorates for Muslims. Muslims were against these proposals
and to fight for their beliefs and safeguard their rights and so Jinnah produce his fourteen points.
Secondly Jinnah suggested 4 amendments to the Nehru report. Those are One third reserved seats,
Provincial autonomy with residuary powers, Sindh and NWFP to have full provincial status and also
reserved seats in the Muslim majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal based on population. These were
rejected by the Hindus as they thought it to be a real disaster and against Hindus proposals. So Jinnah
produced his fourteen points.
Thirdly Jinnah put forward the fourteen points to protect the political rights and interest of Muslims these
points were quite comprehensive and covered all aspects of Muslims demands at that time. Jinnah
thought that it was correct time to do so because the congress was pressing for the implementation of the
Nehru report. It could be a danger and threat to the Muslims in the subcontinent. So they had to protect
their rights and interests.
Q:Why was Simon Commission made? (7 marks)
There were a number of reasons that contributed to Simon commission.
Firstly, the period of the 1919 government act had ended and there needed to be another commission
made. The British held commissions every ten years in order to delay the self-control for Indians. The
government of India act was made in 1919 by the British when Indians demand for self-control was
growing. This remained for 10 years and this period was now over. The British couldn’t let go of India that
quick and neither would they gave self-control to Indians. At the same time British wanted to prevent
Indian violence so there was a need of another commission.
Secondly conservative government did not want the labour party to gain control. The conservative party
was that political party committed to capitalism. It was reluctant to give up India. The labour party
encouraged the Indian nationalists. The conservative party was held under lord Birkenhead. He suggested
this commission to be held has he believed that if the labour party took office it would give too much
power to Indians which could slip India out of the British hand.
Thirdly the situation called for it. There was no settled constitution and both the nations fought each
other for political purpose so a constitution needed to be made. British were pressurized into giving
concessions to Indians after their arrogant and excessive display of disobedience to British through the
Khilafat Movement and Non-cooperation movement.
Q: Why were Round Table Conferences held from 1930-2? (7 marks)
Firstly, the Simon Commission and its report were rejected by Indians. At first, the Simon commission
was set up. It had no Indian representatives and all were British members. It was never agreed by Indians
and toy started to appeal Simon to go back to his country. The Simon Report also proposed its
constitution which the Indians didn’t seem to have interest in. So the RTC’s were held to discuss this
constitution.
Secondly, the Nehru Report was made by Hindus and was rejected by Muslims as its proposals were
against their rights and interests. They granted the Hindus four amendments in it but weren’t accepted by
the Hindus. This showed that there were great distances between the two Indian nations and they had
different views about their political part in the sub-continent. British knew that these distances couldn’t
resolve problems.
Thirdly, there was violence and threat all over India. Hindu wanted their Nehru Report to be agreed so
they lead a civil disobedience movement in 1930. On the other hand, the Muslims were furious and
wanted the constitution to be made according to Jinnah’s fourteen points. Also, the Labour Party was in
favour of Indian rights. British also wanted to solve these problems so the RTC’s were held.
Q:Why was the Government of India Act 1935 important for the subcontinent?
Firstly, the qualification of voters was lowered and number of voters was increased. Less qualified
people were now able to vote who didn’t have much qualified education and jobs. Due to this, the
number of voters increased to 35,000,000 which were five times more than before, but still one fourth of
the adults had the right to vote. For the first time, women were able to vote in India. It was permissible
for 5,000,000 women to vote in the election of 1937. Hence the right to vote was increased and more
population had now the right to vote.
Secondly, provincial autonomy was established in all eleven provinces including the two newly made
Sindh and Orissa as well as the fully separate province. Muslims demands were accepted as they wanted
these two provinces two have full provincial status. Provincial governments in effect became self-
governing. The main provincial power would be elected and no longer controlled by the British. This was a
major part of the Act as the British power on provinces weakened. Prime Ministers would be elected and
there would be separate cabinets for all provinces. This was the first part of self-government for Indians
and a push was given to their increasing demands.
Thirdly, this was the last major legislation by the British government for the Indian subcontinent. As
British control weakened on the sub-continent, this legislation gave it a major push and this also turned
out to be the constitution for the later India and Pakistan. The Muslims were quite satisfied with its
proposals and also proved it as their legislation on the creation of Pakistan in 1947.
Q:Why did Cripps Mission fail? (7 marks)
Firstly, the Muslim League opposed them. This was because of the creation of Pakistan which was a
necessity and proposals of Cripps Mission show no sign of creating a separate nation for Muslims. Cripps
also proposed a constitution making body in India. This meant that the British would grant self-
government to India and separate nation could be made afterwards. But Jinnah saw no chances of this
happening.
Secondly, the Congress showed strong dislike to Cripps proposals. Gandhi described the proposals as ‘a
post-dated cheque on a bank that was failing’. The Congress wanted immediate power. Indians were
promised self-control in World War 1 which was not given. They rejected the concept of anyone opting
out of the federation as it was insult for Hindu domination. This time they simply ignored all promises and
proposals. They knew that the same would happen again and again and their increase in demand for
independence from Britain was increasing as they had become fed up so they denied Cripps proposals.
Thirdly, Cripps proposed full control and independence after the war. But the Indians wouldn’t agree
upon this. They wanted immediate control and it couldn’t be said when the war will end. The Indians also
knew that their promises had been broken and that there should be immediate transfer of power. Any
delay or expansion wouldn’t work as Muslims urged for Pakistan and Hindus had increasingly demanded
self-rule with the withdrawal of British from the subcontinent to leave India as it is.
Q:Why did Gandhi Jinnah talks fail? (7 marks)
Firstly, Gandhi wanted independence first and then partition. Gandhi considered independence from the
British as the first priority and that after independence; he would give a thought to partition of India and
Pakistan whereas, Jinnah wanted partition before the British left India. He knew that once British left, the
Congress would deny Muslim offers.
Secondly, Gandhi still claimed to speak for all Indians. He believed that the Congress spoke for all people
in India whether Hindu or Muslim and that they were the real rulers of the sub-continent. But Jinnah
believed that Muslims are a separate nation and they have a separate identity which they didn’t want to
lose. Jinnah claimed that Gandhi speaks for only Hindus and the Muslim League is the Muslims
representative party with no space for Hindus to lead their lives.
Thirdly, Gandhi would not accept the two-nation theory. According to the two-nation theory, Muslim
and Hindus were two different nations. Gandhi refused to accept Muslims as a separate identity. He said
that he is unable to accept the proposition that the Muslims of India are a nation. Jinnah knew that
Muslims and Hindus couldn’t live together and separate nation was a necessity. But Gandhi still claimed
that they are the majority and rule over the Muslims.
Q:Why Did the Congress oppose the Morley Minto Reforms of 1909? (7 marks)

 Muslims were granted reserved seats in the Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils and
separate electorates which were unacceptable for Hindus
 Morley-Minto reforms granted limited political role to Indians. The number of members in the
Imperial and Provincial Councils was increased, but the actual power still remained in the hands of
the British. The councils could only give advice; decisions were in the hands of the British.
Members of the Councils could not discuss certain subjects like foreign affairs and government
relations with Princely States.
 They wanted self-government in actual but were only given part in advisory councils and British
still had power of veto and Viceroy enjoyed most powers
Q:Why was Lucknow Pact made? [7 marks]

 The British could not sustain the pressure of demonstrations and reversed the decision of partition
in 1911. This was a betrayal to the Muslims’ loyalty. They realized the British rulers could no longer
be trusted. Now they had to devise a new strategy for achieving their goals. They wanted to turn
towards the demand of self-rule but they needed constitutional protection – separate electorate
and provincial autonomy – from Hindus after the British would leave India. Muslim League,
therefore, signed the Lucknow Pact in 1916 in which Congress agreed on granting the Muslims 1/3
reserved seats in the central legislative council.
 Muhammad Ali Jinnah was an idealist who believed that Hindus and Muslims could work together.
He wanted that all religious groups should live together in harmony. He was a strong supporter of
Hindu-Muslim unity and was known as Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity. He believed that joint
demands would put more pressure on the British. Therefore, he persuaded the Congress and the
Muslim League for the Lucknow Pact in 1916. He believed that this pact would lead to united
Indian nation.
 Congress was keen to gain the support of Muslim League for its demand of self-rule in India. In
1913, Muslim League had also added self-government in its demands. So it was hoped that it
would be difficult for the British to reject the joint demand of self-rule for longer time. Therefore, it
was ready to give concessions to Muslim League for its own objective of home-rule. They wanted
to pressurize the British during the war into concessions.
Q:Why were the Mont-ford Reforms of 1919 opposed by Indians? (7 marks)

 The demand of self-rule hadn’t been fulfilled to an extent Indians had wanted and the need had
increased subsequently.
 The system of diarchy didn’t appeal to the Indians as the main powers were still in the hands of the
Viceroy. Still had veto power and could pass any law he liked or dismiss any he disliked.
 The Viceroy could dismiss provincial legislative council and he was the one who appointed
provincial ministers so the transferred subjects also had no major say to Indians independently.
 Indians weren’t given their deserving reward after support in WW1.
Q:Why was Bengal partitioned in 1905? (7 marks)

 Difficult for administration

A single governor couldn’t control such a vast area
Difficulties in maintaining law and order as well as preventing violence
Difficulties in relief work during famines and plaques
Better off for two provinces with different governors
 Large population
54 million in West and 31 million in East
This population was almost 10 times that in Britain
Such a large population couldn’t be handled easily
Area was also vast stretching over 1000’s of square kilometres
  Muslims were threatened by Hindu domination due to majority therefore it was considered that
Muslims were far better as a majority in the East as a separate after betterment in relations. There
were social and educational backwardness in East which British ought to manage as a single
province.
 Hindus also argue that Bengal was partitioned as a plan of British for Divide and Rule policy and to
create divisions b/w Muslims and Hindus as to weaken Hindus hold over Muslims and gain their
support for themselves
Q:Why was there so much opposition to the Government of India Act of 1935? [7]

 Nehru called it Charter of slavery and a machine with strong brakes but no engines due to the
many safeguards granted.
 Jinnah called thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable due to the special
powers retained by the British
 The princes resented the loss of power that would entail
 Only 25% of the Indians could vote.
 Governor General remained head of the federation and had powers in foreign affairs and defence
 Viceroy held strong central government with diarchy.
Q:Why was the Quit India Movement formed in 1942? [7 marks]

 They wanted to synchronize with Japanese entry into India as Japan resisted against British by
conquering South Asian countries. It was believed that Japan would come to India as enemy of
British to withdraw from India. Congress believed that they could then gain power.
 They wanted to pressurize the British into leaving the subcontinent to gain independence.
 They saw the right chance to pressurize the British into driving the British out during the war.
Q:Why was the second RTC unsuccessful? [7 marks]

 Gandhi refused to accept minorities.

 Gandhi claimed that Congress was the sole representative of All Indians and that it was the only
party.
 The New conservative government that had come weren’t ready t give concessions to Indians.
 Disagreements among members.
Q:Why was Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal an important influence on the struggle for a separate homeland
for Pakistan? [7marks]

 First Leader to emphasize on the Two Nation Theory for a separate homeland for Muslims in the
North-West, called the father of the ideology of Pakistan.
 Provided an inspiration to Muslim to protect their religion and interests through struggle.
 Ideas inspired other leaders such as Choudhry Rehmat Ali and Jinnah
 Poetry awakened a sense of nationhood and motivation in Muslims.
Q:Why was Choudhry Rehmat Ali an important influence on the struggle for a separate homeland for
Pakistan? [7 marks]

 Strongly believed in the Two Nation Theory and firmly declared the desire for an independent
homeland in Muslim.
 Coined the name Pakistan for the first time in his pamphlet ‘Now or Never’
 Found the Pakistan National Movement in London.
Q:Why did Muslim perform better in the 1945 elections than in 1937? [7 marks]
In the 1945 elections, Muslim League came up with a striking victory by winning all the 30 Muslim seats in
the Central Legislative Assembly and 446 out of 495 Muslim seats in provinces. The reasons behind this
success were that Quaid-e-Azam had organized the party from the grass roots. Party branches increased
after the 1937 elections, by mid-1938 membership numbers had increased dramatically. The chief
ministers of Punjab and Bengal formally joined Muslim League. Mr. Jinnah led the election campaign
himself addressing massive gatherings across the Indian provinces. League tickets were awarded to most
suitable candidates and funds were disbursed wisely. In 1937, the party was split, poorly organized and
had not contested in any elections. ML had gained experience in the by-elections and the party now knew
how to contest elections. Image of the party was restored when leadership shifted from aristocrats and
princes to true leaders of the people.
Moreover, they hadn’t yet felt the threat of Hindu domination. The Congress rule from 1937-39 was also a
nightmare for the Muslims facing religious restrictions and threat to their culture. During this period,
Hindus provoked Muslims' indignation. The 1940's Pakistan Resolution proved a uniting force for the
Muslims who were now thinking differently. Muslim League was now standing parallel to Congress. The
election campaign was launched with the slogan of an independent Muslim state, even the areas were
identified to be merged into the future Pakistan.
After failures of Gandhi-Jinnah talks in 1944 and the Simla Conference in 1945, the communal divide
was much greater. The general election of 1946 was a litmus test to gauge the political divide in India. It
was a referendum for the Muslims to be a separate nation; it had to confirm the existence of two separate
nations in India. Therefore, Muslim voters were charged with emotions; men, women and students set
examples of sacrifices and dedications. They played pivotal role in bringing ML with surprising victory.
Q:What political development was made by Muslims, Hindus and British between 1909 and 1919?
(14 marks)
A lot of political development was made between 1909 and 1919. This mainly includes the Morley Minto
reforms (also known as Indian Councils Act), the Lucknow Pact and the Montague Chelmsford reforms.
In 1909, the Viceroy of India Lord Minto made reforms for the Indians. This included the rights of
Indians to sit on the imperial Legislative Council. The Central executive council was expanded including
more Indians. Provincial councils expanded as well. Some rights were given to Indians in voting purposes.
Separate electorates were given to Muslims with some other relaxations also provided to Indians. The
powers of the Legislative councils to vote on policies were increased. But these councils could only dive
advice and the power were still in the hands of British. Although these reforms were well-intentioned,
Indians thought that these reforms didn’t match the increasing demand for self-government.
In 1916, the Indians including Muslims as well as Hindus signed the Lucknow Pact. They now had a
common demand of self-rule and so worked together. This was an agreement made between the Hindus
and the Muslims to give joint demands to the British. Hindus accepted the principal of separate
electorates and reserved seats for Muslims which was added to the demands. Common demands included
increase in elected seats and minority rights to be protected. Motions by councils of majority were to be
accepted by the British and no act affecting a community could be passed until three quarters of the
community’s council members agreed to it. It was the first and last time the Hindus and Muslims had
worked together. It led to British making concessions.
The British had now realized that the Indians had demanded increasingly for self-government. They
had to pay back the favour of help in World War 1 and also reply to their demands. For this purpose, in
1918, Edwin Montague and Lord Chelmsford made reforms later known as Government of India Act in
1919. This act provided for two councils of state; the Council of State and Imperial Legislative councils. The
members of the Imperial legislative councils were 145 out of which 103 would be elected and the Council
ofState had 60 seats out of which 33 were elected. Both the councils would talk about the budget of law
but the Viceroy could still veto any law and would only accept the laws it liked. Separate electorates and
seats were given to Muslims and Sikhs as well as reserved seats for Muslims. After every ten years, a
commission would meet to decide whether India was ready for further concessions. Most importantly, the
diarchy system was introduced in which some resources were given to the legislative councils while some
were still held by the viceroy and executive councils. Resources like health, education and agriculture
were given to legislatives while things like taxes, civil services, administration, courts and finance were
still reserved under the Viceroy. This wasn’t democracy and not the self-government that people had been
demanding. Now they needed to rake some serious action against the British. These reforms also led to
the Rowlett Act and the violence at Amritsar in which many Hindus were restricted and killed.
This shows that Indians did make progress in their political career but authoritative powers were
still in the hands of British. More work needed to be done to get a separate nation and get rid of British.
Q. “The Khilafat movement failed because Gandhi withdrew his support”. Do you agree? Explain your
answer. (14 marks)
Gandhi’s withdrawal from the support of non-cooperation movement led to the failure of Khilafat
Movement. Gandhi entered the Khilafat movement for getting an opportunity for Self-rule. Gandhi
started the non-cooperation movement and decided to surrender the titles given to them by British and
also all the medals were returned. They withdrew their children from government schools and boycotted
foreign goods. British courts were boycotted and standing for election was refused. But in 1922, a riot at
Chaura Chauri resulted in the murder of twenty-two policemen. The police station was sent on fire by a
mob after which Gandhi gave orders calling of protests and non-cooperation movement. It was a great
blow to the Muslims as they were badly struck by the Hindu selfishness and mistrust. The Hindus who had
joined the Muslims in Khilafat movement had now called off and weakened the Muslims cause.
Migration to Afghanistan was an offshoot of the Khilafat Movement. It was started in1920 when
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari gave a Fatwa that the subcontinent was Dar-ul-Harb
for the Muslims so they should migrate to some Muslim area. Therefore about 18000 Muslims sold their
houses, left their instructions, and packed up their possessions. They migrated to Afghanistan who
couldn’t accommodate so many refugees and were forced to return to their villages. Many who returned
died on the way due to cold, hunger, and starvation. Others who returned were homeless and jobless.
Hence the Hijrat movement led to a great misery for the Muslims. The failure of the Hijrat movement gave
a set to the Khilafat movement.
In 1921, riots broke out in Nilambar between British and Moplahs. At Tirur, nearly 10000 Moplahs
destroyed the police station and seized arms and ammunition. A few Hindus were also killed and Hind
property was destroyed including temples. In return, Britain suppressed and more than 4000 Moplahs
were killed. As for the Hindus, this uprising caused divisions between Muslims and Hindus. This gave a
push to the failure of Khilafat movement.
Also, many important leaders of the Khilafat movement were arrested by British government.
Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali, Maulana Azad, Mr Gandhi and other fine leaders were put in jail which also
led to failure of Khilafat movement.
An important cause was the abolishment of Khilafat by Mustafa Kamal Ataturk in 1924 when he
announced it to be a republic. He became the president of Turkey by forming a nationalist government.
He was also soon abolished and exiled. As protecting the Khilafat seat was an aim of the Khilafat
movement when it was started, this was the greatest of all blows and now there was no cause for the
Muslims to continue the Khilafat movement so it was ended without achieving its aims.
Although, Gandhi’s withdrawal from support was a major cause for the failure Khilafat Movement but
the most important cause was the abolishment of Khilafat seat as it was an aim which was not fulfilled
and due to no cause left for the Muslims to continue the movement, it was ended.
Q.Which leader has done the most work for the succession of Pakistan Movement; Ch. Rehmat Ali, Quaid-
e-Azam or Allama Iqbal? (14 marks)
The Pakistan Movement was one of the greatest movements in the history of the Indian subcontinent.
Many leaders took part in this movement and some shining stars were also present who played an
important role in the creation of Pakistan. The Pakistan Movement had great importance for Muslims as it
turned out to create a separate nation from them and this was only achievable due to some important
leaders. Major role was played by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Allama Iqbal and Ch. Rehmat Ali.
Choudhry Rehmat Ali was one of the greatest leaders in the history of subcontinent. He had done BA
and MA and was a very educated person. His skills also enabled him to think for a separate nation for
Muslims. In 1933, he published his pamphlet “Now or Never, Are We to Live or Perish” in which Rehmat
Ali suggested and coined the name for the Muslim nation as Pakistan meaning the land of the Pure. He is
well known for coining the name of Pakistan but at the same time, many Muslims leaders at that time,
including Jinnah, were against this and didn’t believe Pakistan to be any important. The word Pakistan
referred to the five North-western part of the Indian subcontinent which he saw as a separate country for
Muslims; Punjab, Afghania (NWFP), Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan. I was added to ease the
pronunciation. For this purpose, Rehmat Ali was known as Naqsha-e-Pakistan. Until 1947, Ali kept
publishing various booklets about his vision of South Asia. Ali’s believe was that the Muslims had to
reform politically in order to become independent. He struggled hard for an independent state and also
talked to Jinnah, who after some time agreed on his idea and after the Lahore Resolution 1940, his name
was popularly widespread. He struggled and his dreams came true on the independence of Pakistan. He
died in 1951.
Similarly, Allama Iqbal was also a professional and a very skilful poet. His poetry was the one that
awakened Muslim thoughts in the 1930’s when they had been badly mistrusted by the Hindus. Iqbal was a
qualified barrister and a determined poet as well as a sensible politician. His poetry is well known in
Persian as well as Urdu. He stressed his idea towards religion and belief through his poetry and this poetry
also showed his devotion for Muslim progression. He was the one who dreamt of a separate nation for
Muslims for this he was given many titles such as the father of ideology of Pakistan. After this dream, he
struggled for a separate homeland for Muslims and along with other Muslim leaders tried to protect
Muslim beliefs. He attended the Round Table Conferences and also won a seat in the 1937 elections. His
achievements in the Punjab assembly also made him a respected Muslim politician of Pakistan movement.
He also remained president of the All India Muslim League for some time and was devoted to Muslim
unity. His main political achievement was the Allahabad Address of 1930. In this presidential address,
Iqbal outlined the plan for the formation of a separate homeland for the Muslims either inside or outside
British Empire under a federal system headed by Muslims in North-West India. He demanded the right of
self-government for the Muslims and their rights for protection. Jinnah was also impressed of this address
and they both then worked hard for the creation of an independent state. He suppressed the idea of the
Two Nation theory among Muslims and continued to do so until his death in 1938. Although he died
before independence, he is still known as a great politician of Pakistan Movement.
Although Choudhry Rehmat Ali and Allama Iqbal had done a lot of work but the main personality
whose work led to the succession of Pakistan was Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Jinnah rose as a
bright politician when the Muslims were facing lack of leadership. He joined the Muslim League in 1913
and from there on his work started for the struggle of Muslims. He introduced and signed the Lucknow
Pact in 1916 which was the first and last agreement between the Hindus and Muslims and was known as
Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity. He produced his fourteen points which were of great importance as it
held importance of Muslim beliefs and political say. After the poor performance in 1937 elections, Jinnah
raised the Muslim supports and even in harsh conditions during Congress Rule he raised Muslim hopes.
After that he called Muslim to celebrate Day of Deliverance at the end of Congress Rule. Then in 1940
came his major political achievement, the Lahore Resolution. In this he embraced the Two Nation theory
and called for a union of the Muslim majority provinces to have complete autonomy. He asked for similar
rights to be granted. Jinnah remained president of Muslim League for a long time. From here on, he
struggled only for Pakistan and no other agreement was to be made. He rejected all other proposals like
Cripps proposals and the August offer. His hard work was proved in the 1945-6 elections in which
Muslims showed great achievement and swept the border with majority of the votes. Then it was clearly
told that there was no other agreement other than Pakistan. So, then he met with Mountbatten the final
Viceroy and soon on 14 august 1947, Pakistan came into existence. Jinnah was declared Governor General
of Pakistan and his efforts were speechless. He died in 1948 but still was well known for his fabulous work.
In the end, it can be said that Jinnah’s work was the most appreciable for the succession of Pakistan
Movement and that his work can really be classified as the basic need for the creation of Pakistan.
Q. “Negotiations aimed at independence during the World War 2 achieved nothing”. Do you agree?
Explain your answer. (14 marks)
During the World War 2, many negotiations were made in order to discuss political matters between
Indians and Muslims. At one hand, the British were busy during the World War 2 and at the other hand,
they were being pressed by the Labour Party as well as the Indians to give them independence as well as
political rights. In order to handle these matters, negotiations were made between the Indians and the
British as well as between Muslims and Hindus. These included the Cripps Mission, Gandhi Jinnah talks
and the Simla Conference.
In March 1942, British sent Sir Stafford Cripps to see if a compromise could be made with the Indians for
war support by demanding them independence after war. They demanded that a constitution would be
set after the war by the Indians among themselves. It was also demanded that during the war the Indian
political parties would have control of all government departments. Moreover, any community was free
to opt out of the federation. These were rejected by the Indians. Muslims were eager for Pakistan and
these proposals contained no sign of it so they were not acceptable for them. For the Congress, it was not
acceptable that independence would be given after war. Gandhi claimed it to be a ‘post-dated cheque on
a bank that was failing’. So, these proposals were rejected and failed. The only success was that Hindu and
Muslims had united and rejected the proposals and it also showed Muslim determination for an
independent state.
Now there had to be a compromise between Hindus and Muslims to agree on one point and then put
pressure on the British to leave India. In 1942, between 9 and 27 September Gandhi and Jinnah made
thirteen meetings and exchanged twenty-one letters. But there were certain disagreements between the
two. Gandhi claimed that there should be independence first and then they will sort out and think about
partition later on. Jinnah opposed and said that partition must be settled before the British left or there
may be no agreement and violence might spread. Gandhi also claimed to speak for all Indians and that
Congress is the only political party. But Jinnah again disagreed and said that Muslims have their own
identity and no other nation can take it from them. He further said that Congress only spoke for the
Hindus and not Muslims. Gandhi also didn’t accept the two-nation theory and said that Pakistan would
not exist for much and Indian will again be reunited into one nation but Jinnah still raised his hopes for
the strong Muslim nation and that Muslims and Hindus are two separate nations. And so, these talks also
failed as no agreement could be reached between the two leaders.
The next negotiation made was the Simla Conference in 1945. Wavell proposed that an executive
council should be set up to govern the country under present constitution until a new constitution could
be agreed on. An interim government was to be made. The executive council would contain equal no. of
Muslims and Hindus and be entirely Indian, apart from viceroy and a member controlling defence. To
discuss proposals Wavell called a conference in June 1945. All the parties agreed with principle of an
executive council. Viceroy wanted one Muslim seat to be given to Punjabi. Gandhi also claimed that one
seat of Muslims should be given to Hindus while Muslims claimed that they should choose all the Muslims
members. Also, some other points caused the failure. Jinnah pointed out that, as Sikhs and Scheduled
Castes on the council were bound to vote with Hindus, which meant that most votes would be in the
hands of Hindus, Pakistan would be difficult to achieve and Muslims would be in a threat as they would be
in minority. Jinnah said that the League had won every by-election for the last two years and was
undisputed voice of the Muslims so it was wrong of Gandhi to say that he would nominate Muslims as
well as Hindus. So, this conference also failed after which it was clear that the gap between Hindu and
Muslims couldn’t be bridged and that partition was a necessity.
On the whole, it can be said that the negotiations aimed at independence achieved nothing. Although
it showed Indians determination, yet the main purpose for a decision to be made for independence had
yet not been made. So, these negotiations failed to achieve their main goal.
Q.Which of the three Round Table Conferences between 1930 and 1932 was most successful? (14 marks)
All the three Round Table Conferences were held in London at the Houses of Parliament between 1930
and 1932. Its main contenders were the British, Muslim League and the Indian National Congress as well
as some Indian princes. These Round Table Conferences were held with high aims by the British that the
constitution reported in the Simon report would be accepted by the Indians. Hindus wanted the
constitution to be according to the Nehru Report while Muslims wanted the opposite and wanted Jinnah’s
fourteen points to be accepted. These distances caused the British to hold the Round Table Conferences.
The first-round table conference was held in 1930 at the House of Parliament in London. 86 delegates
were present in the conference including the British, Muslims and the Indian princes. The congress didn’t
attend the conference as Gandhi had been imprisoned and the congress opposed it. Although 86 delegates
were present, yet the majority of the people were Hindus and so it wasn’t appropriate to make any
decision without the agreement and in the absence of the majority. So this conference was finished
without any achievements. It was agreed that princes would join the federation as long as their rights
were protected. British agreed on representative governments in provinces.
Now for the Second-round table conference, it was important for Gandhi and the Congress to be
present. So, the Viceroy, Mr Irwin signed the Gandhi Irwin pact with Gandhi. According to this Gandhi
would be set free and would attend the Congress along with other Congress members.
The Second-round table conference was held in 1937 in London with high aims that some agreement
could be made. The Muslim League and Congress both attended the conference and also the Indian
princes were present. Gandhi kept on to the Nehru Report and claimed that the Indian National Congress
was the only representative party of the Indian subcontinent. Jinnah on the other hand opposed him and
was in favour of fourteen points and claimed that Gandhi only spoke for Hindus and Muslims had their
own identity. The minority problems were told to be solved by Jinnah but again Gandhi would disagree
and disputes between them continued. This conference was ended without achieving much. The
achievement was that NWFP and Sindh were given provincial status.
The third-round table conference was held in 1932 in London. Jinnah wasn’t called as they thought him
to be a troublemaker and wasn’t invited as soon he went into exile. The congress also didn’t attend and
Muslim League was headed by Agha khan. Only 24 delegates were present and this third Round Table
conference was ended achieving barely anything.
On the whole, it can be said that although the Round Table Conferences barely achieved anything, the
Second-round table conference however did achieve somewhat something as provincial status were
granted to NWFP and Sindh. So they weren’t a complete failure but still didn’t achieve as much as
expected.
Q.Why was All India Muslim League set up in 1906? (7 marks)

 Acceptance of Simla deputation in 1906

 Partition of Bengal had angered Hindus dividing both communities and threatening Muslims as a
minority in making decisions against them, so Muslims had to have their own party to present their
own views and counter Hindu propagandas
 Growing influence of INC as a Hindu majority party
 Protection of Urdu and Muslim beliefs and interests after attacks such as the Urdu Hindi
Controversy
  Hindu nationalist organizations such as Arya Sammaj had started working for revival of Hindu
resulting in forceful conversions. Protection of Islamic culture and beliefs
 Two Nation Theory represented Hindus and Muslims as two different nations therefore Muslims
representation should also be separate with own identity through own party
 Uphold Muslims politically
Q.Why was Congress Rule hated? [7 marks]or[14 Marks]

 Band-e-Matram introduced
1. Nationalist Hindu song written by Bankim Chatterjee
2. Encouraged Hindus to expel Muslims
3. Had insulting remarks for Muslim leaders
4. Was to be sung every morning in schools and the start of official business in the provincial
assemblies
 Wardha scheme introduced
1. Educational scheme
2. Hindi made medium of teaching
3. Cotton spinning by hand was made compulsory
4. Religious education removed
5. Children bound to bow before Gandhi’s portrait
 Political representation
1. Gandhi claimed to represent all Indians
2. Didn’t give promised part in government to Muslim League
3. Only allowed Muslims who joined the Congress to take part.
4. British and Congress flags hoisted over ministries representing the only powers in India
 Widya Mandir Scheme
1. Introduced by Dr. Zakir Hussain
2. Targeted Muslim culture
3. Offered Muslims incentives to join Congress
4. Stress on forcible conversions To Hinduism
 Actions taken by extremist Hindus
1. Cow slaughter banned and beef forbidden
2. Harsh punishments for slaughtering cows
3. Azan was banned
4. Noisy demonstrations during prayer
5. Attacks carried out on mosques
6. Pigs pushed into mosques
7. Authoritative decisions were made against Muslims if they complained
8. Anti-Muslim riots in which Muslims were attacked and their property and houses were set
on fire.
Q: Was the success of the Labour Party in winning the British General Election in 1945 the most important
reason why the sub-continent of India was partitioned in 1947? Explain your answer. [14 marks]
The Labour Party won a massive and unexpected victory in the 1945 General Election. The party was
opposed to imperialism and eager to promote independence for India following the election. Thus, the
signs for an independent state of some kind looked very positive. However, there was a problem, since
the new government were pro-Congress and Gandhi, so Partition was most unlikely and instead the
favoured route was for a federal India rather than two separate states.
However, there were other reasons partition took place in 1947. After the Pakistan Resolution 1940, the
Muslim League had declared its aim of separate homeland independent from the subcontinent as a
Muslim majority area. Following this, any negations were to be ended if the demand of Pakistan was not
fulfilled. In this connection, the Cripps Mission’s proposals of 1942, the Gandhi Jinnah talks of 1944 and
the Simla Conference of 1945 were rejected as the point of partition was nowhere to be seen. Muslims
were firm on their point of partition from their Hindu fellows on the basis of The Two Nation Theory.
Following the Simla Conference in 1945, Lord Wavell announced new elections. The results demonstrated
that the Congress had control of the non-Muslim votes but that the League had equally gained control of
the Muslim vote. It was clear that the League was an equal player to the Congress and that the demand
for Partition could no longer be ignored by the Congress or the British Government.
However, in March 1946, members of the British Cabinet Mission arrived in India to work out a plan for
achieving independence for India as a federation. The Mission met with some 470 Indian leaders but
Jinnah stuck firm to his stance that partition was the only way forward as far as the Muslims were
concerned. Once the plans for grouping the provinces together were known, the ML accepted the plan as
long as the groupings were to be compulsory. Congress however refused to accept the groupings and that
they would not be bound by any British plan. The British government decided to form an Interim
Government headed by Nehru of Congress. Eventually members of the ML joined it too.
The ML grew more concerned that the British would leave India without organising a settlement and
didn’t want Congress to be left in charge of organising a new country. Thus the ML organised a Direct
Action Day in the summer of 1946 in an attempt to stop the British government giving in to Congress.
Rioting on a massive scale took place and in Calcutta, about 4000 died.
The British grew increasingly worried that civil war would ensue and gradually a change of mind grew
over Partition. In February 1947 came the announcement by Attlee that the British would leave the sub-
continent by 1948 and the subsequent violence in the Punjab in March 1947 that convinced Nehru that
Partition should take place quickly. This was formalised in the 3 June Plan of 1947 in which Mountbatten,
the new Viceroy brought about Partition in August 1947.
 SECTION 3

Nationhood (1947-1999)
Q.What was the Radcliffe Award? [4 marks]

 Plan for partition of India made in 1947.

 Made by the Boundary commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe
 Marked boundaries b/w India and Pakistan
 Gave Calcutta to India surrounded by Muslim majority areas
 The boundaries laid in Punjab were also unjust giving Muslim majority areas of Gurdaspur and
Ferozepur to India.
 Bengal was also partitioned into East and West Bengal each country given its majority part
 Sikhs in Punjab also went to India although they wanted an independent state.
 There was great opposition by Pakistan and a few also by India in matters of Chittagong Hills.
Q.What were Yahya Khan’s successes? (4 marks)

 Abolished One Unit Scheme

 Abolished Basic Democratic System
 LFO – Legal Framework Order – one man, one vote
 Seats distributed according to Pakistan
Q.Who was Sheikh Mujibur Rehman? (4 Marks)

 An East Pakistani supporter of self-government

 Found Awami League in 1949
 Presented Six Point programme in 1966 for demands of self-government due to deprivation of
rights in politics.
 Helped Awami League win majority of 160 given for East Pakistan in 1970 elections
 Started the Bengali Nationalist Movement.
 Arrested during operation searchlight
 Became first PM of independent state of Bangladesh in 1971.
 Murdered in 1975
Q.What was Operation Searchlight? (4 Marks)

 Launched by Yahya Khan to resist opposition to his government

 To keep order in East Pakistan by putting an end to the Bengali Nationalist Movement in 1971.
 Sheikh Mujibur Rehman arrested and many Bengalis murdered.
 Bengalis enraged and declared independence
Q.What was Operation Fair Play? (4 Marks)

 5 July 1977
 Coup by Pakistan Chief of Army Staff General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, overthrowing the
government of Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.
 Preceded by social unrest and political conflict between the ruling Pakistan People’s Party
government of Bhutto, and the right-wing Islamist opposition Pakistan National Alliance which
accused Bhutto of rigging the 1977 general elections.
 Bhutto and all other major political leaders arrested
 Soon after the martial law imposed, the new military government took over the government and
the state's affairs.[5]

 A military government led by Bhutto's Chief of Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq eventually installed a
military government, composing the Chairman Joint Chiefs, Chiefs of Navy and the Air Force, and
took over government operations in the country.

Q.What was Operation Grand Slam? (4 Marks)

 Operation Grand Slam was a key operation of the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War.
 It refers to a plan drawn up by the Pakistan Army, in May 1965, to attack the vital Akhnoor Bridge
in Jammu and Kashmir. The bridge was not only the lifeline of an entire infantry division in Jammu
and Kashmir but could also be used to threaten Jammu, an important logistical point for Indian
forces.
 The infiltration started in the first week of August 1965, as Pakistani infantry infiltrated the border
in teams of twos and threes, eventually swelling to more than 4000-5000 in numbers.
 They then tried to instigate Kashmiris into rioting against India
 When India became aware of this, they launched an attack in Kashmir which was of no match
against the Pakistani forces
 But when the Indian forces drove across the border into parts of Punjab, the army was forced to
retreat and the operation failed
Q.What was the Simla Accord? (4 Marks)

 Signed in 1972 after the third Indo-Pak War and secession of East Pakistan
 Between Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Indira Gandhi
 For Pakistan, the prisoners of war and the land captured was returned
 For India, they were given the promise that the Kashmir issue would not be taken to UN and would
directly be discussed with India.
 Restored diplomatic relations with India and Pakistan.
Q.Who was Muhammad Khan Junejo? [4 marks]

 Former PPP member from Sindh

 Became PM of Pakistan under Zia after the 1985 elections
 Started the Nai Roshni Schools scheme to improve literacy
 Worked to develop the Muslim League
 At first was not a threat to army but later started growing in influence
 Called an all-party conference in 1988 to show influence of civilians independent of army
 He also promised that anyone found involved in the Ojhri camp blast of 1988 would be brought to
justice even if army officials were dismissed
 This was enough for Zia to see his growing influence a threat to him and so Junejo was dismissed in
May 1988.

Q.What was the ‘Afghan Miracle’? [4 marks]

 USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 led to an immediate impact on Pakistan’s relationship with
other countries.
 Zia was seen as leader of a Muslim nation on the frontline against communist forces.
 Economic and military support came from the West and Pakistan became an important base
against the Soviets.
 Pakistan became a leading country in world politics and this led to huge sums of money coming
into the country to pay for the care of refugees and the armed forces.
 Zia was able to use some of the funds to make economic progress and reform the economy.
Q.Why was it so difficult to agree on a new constitution in 1950? (7 Marks)

 Religious ulemas disagreed to proposals not being Islamic enough

 East Pakistanis also disagreed to equal representation as they had a population almost 10 million
greater than the Western part and Urdu as the only national language
  At provincial level, disagreements arose on the powers kept with the central government and the
President.
Q.Why Did Ayub Khan declare martial law in 1969? (7 Marks)

 Political instability; Five PM’s had changed b/w 1955 and 1958, corrupt government, landlords
mainly in National Assembly, rifts and challenges for inexperienced leaders
 Economic instability; development at a halt, treasury overburdened, poor infrastructure, burden to
accommodate refugees, bankrupt
 Constant threats from India made the situation critical
 Army was the only proper functioning organization as failure of bureaucracy, political parties and
government made army the only possible organization to save the country in times of peril such as
the one Pakistan was facing at that time.
Q.Why was Islamabad chosen as the new capital? (7 Marks)
1. Favourable location with better climate
 Karachi faced dangers of tsunami and tropical cyclones on the coast
 Islamabad in the middle of country with links to all provinces
 Karachi was located at one end of the country, making it vulnerable to attacks from
the Arabian Sea
2. Government away from commercial influences in Karachi
 Moved from commercially and industrially developed south to the under developed north
 development in Pakistan was focused on the colonial centre of Karachi, and President Ayub
Khan wanted it equally distributed
 Buildings not adequate in number or up to standards in Karachi
 Karachi considered unsuitable partly because of intervention of business interests in
government affairs.
3. Ayub Khan wanted to be closer to the armies’ headquarters in the north
 Martial law imposed therefore need to move capital near headquarters for security
 Closer to Kashmir
Q.Why did Ayub Khan resign? [7 marks]

 Student protests over west Pakistan due to his unsuccessful educational reforms; became target of
a failed assassination
 Bhutto was sacked from his post of Foreign Minister after which he protested against him
 Widespread arrests caused opposition and eventually protests against Ayub
 His economic and agricultural reforms mainly favoured the 22 wealthy families and landowners
due to which lower class opposed him
 Political parties united against his policies
 East Pakistan called for autonomy
Q.Why Did Z.A Bhutto come into power? (7 Marks)

 Yahya Khan resignedand handed over power to Bhutto

 PPP had an overwhelming majority in the National Assembly and was the most powerful and
successful party after the 1970 elections
 To build the image of the country after defeat in East Pakistan.
Q.Why was Bhutto executed? (7 Marks)

 Accused of murder of political opponent through FSF

 Antagonized the army through remarks and limited their powers and refused to plead for his life.
 Antagonized the West especially USA through nuclear policy and closeness with Russia and
communist countries
  US foreign secretary Henry Kissinger clearly threatened Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto saying that US would
make a horrible example of him if he didn’t give up his nuclear programme which was seen as a
hidden cause for his execution
Q.What caused Bhutto’s downfall? (7 Marks)

 Businessmen and private investors opposed his nationalization

 Middle class opposed his educational reforms as they undermined educational standards in school.
 Use of army to crush opposition in Balochistan
 Accused of rigging in 1977 elections; PNA rioted
 Cold relations with army especially Zia
Q.Why did Zia-ul-Haq introduce his package of Islamic laws between 1979 and 1988?(7 Marks)

 Wanted to gain support of the lower and middle class

 Had seen the end of Zulfiqar due to lack of Islamic reforms
 Wanted to satisfy ulemas
 Attempted to build a strong central government under a strong Islamic penal code
 Wanted to ensure Islamic education in schools
Q.What difficulties did Zia-ul-Haq find in ruling Pakistan during the late 1980s? (7 Marks)

 The increasing supply of arms from the West caused threat to law and order as they became
common in streets. Corruption and killing grew
 Drug trafficking, smuggling and drug usage became common
 Gaps had been created between the central government and provinces
 Ojhri camp blast in 1988
Q.Why were there so many governments between 1951 and 1958? (7 Marks)

 Experienced and good leaders had died, Jinnah died in 1948 and Liaqat Ali Khan was assassinated
in 1951. Without these two experienced figures, it was difficult to establish a government.
 Difficulties in solving problems, constitution couldn’t be agreed upon, when agreed upon there
were a lot of disagreements, Kashmir issue couldn’t be solved, attempts to persuade East Pakistan
`failed, assets couldn’t be taken from India
 Leaders inexperienced, Prime Ministers disagreed with Iskander Mirza, internal conflicts, Bogra
and Muhammad Ali,
Q.How successful was the government of Pakistan in solving the early problems soon after partition in
1947-48? (14 Marks)

 Geographical problems
1. Pakistan divided into Eastern and Western Wing
2. Separated by about a 1000 mile
3. Caused communication problems and divisions
4. Difficult to govern as one country
5. Couldn’t be sorted out
 Canal Water Dispute
1. The Radcliffe award gave Ferozepur and Gurdaspur to India
2. Main headworks of canals situated at Ferozepur and Madhupur entered Pakistan
3. In April 1948, India stopped supply from these headworks which led to problems in
irrigating large areas of Punjab and affected agriculture drastically
4. In May 1948, an agreement was signed between India and Pakistan on safe passage of
water but the problem couldn’t permanently be solved until 1960.
5. In b/w Pakistan had to buy water as well at high cost.
 Refugee problem
 1. Boundary commission announced boundaries which made many people feel that they were
in the wrong country.
2. Thus over 10 million people migrated in a rush to their rightful country
3. Many Muslims were rioted and Hindu and Sikhs carried out demonstrations killing many
Muslims and raiding trains carrying refugees
4. Nearly 20 million people were homeless
5. Lack of facilities to accommodate so many refugees
6. UN joined in 1947 to start rehabilitation programmes
7. Relief fund and Central Refugee Council set up by Jinnah and he toured the country to seek
problems of refugees
 Accession of princely states
1. Hyderabad was the largest princely state in the subcontinent, It was a non-Muslim majority
but the Nizam was Muslim and favoured to join Pakistan but India invaded before
Hyderabad could complain to UN
2. Junagadh was among a princely state with a non-Muslim majority but a Muslim ruler who
announced to join Pakistan but once again Indian troops invaded and gained control
3. Kashmir was the third and most important princely states and came in b/w India and
Pakistan; it was a Muslim majority area and considered a part of Pakistan as the K in
Pakistan stood for Kashmir. The Muslim majority population also wanted to join Pakistan
but the ruler Hari Singh first tried to remain independent but when Muslims of Kashmir
rose against him, he went to India for help where the Instrument of Accession was Signed
and Indian troops entered Kashmir, Then the first Indo-Pak war took place in which a
ceasefire was achieved after UN consultation, Kashmir was split into two parts and the Line
of Control set up with UN troops. India got the larger area and Pakistan still thinks it is
rightfully theirs along with the population of Kashmir. Couldn’t further be solved
 Economic problems
1. Pakistan was made up of under developed areas and most areas where industries were
present went into India’s hands.
2. The jute export was their main business but India got the area of Bengal where jute mills
were situated.
3. Pakistan heavily depended on agriculture which wasn’t enough.
4. Moreover, the sum of money that was to be given to Pakistan wasn’t given to the full. Out
of the 750 million, it only received 200 million at first and on successful persuasion 500
million rupees were also taken.
5. The financial assets were divided in the ratio 17:5 in favour of India
6. To overcome these first of all, the State Bank was opened by Jinnah on 1 st July 1948
7. In 1948, Jinnah made his Industrial Policy statement to set up industries as quickly as
possible.
 Military problems
1. Army was split on religious lines due to which the Muslim army was inferior in all of
Armoured, Artillery and Infantry divisions.
2. 4000 officers were needed but only 2500 Muslim officers were present.
3. Moreover, the 16 ordinance factories of military were kept with India.
4. The military supplies which were handed over to Pakistan were outdated, worn and old.
5. In this connection, Jinnah was forced to hire 500 British officers including Douglas Gracey
who became the Commander in Chief.
6. 60 million rupees were taken from India in exchange for them keeping ordinance factories
to build an ordinance factory at Wah.
 Social problems
Pakistan comprised five different population groups, Bengalis, Punjabis, Pakhtuns, Balochs and
Sindhis. Thus, it was difficult to work with as most of them weren’t given opportunities in lead
roles. To include, there were other minority groups as well. Jinnah toured the country stating that
 everyone should live and feel like a Pakistani and developed a sense of nationalism rather than
sectarianism and cultural divisions. He also declared himself protector general of religious
minorities. Low literacy rate was also one of the social problems. The literacy rate was only 16% in
1947.
 Political problems
1. No major government buildings and officials
2. Assembly members with little political experience
3. Lacked governmental machinery to run affairs
4. No major leadership skills after early death of Jinnah in 1948
5. To solve early problems, Jinnah made himself governor general and Liaqat Ali khan as PM
6. Constituent Assembly set up and Karachi declared capital.
7. State treasury and Cabinet set up
8. Civil services organized
9. Jinnah took the role of Chief Executive in the government and became president of the
Constituent assembly as well as chaired Cabinet meetings

Q.How successful was the Government of Pakistan during the era of 1948-58? [14 marks]

 Khwaja Nazimuddin became Second Governor General in 1948 after the death of Jinnah with
Liaqat Ali khan as Prime Minister.
 Liaqat Ali khan became the major runner of the country after this has he enjoyed the confidence of
administrators and government officials.
 A constitution had to be agreed upon.
 The Objectives resolution was passed in 1949 by the Constituent Assembly
1. It called for a constitution observing democracy, freedom, equality and justice
2. Muslims were to live lives according to Islam
3. Protection of minorities from social injustice
4. Religious freedom for all groups
5. Fundamental human rights guaranteed
6. Independent judiciary
 Later, they became part of the draft constitution presented to the Assembly.
 It called for a bicameral legislature which would elect the president and Urdu as official language.
 Faced opposition so given further consideration.
 Liaqat Nehru Pact was signed in 1950 between India and Pakistan calling for minority rights in the
countries. Visa system for refugees was introduced, looted property was to be returned and forced
conversions were to be unrecognized.
 In the same year, a Planning commission was set up to oversee economic development.
 Then in 1951, General Douglas Gracey was replaced by Field Martial Ayub Khan as the
Commander-in-chief. Most army officers now were Pakistani.
 In October 1951, Liaqat Ali khan assassinated in Rawalpindi during a public meeting.
 Ghulam Muhammad becomes Governor General and Khwaja Nazimuddin Prime Minister.
 Six Year plan launched by the planning commission.
 Pakistan faced several droughts and floods
 1952, a revised report of the draft constitution presented by Khwaja Nazimuddin
1. Head of State was to be Muslim
2. Upper and lower house were to have equal representatives from East and West
3. Religious minorities with separate representations at National and provincial levels
4. A committee of Islamic specialists to check whether laws passed were Islamic
5. Assembly to decide on the official language
 These were also rejected
 A jute mill opened at Narayanganj in 1952
  1953, Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khwaja Nazimuddin and Bogra became the new Prime
Minister
 Bogra agreed to receiving aid from US, Canada and Australia to reduce food shortages caused by
droughts.
 He then produced the Five-Year Plan to help bring about economic development. Soon ulemas
started campaigns to remove Ahmedis from the government
 In September 1948, while Ghulam Muhammad was out of country, Bogra persuaded the Assembly
into passing laws limiting the power of the Governor General.
 Ministers were to be members of Assembly; the Assembly was to approve the Cabinet and the GG
was to take the advice of his ministers.
 But Ghulam Muhammad didn’t take it lightly and when Bogra was out of country, he declared a
state of emergency and dissolved the Assembly.
 He then chose a new Cabinet including Ayub Khan and Bogra still remained PM.
 At first, the speaker of Sindh assembly appealed against him and the Sindh court declared his
actions illegal.
 But the federal court, in 1955, declared the actions legal.
 In June, election was held for the constituent assembly and in august, Ghulam Muhammad fell ill
and resigned.
 Iskander Mirza replaced him as Governor General.
 Dismissed Bogra and made Chaudhry Muhammad Ali the new Prime Minister, demanding a quick
constitution.
 In October 1955, Iskander Mirza unified the Western part into one West Pakistan in order to bring
greater efficiency in government and development as well as to prevent East Pakistan from gaining
a majority in the Assembly.
 On 23rd March 1956, Pakistan’s first constitution enforced.
1. Pakistan to be Islamic Republic of Pakistan
2. President was to be Muslim over 40, was to choose Prime Minister and had emergency
powers to dissolve assembly but on the advice of PM
3. PM was to choose Cabinet from the National Assembly
4. An Islamic committee was to be set up with power of veto if law not Islamic
5. Urdu and Bengali were the official languages but the national language was Urdu
6. There were to be two provincial assemblies each for the two wings
7. The National Assembly was to have equal seats from East and West
8. Rights given for freedom of vote, religion, equality, culture, speech, property, trade or
profession choosing, marriage and forming political parties or criticise
9. Judiciary was to remain independent
 Other policies of modernization were later introduced by Iskander Mirza
 Industrialization and rural development programme set up.
 Karachi airport completed and railways modernized
 Telephone system expanded.
 Provision in health, education services.
 Then problems arose politically as Chaudhry Muhammad resigns in 1956 and Hussain Shaheed
from East Pakistan appointed.
 Dismissed in 1957 and replaced by II Chundrigar.
 He was then replaced by Feroze Khan Noon
 In 1958, he declared Martial Law and appointed Ayub Khan as PM.
 From there Ayub Khan takes over and dismisses Iskander Mirza
 Constitution scraped and the provincial and National Assemblies dissolved.
Q. ‘Constitutional reforms of Ayub Khan were the most important of his domestic reforms’. Do you agree?
Explain your answer. (14 Marks)
  Social reforms
1. Stopped hoarding and ended the periods of black market
2. Profiteers arrested
3. Prices fixed
4. Housing schemes; Korangi where 75000 refugees were settled
5. Family Law Ordinance 1959, to control rapid population increase
6. Marriage and divorce laws were passed; restrictions on age for marriage
 Educational reforms
1. Education till class 5 made free
2. Educational boards set up
3. Degree courses extended
4. Scientific education improved
5. New textbooks published
6. Literary programme; New schools and colleges opened even in East Pakistan
 Agricultural reforms
1. 75000 tubewells
2. Dams and canals constructed; 1961 Warsak Dam
3. Fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and HYV seeds imported
4. Land reforms; limited land ownership 500 acres irrigated, 1000 acres unirrigated
5. Land Reform commission
6. Rights of tenants upheld
7. Farmers loaned money
 Health reforms
1. Nursing and medical training schools set up
2. Medical facilities improved
3. Small hospitals, medical centres and chemists set up
 Economic reforms
1. Export Bonus Scheme offering incentives to industrialists
2. Taxes cut down
3. Aid from USA, Japan, UK AND Germany
4. 1962, Oil refinery set up
5. Mineral development corporation set up
6. Rate at which economy grew was 7%
 Constitutional reforms
1. Basic Democracies 1959
A four-tier structure, PDAC’s appointed by President, District and Divisional councils, Thana
Tehsil committees, Local committees (rural and urban union committees)
These were BD’s who were to elect President, National Assembly and provincial assemblies
2. 1962 constitution
Pakistan named Republic of Pakistan
Presidential form of government
Single chamber as National Assembly
Dhaka and Islamabad capital
Bengali and Urdu official language
President should be Muslim and could reject any laws, appointed Cabinet and ministers
Q. ‘Political factors were the most important in the creation of Bangladesh in 1971.’ Do you agree? Explain
your answer.[14 marks]

 Political factors
1. East Pakistan had 54% population but most political power was in the hands of West
Pakistan.
2. Under representation in government
 3. Demanded more seats in the National Assembly and greater share in Cabinet membership
4. East Pakistani PM’s such ad Khwaja Nazimuddin and Mohammad Ali Bogra were dismissed
5. 1970 elections, Awami League won almost 100% seats in East Pakistan. Yet Mujibur
Rehman was not allowed to become Prime Minister
6. He demanded implementation of his 6 points of 1966
7. When Yahya postponed session of National Assembly in Dhaka, Mujibur Rehman started
Awami Nationalist movement in March 1971
8. Military crackdown led to violence
9. Mujibur Rehman arrested
10. Even army and bureaucracy were recruited from West Pakistan with only 10% army and
15% governmental services from East Pakistan
11. The non-violent movement soon became a civil war resulting in violent protests.
12. The involvement of Mukti bahini and India led to Yahya Khan surrendering and resigning
 Economic factors
1. The foreign exchange earned from export of raw jute from East Pakistan was spent more on
the development of West Pakistan
2. Greater industrial development in west than east
3. Industries opened in East Pakistan belonged to west Pakistanis
4. Most banks, insurance companies and commercial firms were in West Pakistan
5. Greater economic development in the West
6. Imported goods from Karachi were shipped to Chittagong increasing cost of goods in East
Pakistan
7. Per capita income was 20% higher in West Pakistan
8. 1970 famine in East Pakistan didn’t receive help needed
9. Taxes imposed on East Pakistanis used to improve central expenditures
10. East Pakistan cut off from trade with neighbouring parts of India
 Other factors
1. There were 1600km distance between East and West causing communication and
administration problems
2. There were cultural differences as they had different languages, traditions, dress codes with
only Islam as a similarity
Q. ‘Economic reforms were the most important of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s domestic reforms.’ Do you agree?
Explain your answer.[14 marks]

 Constitutional reforms
1. Presented on 14th August 1973
2. Introduced pure Parliamentary system with PM as head of government and President as
head of State
3. Pakistan to be named Islamic Republic of Pakistan
4. Judiciary to remain independent
5. Bicameral system of legislature introduced with the Senate as upper house and the
National Assembly as lower house
6. Senate to contain equal number of seats from all provinces
7. National Assembly seats to be divided according to population among provinces
8. Supreme and High courts to enforce fundamental rights
9. Prime minister to form Cabinet from MNA’s
10. Army was restricted from taking part in political activities
 Educational reforms
1. School and colleges nationalized
2. Primary education made free and compulsory
3. New schools opened and old ones upgraded
4. 3 new institutions and 5 new boards of secondary education made
 5. Open university established
6. Colleges upgraded to university levels
 Health Reforms
1. Basic Health Units (BHU’s) and Rural Health Centres (RHC’s) set up
2. New medical colleges and hospitals set up
3. Brand names of drugs abolished to make medicine cheaper
4. Training of doctors and nurses arranged
 Land and Labour reform
1. Ceiling of land; 250 acres irrigated and 500 acres unirrigated
2. Tenants given right to buy the land they bought first
3. Security of labours provided
4. Medical coverage and compensation offered
5. Rules made related to bonuses, retirement and leaves
 Economic Reforms
1. Economic Reform Order to give effect to nationalization
2. 30 industrial units in first stage and 10 units in second stage nationalized
3. 5 Commercial banks also nationalized
4. Insurance Companies nationalized
5. Public serves improved from profits earned
6. Wealth of the 22 wealthy families redistributed evenly
7. From 1972-76, inflation fell from 25% to 6%
Q. “Islamic reforms were the most important of Zia ul Haq’s domestic reforms.” Do you agree? Explain
your answer. (14 Marks)

 Islamic reforms
1. Islamization programme started
2. Hudood Ordinances 1979; punishments according to Shariat enforced, Amputation of hand
for theft, 80 strokes for drinking alcohol or any intoxicant, imprisonment for bottling or
selling alcohol
3. Qazf Ordinance, 80 strokes for false allegation of adultery
4. Zina Ordinance, Punishment for adultery proven by 4 witnesses [1 man equalled 1 witness
whereas 2 women equalled one witness]
5. Zakat ordinance 1980, 2.5% tax on saving above a certain amount collected by Zakat
committees and distributed among poor
6. Ushr Ordinance 1980, 5 % tax on agricultural income to be collected by the same
committees
7. 1980, Federal Shariat court established; 3 Ulemas made full time judges, to judge whether
laws were Islamic or not
8. 1982, Ulemas appointed on the Shariat Appellate Bench of the Supreme Court
9. Blasphemy laws for punishments for disrespect of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
10. Civil servants given extra marks if Hafiz-e-Quran
11. Dress codes for women TV anchors and hosts
12. Limitations on women in sports and public services
13. Islamiyat and Pak studies made compulsory subjects
14. Interest free banking introduced
15. Nizam-e-Salat committees set to encourage offering daily prayers; breaks in institutes and
offices
 Political reforms
1. FSF banned and disbanded in 1977
2. 1984 referendum to take vote of confidence and becoming President
3. 1985, non-party elections, MRD defeated and boycotted
4. Assembly loyal to Zia made including army officers as well
 5. 8th amendment giving emergency powers and powers to dismiss PM and dissolve Assembly
to president
6. 1987, 19 Judges opposing him dismissed and replaced
7. Powers of courts restricted
8. Civil posts and government posts given to military officers
9. Balochistan insurgency ended
 Economic reforms
1. Industries and companies denationalized
2. Private sector encouraged
3. Laws passed to restrict nationalization in future; if did compensation was to be given to
owners
4. Interest-free loans given to farmers
5. Pakistan Steel Mill set up with the help of USSR
6. Karakoram Highway completed
7. Workforce in Middle East sent remittances
8. $4 billion from overseas Pakistanis
9. Aid from US and the Muslim countries after the Afghan Miracle improved economy
10. GNP rose to 6.2%, one of the highest in the world

(Foreign Policies)

Q.How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with Muslim countries between 1947 and 1999?
[14 marks]

 Iran
 1. 1950, Treaty of friendship b/w Liaqat Ali Khan and Shah of Iran
2. Iran first country to officially recognize Pakistan as an independent state
3. 95 mile territory given to Pak, Zahidan given to Iran
4. Early issues solved
5. Baghdad Pact signed in 1955 later called CENTO
6. RCD in 1964, set up to improve trade
7. Iran offers assistance in 1965 Indo-Pak war by providing 5000 tonnes of petroleum, nurses,
jet fighters and medical supplies
8. Also provided military assistance in the 1973 Baloch insurgency as well as the 1971 war
9. Ayatollah Khomeini overtakes and relations detoriate as the new government was anti-
American
 Bangladesh
1. Obviously, in the beginning relations were strained as Pakistan had lost one of its wings
2. Pak doesn’t officially recognize Bangladesh until late 1970’s
3. Assets not divide b/w the two
4. Pak leaves commonwealth when UK accept Bangladesh
5. 1974, Islamic Summit conference in Lahore attended by Bengali PM Sheikh Mujibur Rehman
6. Bangladesh returns Pakistani prisoners after a meeting b/w Bhutto and Mujibur Rehman
7. 1974, Bhutto visits Bangladesh
8. The Bihari community conflicts not solved and problems of division of assets also remained
unsolved.
9. The new government was easy to talk with after the assassination of Mujibur Rehman
10. Trade increase up to $40 million
11. 1985 and 1988, Bangladesh hit by severe floods; in both cases, Pak was first to provide
foreign aid to their Muslim brothers
 Afghanistan
1. Immediate issues with Afghanistan
2. Afghanistan cast vote against Pak in UN
3. Border dispute in 1947
4. Pakhtunistan Movement by Pathans in NWFP demanding independence from Pakistan
supported by Afghanistan who claimed that their territory had been taken away from them
5. Abdul Ghaffar Khan major personality heading the movement
6. Pakistan offers route through Pak to Afghanistan in an attempt to call of the movement
7. But Afghanistan instead sign a treaty with Russia
8. Pakistan embassy attacked in Kabul; diplomatic relations broke off
9. Relations restored
10. 1956, Iskander Mirza visits Afghanistan
11. Afghanistan doesn’t join RCD because of Pakistan being its member
12. 1958, Pakistan officers harassed in Kabul and relations break once more
13. Shah of Iran helps restore relations
14. Bhutto and Daud make exchanging visits to each other’s countries
15. Then in 1977, Zia cooperates with him and relations improved
16. Official mourning declared in Pakistan on death of Abdul Ghaffar Khan
17. 1979, USSR invasion in Afghanistan; Pakistan supports Afghan mujahideen
18. Provide military help and intelligence to mujahideen and help force USSR withdraw forces
19. Pak receives millions of refugees from Pakistan
20. The government of Pakistan accepted the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and the first
embassy was opened in Islamabad.
21. The foreign ministers of both the countries paid by lateral visits and trade was improved.
22. The Taliban government continued to support Pakistan on the Kashmir issue for the first
time in the history.
 23. 1999, Islamabad accord signed by six fractions in solving issues between tribes in
Afghanistan that had called civil war
 Some Muslim countries like Egypt was annoyed by Pakistan’s closeness with US and was also
disappointed when Pak didn’t offer help in the Suez crisis of 1956
 Pakistan has supported the Palestinian cause against Israel’s hostilities
 Pak has remained a member of OIC and has hosted an OIC meeting in Karachi as well as an Islamic
Summit at Lahore.
 Pak able to unite Muslims after the Arab-Israeli War of 1973.
 Resulted in aid from countries like Iran who offered $730 million, UAE who offered Some Muslim
countries like Egypt was annoyed by Pakistan’s closeness with US and was also disappointed when
Pak didn’t offer help in the Suez crisis of 1956
 Pakistan has supported the Palestinian cause against Israel’s hostilities
 Pak has remained a member of OIC and has hosted an OIC meeting in Karachi as well as an Islamic
Summit at Lahore.
 Pak able to unite Muslims after the Arab-Israeli War of 1973.
 Resulted in aid from countries like Iran who offered $730 million, UAE who offered 100 pounds and
Libya who gave $80 million
 Gulf states have enabled Pakistan establish industry as well as provided oil to Pak
 Saudi Arabia was one of the first countries to recognize Pak officially as a separate state
 1970’s military agreements signed with Muslim countries
 1980’s remittances from Gulf States were the second largest source of foreign exchange
 Pak provided military expertise to many countries
 Pak joined the international coalition to end the Iraqi war on Kuwait during Gulf war 1990-1
Q.How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with India between 1947 and 1999? [14 Marks]

 Problems soon after partition

 India refused to hand over Pakistan’s share of money and resources divided unevenly
 1st April 1948, India stops water flowing into Pakistan from headworks in India
 First Indo Pak war commences in 1948 over Kashmir
 Ceasefire achieved in 1949 by UN
 Line of Control set up
 1950, Minority Pact signed between Liaqat Ali Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru
 Referendum over Kashmir never took place as promised and Kashmir issue remained unsolved
 1950’s India tries to gain control of Kashmir on which UN declare it a disputed territory
 1960, Indus Water Treaty signed
 1965, 2nd Indo-Pak war, Pakistan attack India controlled Kashmir, India attack Lahore Sialkot and
Ran of Kutch.
 1966, Tashkent conference held by USSR demanding a ceasefire
 1971, Mukti Bahini force trained by India attack and soon third Indo-Pak war starts as India attack
East Pakistan and Yahya surrenders
 1972 Simla Accord signed b/w Z.A Bhutto and Indira Gandhi
 1974, India carries nuclear tests which threaten Pak
 1980’s Sikh uprising, 1984 Indira Gandhi assassinated on which India declare Pakistan’s
involvement in this movement
 1984, Siachen glacier problem; border not solved, India try to capture this territory, both countries
keep forces to defend it
 1987, close to war as relations deteriorated but the cricket diplomacy averts war
 1988, India assign troops in Kashmir
 Competition in nuclear power
 1989, Benazir signs agreement with India over nuclear installations and the Simla Accord
 1993, Indian rocket launched in Kashmir after which diplomatic relations broke
  1997, Pak and India openly become nuclear powers
 1999, Kargil Conflict, Pak face a humiliating defeat
Q.How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with China between 1947 and 1999? [14 marks]

 1950, diplomatic relations established

 1952, voted for China in UN
 1959, voted against China condemning military action in Tibet
 1962, Sino-India war; Pak supports China and solves border issue in 1963
 Voted for China in UN
 1962, Ayub Khan visits China
 1960’s trade agreement; China becomes largest purchaser of Pakistani cotton
 China becomes largest supplier of arms to Pakistan
 Becomes Pakistan’s third largest trading partner
 1964, China supports Pakistan over Kashmir issue and Pak supports China over Xingjian, Taiwan
and Tibet issues
 1963, Air agreement signed, PIA allowed to use Chinese airports
 $60 million interest free loan given to Pakistan fro import of machinery
 1964, Chinese PM visits Pak
 China supports Pak in 2nd Indo Pak war
 1971, China helps set up Heavy Industry in Taxilla
 1972, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visits China, any previous loans were made grants
 China promises economic aid and loans
 1978, Karakoram Highway completed connecting Pak and China through road
 1986, Treaty of cooperation in nuclear technology
 China facilitates Pakistan in the Chashma nuclear powerplant
Q.How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with USSR between 1947 and 1999? [14 marks]

 Jinnah wasn’t fond of cooperating with USSR

 1 May 1948, diplomatic relations established
 USSR and USA invite Liaqat Ali khan, L.A Khan chooses USA
 USSR supports Pakhtunistan movement
 1950, USSR supported India over Kashmir
 1954, SEATO and 1955 Baghdad Pact signed to stop communist involvement in Pak
 1956, Pak refuses USSR aid
 1960, U2 shot down by USSR, suspected Pakistan involvement
 1961, Pak accept Soviet assistance in oil and mineral exploration
 Pak support for SEATO and CENTO declines
 1963, Pakistan embassy set up in communist Cuba and USSR loaned 11 million pounds
 Declared neutral stance over Kashmir rather than supporting India
 1965, Ayub Khan visits USSR and signs trade agreement
 2nd Indo Pak War, USSR sides India
 1966, Tashkent Conference arranged by USSR in Uzbekistan
 1968, military equipment provided by USSR
 1971, Treaty of Friendship with India promising help to India if it went to war against India when
Pak establishes agreement b/w China and USA
 Bhutto wanted to revive good relations thus visited in 1972 and signed the Steel Mill agreement
signed which was established
 Pak resigns from SEATO IN 1972 and from CENTO in 1979
 1979, Pak help mujahideen against USSR soldiers and drive them out of Afghanistan
 USSR start providing military aid
Q.How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with USA between 1947 and 1999? [14 marks]

 Jinnah admires US system of government

 1950, L.A Khan visits US and Pak embassy established
 1954, Defence Agreement signed with USA to provide military equipment and training
 Pak received $620 million aid
 SEATO and CENTO signed with US
 1960, U2 crisis showed Pak-US relations
 Pak informed US to advice before using its base
 1961, Ayub Khan visits Washington at a great formal dinner at White House
 1962, Jacqueline Kennedy visits Pakistan
 Late 1960’s, relations detoriate due to increasing support US gave India especially in the war with
China 1962
 Provided India equipment without Pak consultation
 Didn’t support Pak in 1965 war
 USA doesn’t support Pak over Kashmir issue
 No step taken to help Pakistan during the secession of East Pakistan in 1971
 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto resists West and relations remained strained
 Henry Kissinger threatens Zulfiqar on his nuclear policy
 Opposed military regime of Zia.
 1979, US embassy attacked
 1979, Afghan Miracle, US declare support for Pak overnight against USSR
 US offer of $400 million rejected as peanuts
 Then massive aid provided which was used for economic development
 Military aid provided including F-16’s
 1986, $4.2 billion aided
 1985, Pressler Amendment neglecting nuclear programmes
 The end of Soviet invasion in 1988 led to a drop-in aid.
 1989, US stops all economic and military aid to Pakistan under Pressler Amendment
 In the same year, Benazir visits US
 1990, Pak supports US over the US-led coalition against Iraq in order to persuade them on aid
 The Pak US relations were again dented when Benazir Government accepted the Taliban regime of
Afghanistan in 1995 as the Taliban were purely anti US.
 1995, American Defence Secretary visits Pakistan and declares the Pressler Amendment wrong
 1996, Benazir visits US following which the Brown Amendment was authorized through which Pak
gains $388 million aid and payment of F-16’s
 Hillary Clinton and her daughter also visit Pak in 1996
 1998, nuclear programme officially declared, US imposes aid and trade sanctions
 Pakistan’s insistence of not signing the CTBT until India does was probably the last nail in the good
relations of the US with Pakistan.
Q.How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with Britain and the commonwealth countries between
1947 and 1999? [14 marks]

 British provide military help on independence as well as help in civil services

 Financial and technical aid also provided but most Pakistanis felt that had partition been fair these
problems wouldn’t have arisen
 Pak chose to remain a member of commonwealth after independence
 Commonwealth membership provided political and economic aid
 Many refugees migrated to Britain after being displaced or evacuated.
 1950, Colombo Plan gave Pak more than 1 million pounds for the Sui Gas project
  Commonwealth nations also helped Pakistan; Canada provided $40 million for development of
railways
 Didn’t gain support over Kashmir issue and commonwealth members opposed military rule
 Britain and Pak worked together as members of SEATO and CENTO
 Pakistan criticized British attack on Suez Canal in 1956
 Didn’t provide help any military or economic aid during wars with India but helped bring the 2 nd
Indo-Pak war to an end
 1962, Commonwealth immigration Act introduced a voucher scheme which lead to migrations to
Britain.
 Remained neutral in matters of the Bangladesh crisis and recognized Bangladesh as a n
independent state after which Pak left the Commonwealth in 1971
 Britain supported Pak during the Afghan Crisis and Margaret Thatcher was the first Western leader
to visit Pakistan during this
 Gave Pakistan 30 million pounds for the welfare of Afghan refugees
 Gave 16 million pounds to help refugees in Balochistan and NWFP
 By 1968, efficient trade of up to 376 million pounds had taken place b/w the two countries
 Pak rejoined commonwealth in 1989
Q.How successful has Pakistan as a member of International organizations between 1947 and 1999? [14
marks]

 UN or UNO [United Nations (Organization)]

1. Pakistan joined UNO in September 1947.
2. Provided international recognition
3. In the beginning Pakistan remained involved in arguments about rights of Kashmiris and
the solution for the Kashmir problem in which Pakistan was not successful.
4. Helped attain ceasefire in 1949 and draw Line of Control
5. Pakistan has been very active in the proceedings of the United Nations and the Pakistani
delegations made effective contribution for the independence of many states, which were
under colonial rule in 1950s particularly in case of Muslim states such as Palestine.
6. Pakistan has contributed effectively and regularly to the United Nations peace-keeping
missions in African and Asian countries.
7. Provided funds for refugee settlement
8. World Bank solved the Canal Water Dispute through the Indus Water treaty 1960
9. Provided financial support to establish hydroelectric and soil reclamation programmes
10. Didn’t help at the time of secession of East Pakistan 1971
11. Pakistan was elected thrice as member of the Security Council.
12. Pakistan was effective in getting resolutions passed in General Assembly asking for
withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan and always supported the Palestinian and
Arab cause.
13. Chaudhry Zafarullah Khan of Pakistan worked as a judge of international Court of Justice
for a number of years.
 SEATO and CENTO [South East Asian Treaty Organization & Central Asian Treaty Organization]
1. 1955, Baghdad Pact signed later called CENTO. Pakistan was far more enthusiastic about
CENTO because other member states were mostly Muslim. Pakistan regularly tried to
persuade the other members to establish a unified command for CENTO. However, despite
regular meetings, the group never developed a permanent structure or a system for raising
troops for mutual defence. The USA supported CENTO, but never actually joined. Thus by
1979 the organisation had quietly dissolved.
2. In September 1954, Pakistan joined SEATO, but the decision faced opposition from within
the Pakistan government and so the treaty was not ratified until 1955. The treaty also
applied to only against the communist aggression, thus Pakistan was to receive no help for
 its wars with India. Pakistan had also hoped for a permanent military force to protect all
member countries against any attack – it was, however, not accepted. It did not support
Pakistan during 1965 and 1971 wars. Finally, Bhutto withdrew from the organisation in
1972 after the Bangladesh Crisis.
 OIC [Organization of Islamic Cooperation]
1. Since the foundation of OIC in 1964, Pakistan had been an active member of it and had
been actively participating in the activities of OIC aimed at Islamic unity, solidarity and
stability.
2. Pakistan has also taken part in all summits and conferences held under the banner of OIC
as it hosted the Second Islamic Summit Conference in 1974 in Lahore
3. Pakistan also contributed her due share in all respects for the achievement of its
objectives. It had raised voice for the Palestinian Cause.
4. The summit showed that Pakistan had many friends all over the Muslim world and the
summit declared Pakistan the leading Muslim nation
5. Pak was receiving aid from fellow Islamic countries like Iran (giving loans totalling $730
million), Libya and UAE.
 RCD [Regional Cooperation development]
1. On 21st July 1964, largely as a result of the work of Ayub Khan, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan
set up the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD).
2. This encouraged the three countries to develop closer trade links and help each other with
industrial projects, such as setting up mills, and factories.
3. Most effective in educational development
4. Later known as ECO in 1985 after Iranian revolution with new members including
Afghanistan and other Islamic countries
Q.How successful were Pakistan and India in solving the Kashmir issue from 1447 to 1999? (14 Marks)

 Soon after partition, one of the most important reason for bad relations b/w the two countries was
the Kashmir issue
 The Muslim majority population favoured Pakistan but the ruler Singh at first wished to remain
independent but when Kashmiris rioted, favoured help from India by Signing the Instrument of
Accession
 First Indo-Pak war in 1948 over Kashmir
 Ceasefire arranged in 1948 by UN
 Kashmir divided into two parts b/w India and Pakistan
 Line of Control drawn in 1949 and UN troops patrolled
 Promised plebiscite never took place
 1954 and 1955, India try to integrate Indian-occupied Kashmir into India
 Pakistan appealed to UN whenever India tried to do so
 1957, UN confirms Kashmir as a disputed territory and that the solution would be settled by
plebiscite but which again never took place
 1965, Pakistan try to instigate Kashmiris into rioting against India but fail and forced to retreat
from Kashmir leading to the 2nd Indo-Pak War
 After the Third Indo Pak War in 1971, the Simla Accord was signed. One of the pints mentioned in
this were that Pakistan wouldn’t take international support for Kashmir and the problem would be
solved between India and Pakistan themselves
 Once again India promise to hold a plebiscite which doesn’t take place
 In 1987, Jammu and Kashmir Assembly elections were rigged by India in an attempt to show
popular support for its occupation.
 The Siachen glacier in Kashmir is also a reason for the disputes and remains to be an issue with no
boundary set there
 Benazir upholds terms of the Simla Accord in 1989
  India stationed troops in Kashmir which by 1993 reached 500,000 causing many skirmishes at the
Line of Control
 January 1996, Indian rockets kill 19 people in Azad Kashmir which break off diplomatic relation
 1999, Kargil War takes place in which Pakistan face a humiliating defeat
 Unsuccessful in solving the issue
Q.Who was Moeenuddin Qureshi? [4 Marks]

 Retired World Bank Vice-President

 Became interim (caretaker) Prime Minister after the resignation of Nawaz Sharif and Ghulam Ishaq
Khan in 1993
 Took action to cut debts by first of all imposing a new tax on landlords
 Published a list of tax holders including many famous politicians who owed money to the State
Bank and they had to remove these debts otherwise they were not allowed to stand in elections
 Made the State Bank an autonomous body to remove political interference in commerce
 Reduced the oversized administration
 Rupee devalued causing an increase in inflation
 Also proposed to limit nuclear programme
 Replaced by Benazir after 1993 elections
Q.What was the U2 crisis? [4 marks]

 1 May 1960
 US spy plane shot down by USSR missile while hovering over military bases in the Soviet Union
 The pilot Gary Powers landed safely and captured by the USSR
 The plane had flown from Peshawar Base
 America claimed it was a weather forecasting plane whereas Pak denied any involvement
 But they didn’t know that the Russians had caught Gary Powers who was found with pictures of
Russian military bases
 Gary had acknowledged that he flew from Pakistan
 USSR angry with Pak
 The event showed the closeness between USA and Pakistan
Q.What was the Pressler amendment? [4 Marks]

 1985 sponsored by Larry Pressler

 Imposed on Pakistan an aid sanction
 Both military and economic aid from US would be stopped unless Pak gave up its nuclear
programme and the President assured regularly that Pak doesn’t possess a nuclear device
 It didn’t really function in the beginning as the Afghan Miracle called for US aiding Pak against
USSR
 In 1990, when Soviet soldiers were forced to leave, it was actually put into action and US aid fell
drastically
 In the following years, it led to strained relations b/w US and Pak as Pak heavily relied on US aid
Q.Why did many Pakistanis migrate between 1947 and 1999? (7 Marks)

 Britain offered well-paid jobs after World War 2

 The Mangla dam project and many similar evacuation projects led to people homeless who then
chose to migrate
 Pakistanis displaced after the 1947 partition
 The commonwealth immigration Act of 1962 introduced a voucher scheme which allowed
Pakistanis in Britain to invite their fellows
 The availability of better jobs in the Middle East and the increasing unemployment and under
employment led to many Pakistanis migrating to Middle East countries like Saudi Arabia and UAE
  There was a large demand for Asian labour in countries like Canada
Q.Why has Pakistan supported the Palestinian Cause? [7 marks]
Pakistanis and Palestinians are tied with each other by the relation of religion. Naturally, Pakistan has to
demonstrate solidarity with the Muslim brothers in Palestine. It has always supported the Palestinian
cause on all international forums and has condemned the Israeli atrocities and violations of human rights
in Palestine.
Pakistan has to develop common position with the Muslim countries on international issues because she
is also facing the unresolved issue of Kashmir with India. Its pro-Palestinian stance would make it win the
support of Muslim community for freedom struggle in Kashmir. Pakistan needs strong diplomatic support
against the illegal occupation of Kashmir by India.
Illegal occupation of Palestinian territories by Israel is a serious issue for the entire Muslim world. Al-Aqsa
mosque in the holy city of Al-Quds was the first Qibla of Muslims and the third holiest Islamic shrine on
the earth. It is incumbent on all Muslims to defend its dignity and honour as part of Muslim faith. These
sacred places are heritage of the whole Muslim community, not just Palestine.
Going in step with the Muslim countries for diplomatic support of Palestine would enable Pakistan to
make better trading relations and military cooperation with them. She strongly needs to uplift its poor
economy by having financial assistance from the Islamic countries and by promoting bilateral trade with
them.
One of the cornerstones of Pakistan’s foreign policy was the support of suppressed nations. Pakistan has
always been against oppression, colonialism, discrimination and had supported the right of self-
determination of every nation.
Why have there been so many problems in the provision of education b/w 1947 and 1988? [7 marks]

 Defence was considered a more important issue from the beginning and only a small amount from
the budget was spent on education
 Child labour restricts children form going to schools
 Rural locals oppose education
 Lack of security and proper-functioning schools
 Lack of trained teachers and staff
 Economic crisis at various times leads to shortage of expenditures to spend on education
 Educational reforms introduced by governments were abandoned by successive governments
Q.Why did Pak distrust India during 1971 and 1988? (7 Marks)

 India had assisted East Pakistanis in forming Bangladesh and depriving Pak of its Easter Wing in
1971.
 India carry nuclear programme tests in 1974 which raised fears
 India wasn’t ready to talk on Kashmir as clear in the Simla Accord of 1972
 India also suspected Pakistan of involvement in extremist Sikh movements in 1984 which was seen
as a sign to threaten Pak
 In January 1987, Indian army began exercises in Rajasthan desert to intimidate Pakistan
Q.Why was India successful in the 1965 and 1971 wars? (7 Marks)

 1965
1. India turned out to be stronger than Pakistan had thought
2. India’s clever tactic of attacking Lahore lead to Pakistanis in Kashmir retreating and the
army dispersed
3. Aid embargos had been placed by UK and USA on Pakistan whereas China couldn’t support
Pak due to USSR
  1971
1. India had a larger and stronger army than Pakistan
2. India once again had support of USSR after signing the treaty of Peace, Friendship and
Economy in 1971 and China was also stopped from helping Pak
3. Pak didn’t have support from its allies
4. Indians took advantage of the civil war in East Pakistan which also helped them win the war
Q.Why did Pakistan leave SEATO in 1972? [7 marks]

 It was only a treaty against communal aggression signed with USA and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto preferred
USSR over the West after he came into power in 1971.
 It wasn’t able to provide Pak economic and military aid
 It didn’t support Pak in the 1965 and 1971 wars and the secession of East Pakistan
Q.Why did Pakistan join the UN in 1947? [7 Marks]

 Wanted international recognition as a new country

 Wanted help in early problems including Canal Water Dispute and refugee problem
 Need for help in right over Kashmir
 Pakistan was keen to play its role in supporting independence struggles in African and Asian
countries as well as being a spokesperson against offences in backward countries for peacekeeping
missions against offences like racial discrimination, colonization and regional aggression
Q.How successful was Benazir in her two terms as Prime Minster of Pakistan? [14 Marks]

 First term 1988-1990

Successes
1. Became first women PM in an Islamic country in 1988
2. She ended bans on trade unions and restores student union
3. Tried to raise women’s status by recruiting Women in Civil services, policed and high court
judges
4. Took first step towards spreading electricity across rural Pakistan
5. Made Sindhi compulsory in schools in Sindh
6. Hosted the fourth SAARC summit conference in December 1988
7. Rejoined Commonwealth
8. 3 Peace agreements with India
9. Visited USA and restored good relations in 1989
Failures
10. Unemployment, inflation, drug trafficking and drug abuse increased
11. Faced opposition from the IJI (Islami Jamhuri Ittehad) led by Nawaz Sharif in Punjab
12. Faced a No-Confidence motion in the National Assembly in October 1989 although she was
able to resist it Also had clashes with the President Ghulam Ishaq Khan
13. Rapid population growth led to overburdened health and educational systems
14. Asif Ali Zardari accused of corruption and blackmailing and involvement in government
funds
15. Tribal chiefs in Balochistan refused to accept the government
16. Poor rail and road transport, Pak Railways fail
17. No solution on Kashmir sought and problems arose in Kashmir
18. Pucca Qilla Massacre in 1990; MQM supporters in a village in Hyderabad attacked by police,
40 killed including children and women and people plead for lives with Quran on their
heads
 19. Benazir charged of nepotism (handing over governmental duties and posts to family
members and close ones)
 Second term 1993-1996
Successes

1. Peacekeeping operation with UN, 5000 troops sent to Somalia

2. Loans assisted from World Bank and IMF
3. Reduction in trade deficit and foreign exchange reserves increased slightly
4. Hilary Clinton visits Pak in 1996
5. USA lifts trade and aid sanctions
Failures
1. Won the 1993 elections and became PM with Leghari from PPP as President
2. Once again faced stiff opposition from Nawaz Sharif under his new party PML (Pakistan
Muslim League); train march from Karachi to Peshawar, strikes and criticizing speeches
3. Family feuds with mother Nusrat Bhutto and brother Mir Murtaza
4. Bhutto’s government accused of Mir Murtaza’s murder in 1996
5. Involvement of Zardari in PPP disapproved
6. There were conflicts inside the PPP as well
7. Tensions rose in Kashmir as Indian armies camp at Kashmir
8. Terrorism rises shown in 1995 attacks in which almost 200 people killed
9. United Bank Scandal; attempt to privatize the bank which failed and led to halt in selling it
to a Saudi Company
10. Unrest in army who made conspiracies to remove Bhutto
11. Rupee devalued due to concerns of IMF which badly affected the economy
12. Manzoor Watoo, Chief Minister of Punjab was dismissed which led to opposition
13. Supreme Court dismisses judges appointed by the government which the government
refuses to carry out.
Q.How successful was Nawaz Sharif in his two terms as Prime Minister of Pakistan? [14 Marks]

 1990-1993
Successes
1. Announced carrying out of national reconstruction programme to industrialize Pakistan to
reduce unemployment
2. Motorway programme started
3. Exchange controls on foreign currency lifted
4. Industrial sectors such as telecommunications and shipping privatized, foreign investment
rose
5. Large scale projects such as Barotha hydroelectric power plant and Gawadar miniport
introduced to simulate the economy
6. Many taxis imported and loaned to drivers for employment, Yellow Cab scheme
7. May 1991, Shariat bill passed making the Quran and Sunnah the law of the land
Failures
8. US aid stopped
9. Only a few loans repaid which burdened the economy
10. Sharif was giving support for the Taliban in Afghanistan and these damaged relations with
USA.
11. Decrease in remittances from Middle East
12. The BCCI collapsed in 1991 and was forced to close and pay huge sums of fines when British
accused it of fraud
 13. Mismanagement of the Cooperative societies led to almost 700,000 poor people leaving
almost all their savings, the societies went bankrupt as they facilitated Nawaz Sharif’s
family business, the Ittehad Industries which badly affected Sharif’s reputation
14. The Kalashnikov culture spread drastically leading to increasing crime and terrorism
especially in Sindh
15. The 12th amendment called for Speedy Courts which people opposed as they suppressed
fundamental rights
16. Little was done to enforce Shariat Bill and take actions passed by Federal Shariat court
17. Accused of involvement in death of Asif Nawaz, army Commander-in-Chief.
18. Conflicts with President Ghulam Ishaq Khan on appointment of new Chief of Army Staff and
the 8th amendment
19. Sharif supported US in the Gulf war 1990-91 in the coalition against Iraq and allowed US
forces to refuel at Karachi which was opposed by Pakistanis and many of Sharif’s supporters
turned against him as they declared his actions to support US against their fellow Muslims
i.e. Iraqians pathetic and unjust
 1997-1999
Successes
1. M2, Pakistan’s first motorway completed in 1997
2. 13th amendment in constitution made which took away the powers of President to dissolve the
National Assembly and dismiss the President as well as appointing the three chiefs of armed
forces and provincial governors
3. 14th amendment made to prevent switching of parties of politician’s part of the Assembly
4. 15th amendment made Shariat Law the supreme law
5. Carried out nuclear tests in Balochistan and officially declared Pakistan a nuclear power in 1998
Failures
6. Sharif used his secret police to arrest Najam Sethi which faced international criticism
7. Appointed his own President after the resignation of Leghari who dismissed Sajjad Ali Shah, the
Chief Justice of Supreme Court which also made him unpopular
8. Accused of corruption
9. Faced economic sanctions from US, Japan and many countries which decreased foreign aid
10. Inflation grew especially the prices of fuel increased to compensate for the loss in aid
11. Loss in Kargil War in 1999
12. Differences with Pervez Musharaf
13. Plane Conspiracy; Nawaz Sharif feared Musharaf taking over thus while Musharaf was in Sri
Lanka, Sharif gave orders to not permit Musharaf’s plane to land and appoint the head Of the ISI
as the new COAS, but the army refused his order, took over Karachi airport and landed
Musharaf’s plane who then overthrew Sharif and took over
Q: Why did Pakistan join United Nations? [7marks]
Ans: United Nations was founded after World War II. Pakistan joined the UNO in September 1947. There
were several reasons for this: Firstly, as a new-born independent country, Pakistan was anxious to be
recognized as an independent country in the world. Moreover, since India was already a member of UNO
even before 1947, Pakistan was also keen to get its membership. As a sovereign state, it was important for
Pakistan to join UNO to make its identity accepted by the world.
Secondly, just after the partition Pakistan was faced with the problem of the accession of the states of
Junagarh, Hyderabad and Kashmir. It was vital for Pakistan to seek the membership in order to present
her case before the Security Council effectively. Furthermore, on 1st April 1948, India had shut off the
water supplies to Pakistan (Canal Water Dispute). So, to find a solution to such problems, Pakistan joined
UNO. UNO supported Pakistan by helping it draw a treaty with India (Indus Water Treaty, 1960) with the
help of World Bank.
 Thirdly, Pakistan was keen to play its role in supporting the independence struggle of several Asian and
African countries. So, to play its role as a peaceful nation against colonization, racial discrimination,
territorial and regional aggression, Pakistan joined the UNO in 1947.
Q: Why has Pakistan supported the Palestinian cause? [7]
Ans: Pakistan has been supporting Palestinian cause for three important reasons. Firstly, even before the
partition, Muslims of the subcontinent had supported the cause of Palestinians and had rendered political,
moral and material support to them. The spirit of Islamic brotherhood continued even after the partition.
The torching of Al-Aqsa Mosque in 1969 by Jews added fuel to the fire.
Secondly, one of the cornerstones of Pakistan’s foreign policy was the support of suppressed nations.
Pakistan has always been against oppression, colonialism, discrimination and had supported the right of
self-determination of every nation. Pakistan has always condemned Israel and supported the Palestinians
on all international forums.
Thirdly, Pakistan has not recognized Israel. Ever since the emergence of Israel state in 1948, Pakistan has
opposed the unjust and unfair policy of western powers who arranged and supported the settlement of
Jews from all parts of the world or unlawfully occupied Arab lands. Pakistan has raised on the forum of
OIC for the rights of Palestinian people and withdrawal of Israeli forces from the occupied territories.
Q: Why did Pakistan leave SEATO in 1972? [7]
Ans: Pakistan had joined SEATO in 1954. But due to certain reasons Pakistan was forced to withdraw itself
from SEATO. Pakistan signed the treaty, but the United States warned that the Pact applied only to
communist aggression so Pakistan could not hope to use treaty if attacked by India. The decision of the
Foreign Minister, Zafarullah Khan, to sign the treaty was contested by the Pakistan government, and it
was not until January 1955 that government of Pakistan agreed to ratify the treaty. Therefore,
weaknesses were apparent. Moreover, Pakistan had tried to secure further aid as a result of its
membership of SEATO and pushed for a permanent military force to be established to protect all member
states. Neither of these moves was successful, as the other members refused to agree. Pakistan’s
disenchantment with the treaty increased when SEATO did not support Pakistan in either of its wars with
India (1965 and 1971 wars). It was the Bangladesh crisis in 1971 which finally led Bhutto to declare the
withdrawal of Pakistan from SEATO in 1972. Therefore, due to these reasons, Pakistan left SEATO in 1972.
Q: How successful had Pakistan been as a member of world organizations between 1947 and 1999?
Explain your answer. [14]
Ans: Pakistan has been taking keen and active interest in international organizations. Pakistan joined
UNO in September 1947. In the beginning Pakistan remained involved in arguments about rights of
Kashmiris and the solution for the Kashmir problem in which Pakistan was not successful. But later,
Pakistan has been very active in the proceedings of the United Nations and the Pakistani delegations
made effective contribution for the independence of many states, which were under colonial rule in 1950s
particularly in case of Muslim states such as Palestine. Pakistan has contributed effectively and regularly
to the United Nations peace-keeping missions in African and Asian countries.
Pakistan was elected thrice as member of the Security Council. Pakistan was effective in getting
resolutions passed in General Assembly asking for withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan and
always supported the Palestinian and Arab cause. Chaudhry Zafarullah Khan of Pakistan worked as a judge
of international Court of Justice for a number of years. Thus, on the whole Pakistan has been a successful
member of UNO. Pakistan was far more enthusiastic about CENTO because other member states were
mostly Muslim. Pakistan regularly tried to persuade the other members to establish a unified command
for CENTO. However, despite regular meetings, the group never developed a permanent structure or a
system for raising troops for mutual defense.
The USA supported CENTO, but never actually joined. Thus by 1979 the organization had quietly dissolved.
In September 1954, Pakistan joined SEATO, but the decision faced opposition from within the Pakistan
government and so the treaty was not ratified until 1955. The treaty also applied to only against the
communist aggression, thus Pakistan was to receive no help for its wars with India. Pakistan had also
hoped for a permanent military force to protect all member countries against any attack – it was,
however, not accepted. It did not support Pakistan during 1965 and 1971 wars. Finally, Bhutto withdrew
from the organization in 1972 after the Bangladesh Crisis.
Therefore, the membership of SEATO and CENTO has not been successful on part of Pakistan. Since the
foundation of OIC, Pakistan had been an active member of it and had been actively participating in the
activities of OIC aimed at Islamic unity, solidarity and stability. Pakistan has also taken part in all summits
and conferences held under the banner of OIC. Pakistan also contributed her due share in all respects for
the achievement of its objectives. It had raised voice for the Palestinian Cause. Sharif-udin-Pirzada, the
former minister of Pakistan, have been the Secretary-General of OIC. The summit showed that Pakistan
had many friends all over the Muslim world. One result was that Pak was receiving aid from fellow Islamic
countries, like Iran (giving loans totaling $730 million). Thus, Pakistan also remained a prominent member
of OIC. On 21st July 1964, largely as a result of the work of Ayub Khan, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan set up
the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD). This encouraged the three countries to develop closer
trade links and help each other with industrial projects, such as setting up mills, and factories. In case of
Canal Water Dispute, the UN played a significant role when the President of the World Bank made a
recommendation that it should provide financial and technical support to resolve the disagreement. This
proposal formed the basis of the Indus Water Treaty signed in September 1959.
The World Bank also provided finance to help establish hydro-electricity and soil reclamation programmed
which have been vital for the stimulation of Pakistan’s economy and industries. Pakistan has been an
active member of NAM organization and took active part in its deliberations. Pakistan has been an
effective member of Common wealth except during the 1972-1989. Pakistan has always stood for justice,
equality, peace, security and rights of the people. On the whole Pakistan has been quite successful as a
member of world organizations.
Q: How successful were Pak-USA relations since 1947 to 1999? Explain your answer.[14]
Ans: After partition in 1947, Pakistan decided to ally itself with USA. But at this time, USA was working
towards an anti-communist alliance with India, so it was sometime before they embraced an alliance with
Pakistan with any enthusiasm. During independence struggle, the America had often talked of need of
unity between Muslims and Hindus, but Muslims wanted a separate homeland, so they were disturbed by
this. It also took several years before USA sent an ambassador to Pakistan. Liaqat Ali khan was frustrated
by coolness of Americans towards an alliance with Pakistan. He accepted the offer to visit Soviet Union in
1949. He was successful (by this visit) in forcing Americans into closer alliance. An offer came immediately
to visit USA and Liaqat Ali Khan made his visit in 1950. He made arrangements for a Pakistan Embassy to
be built in USA. India was reluctant to sign an anti-communist alliance in return for military and economic
aid. Agreement was signed and American aid began to flow into Pakistan. The relations became warm and
good. In 1954, Pakistan and USA signed Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement. In same year SEATO was
set up. Pakistan also joined, but the decision faced opposition from within the govt. so the treaty was
ratified until 1955. But Pakistan soon realized that its membership was of little importance as treaty only
applied to help against communist aggression. So, Pakistan was received no support in its wars against
India. In 1972, Bhutto withdrew Pakistan from the organization.
In 1955, Baghdad pact was also signed which was renamed ‘The Central Asian Treaty Organization’
[CENTO] after Iraq left in 1959 because of a revolution. However, despite regular meetings, the group
never developed a permanent structure or a system for raising troops for mutual defense. USA supported
it, but never actually joined. To sum up, these treaties explain why Pakistan was called the ‘most allied
ally’ of USA in 1950s. However, during 1960s and 1970s relations were often strained. In 1962, China went
to a war with India. As China was communist so USA provided military aid to help India fight. Pakistan was
angered over this because USA did not consult Pakistan before providing aid.
 In 1962, Ayub Khan visited China and in 1965 he visited Soviet Union. As both were communist, so these
visits displeased USA. Pakistan was not provided any help or special aid during its wars with India (in 1965
and 1971) by USA. Although Ayub displeased USA by visiting communist countries, he is known as
architect of good relations with USA. He allowed them to build air bases in Pakistan and remained loyal to
USA even during the embarrassing ‘U2 Affair’. So relations were good. But when he was deposed and
replaced by Bhutto, Americans became concerned as he was not as pro-American as his predecessors and
relations deteriorated. Bhutto even accused Americans of organizing opposition against him in 1977.
When Zia came, relations reached rock bottom as Americans did not approve of military regimes. In 1979
US Embassy in Islamabad was burned. USA accused Zia of complicity in the attack. It also recalled many of
its senior officials and all aid programs were cancelled. However, during same year, situation changed
overnight when soviets attacked Afghanistan.
USA began to provide military and economic aid to Pakistan to help it buy modern US weapons and also
to support Afghan rebels. Relations became very good and warm. Pakistan enjoyed rapid economic
development and became leading military nation in the region. But when peace agreements were signed
in 1988, Pak lost its strategic importance to USA. Aid was reduced dramatically which became a big
problem for new govt. of Benazir Bhutto. Americans were previously concerned about Pakistan’s nuclear
programs. Bhutto had to work to maintain the relationship with the USA as American officials were not
convinced that Pakistan had no nuclear weapons. In 1985 the Pressler Amendment had said that the USA
could only give aid to a country after American President had declared that country had no nuclear
weapons and was not developing them. After Afghan crisis was over, President Bush refused to declare
that this was the case with Pakistan and he blocked aid to country. He also stopped sale of 28 F-16 fighter
jets which Pak had ordered (and paid for). Pakistan complained bitterly that the Pressler Amendment
seems to apply only to Pakistan, not India and was not fair. President Clinton, wanting to restore relations
b/w two countries, agreed that Pressler Amendment had led to unfair treatment and suggested that if
Pakistan stopped producing Weapon Grade Uranium he would agree to sale of F-16s. In 1995, Defense
secretary, William Perry, visited Pakistan and declared that Pressler Amendment had been a mistake.
In 1996, Brown amendment authorized the US govt. to reimburse Pak for F-16 payments and provide
$388 million in military equipment. The thaw in the relations was further highlighted when First Lady
Hillary Clinton and her daughter, Chelsa, visited Pakistan in 1996. Thus, relations b/w two varied in the
period, but was generally good. However, it could be said that they were not successful because USA
would probably have preferred to have allied with India and only had good relations with Pak when
events meant it was necessary.
Q: Why did Pakistan lose 1965 and 1971 wars? [7]
Ans: In 1965, Pakistan had never expected a full-scale war with India over Kashmir, and therefore the
Lahore was caught unprepared. One reason for this failure was that India was stronger and more
determined than Pakistan had realized. Another major reason was that during the war, the USA and
Britain had both placed an embargo on selling weapons to the two combatants. As Pakistan was
dependent on the West for parts to service its military equipment, it was hit harder than India. By 1971
the balance of military power had definitely tilted in favor of India. It had a stronger economy and larger
population and was able to develop an army considerably larger than Pakistan could put in the field. India
could also rely on support from Soviet Union after signing the treaty of Peace, Friendship and Commerce
in August 1971. Whereas Pakistan was not having any such support from any of its Allies. Moreover,
Pakistan lost the war in 1979, as India took advantage of civil war in East Pakistan. The Indian army
attacked East Pakistan. The ensuing was led to the downfall of Decca and the subsequent surrender of
Pakistani forces with a larger number of Pakistani soldiers being taken as prisoners by India. Thus, because
of these reasons Pakistan lost 1965 and 1971 wars.
Q: What was the Kargil Conflict? [4marks]
Ans: In April 1999, Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian
occupied towns of Kargil and Drass. The Pakistan govt. denied any involvement. In May, India launched a
counter-attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts crossed into
Pakistani air space and one was shot down. During May and June 1999, Pakistani forces were pushed back
and eventually Sharif was persuaded by US President Clinton to withdraw all Pakistan forces from Indian
held territory behind the Line of Control. The Kargil conflict proved to be a major blow to Pakistan-India
relations.
Q: How successful was Pakistan in its relationship with India between 1947 and 1999? Explain your
answer.[14 marks]
Ans: Given the historical background to partition, the dispute over assets and Kashmir conflict, it is
perhaps not surprising that India-Pakistan relations have rarely been good. The relations between the two
states have mainly been plagued by failure. Since partition, the main thorn between the good relations
have been the Kashmir issue. Kashmir has been the main bone of contention between the two over which
the two sides had fought various wars. In 1948, there was a war because of the forceful accession of Hindu
Maharaja to India. UNO ordered a cease-fire, promising to hold plebiscite, but over till now, no such
plebiscite has been organized. In addition, in 1965, there was another war on the same issue, resulting
from the Pakistani tries to free Kashmir by force as after the Indo-China war, the Pakistan army had
believed that these events showed that Indians had ‘no stomach’ for a fight. Thus, began to think in terms
of military solution to the Kashmir dispute.
The Indians, however, dropped their objections to western military aid and began a vigorous rearmament
campaign after the humiliating defeat they suffered at the hands of Chinese. The stage was now set for a
military showdown between India and Pakistan. The two sides also went to a war in 1971 over
Bangladesh-East-Pakistan Crisis. India had the golden chance to cut down it rivals. They availed the
opportunity and separated the two wings of its enemy. India also had grievances over Pakistan’s
involvement in Defence Pact with USA, but USA confirmed India that this was only against any communist
aggression. Pakistan was shocked when India tested its nuclear device in Rajasthan in 1974. As Pakistan’s
relations with India further deteriorated, both countries stepped up their nuclear development programs.
In May 1998, India shocked the world by testing five nuclear devices. Just a few weeks later, Pakistan
detonated its own nuclear devices in Ras Koh hills. This initiated the nuclear arms race between the two
states which continues to this date.
In early 1980s, India accused Pakistan in helping separatist elements of Sikhs who were demanding a
separate homeland, Khalistan, for Sikhs. Pakistan rejected this allegation. Later on, the aftermath of the
assassination of Indira Gandhi had adverse effects on relations with India. Rajiv, son of Indira Gandhi,
again accused Pakistan for his mother’s killing. Both sides were almost on a brink of an undeclared war.
India started ‘exercises’ near borders of Pakistan, but it was a great master stroke of Zia which saved the
two countries from war. The Kargil conflict in 1999, further pumped up the Indo-Pak hostility. In April
1999, Muslims Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the Indian occupied towns of
Kargil and Drass. The Pak govt., however, denied any involvement. In May, India launched a counter-
attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts also crossed into Pakistan
air space and one was shot down. The Kargil conflict was a major blow to Pakistan-India relations. Other
problems like division of assets and Canal Water Dispute also contributed to the poor relations b/w the
two. On the contrary, there were also some successes in the relations.
In April 1950, there was a formal agreement, called the ‘Minorities Agreement’, signed between Liaqat Ali
Khan and Nehru. According to the agreement, both governments were responsible to protect the religious
minorities in their states and to encourage them to stay on rather than to migrate. Moreover, another
agreement had also been reached in December 1948 which allowed for a neutral tribunal to demarcate
the exact borders between East Bengal and Assam. The Tashkent agreement of 1966 after 1965 war
helped the two states to agree to resolve disputes peacefully. The Simla Agreement was also a major step
in developing good ties between the two states. India agreed to free 90,000 war prisoners of Pakistan and
Pakistan agreed to talk over Kashmir issue bilaterally and not going to the world community. The Indus
water treaty, 1960, also helped in establishment of good relations. Thus, the two states have had very
poor relations since 1947. Pakistan had remained unsuccessful in having good ties with India. This is due
to mainly Kashmir issue which they have failed to resolve. The nuclear arms race had made it nuclear flash
point in the world.
Q: How successful was Pakistan’s relationship with the USSR between 1947 and 1999? Explain your
answer. [14 marks]
Ans: Relations between Pakistan and USSR have undergone many ups and downs between 1947 and
1999. Russia has always tried to have sincere relations with Pakistan but Pakistani leaders never thought
in this context. From 1947 to 1950, Russia had remained neutral in her relations with Pakistan. In 1950,
USSR invited Liaqat Ali Khan to visit Moscow. However, at the same time USA invited him to visit
Washington. Liaqat Ali Khan chose to go to Washington. This, clearly, snubbed the Soviet Union and in
turn relations between the two suffered for some time. By 1950, the Soviet Union started to back over
with India over the Kashmir issue. When Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO in the mid-1950s, the Soviet
Union took this as a firm declaration in favour of the USA. This greatly worsened the relations between
USSR and Pakistan. In 1955, USSR officially backed India over the Kashmir problem and promised whole-
hearted support; moreover, USSR also began to Press Pakistan over the Afghan claims in ‘Pakhtoonistan’.
However, Soviet Union always desired to have good relations with Pakistan. In 1956, it offered Pak aid
together with a promise to build a steel mill, if only Pak broke off its alliance with USA. Pakistan refused to
do so. The relations reached the rock bottom when in May, 1960, an American Spy Plane (U2) flew from
an American base near Peshawar and was shot down while flying over Russia. Russia gave a serious
warning to Pakistan. On the contrary, the relations after 1960s greatly elevated. In 1961, the soviets, as a
gesture of goodwill, agreed to begin exploring for oil in Pakistan. When India accepted help from USA in
its war with China, the effect was to drive Pakistan and the USSR closer together. When China began to
give Pak aid in 1963, the soviets decided to take even more decisive steps to ally with Pakistan. In 1963, it
loaned Pakistan £11 million and shifted from its previous inclination towards India over Kashmir to neutral
stance. The relations sky-rocketed when Ayub Khan paid an official visit to Soviet Union and further
agreements on trade and oil exploration were reached. After the Pakistan-India was of 1965, the Tashkent
Agreement took place through the efforts of Russian president. Relations, however, were at a very low
ebb during 1969-71 because Pakistanis effort to bring USA and China closer greatly annoyed USSR. In 1971
Russia fully supported India with military aid and Pakistan lost its East Wing. The Period of 1972-77 was a
period of good relations because Z. A. Bhutto visited Russia in 1972. Bhutto had no liking for USA. Russia
had become neutral on Kashmir issue and Russia helped Pak in setting up a steel mill at Karachi which has
been a great asset to Pakistan – thanks to the good relations between the two. However, the improved
relations were short-lived. The soviet occupation of Afghanistan in 1979 caused an open rift when
Pakistan accepted American aid to support the mujahidin rebels. Although Zia visited Moscow in 1984 for
the funeral of Andropov, he got a cold reception. Later that year, the Soviet Union, which also
disapproved of Pak’s nuclear program, began bombing raids on Pakistan. Hostile relations continued until
1988, when the soviets finally withdrew from Afghanistan. Several high levels of exchanges of trips have
taken place between the two sides since 1991. Russian foreign minister in April, 1993, and first Russian
deputy foreign minister in 1994 visited Pakistan. A broad range of bilateral issues were discussed during
these visits. Russia had moved away from its unconditional support to India on all issues. Pak and Russia
cooperated in UN sponsored talks at Tajikistan. The Russian president extended the invitation to Pak’s
Prime Minister to visit Moscow. In April 1998, Pak PM visited Moscow. During this visit many important
bilateral issues were signed. On the whole, Pakistan was not successful in keeping good relations with
USSR because periods of improved relations were short lived.
Q: How successful the governments have been in the Islamization of Pakistan between 1947 and 1988?
Explain your answer. [14 marks]
Ans: The Constituent Assembly passed the Objectives Resolution in March 1949 which was the first step
towards constitution of Pakistan. This resolution made several references to Islamic laws like social
justice, equality and religious freedom, and Muslims were also enabled to lead their lives according to
Islamic teachings. But the religious wings were not satisfied with these provisions. They wanted complete
implementation of the Shariah Laws. Together with other reasons, the resolution was withdrawn in
November 1950 for further considerations. Khawaja Nazimuddin revised the proposals of the same
resolution in 1952. Now the Head of the state would be Muslim over 40. He would appoint a board of
religious scholars who would advise on central and provincial legislation. In case of objections on religious
grounds, the bill had to be sent back to the assembly for amendment. Now fears arose in many circles that
the Religious Advisory Board would have power of veto over new laws. The Prime Minister withdrew the
proposals in 1953. When the first constitution of Pakistan was prepared in 1956, it changed the name of
Pakistan to Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The Religious Advisory Board was still retained for monitoring the
legislation with right of veto. The constitution also declared that the President was to be a Muslim. Ayub
Khan was a bit liberal. He introduced Muslim Family Laws Ordinance according to which marriages and
divorces were to be registered and minimum age limits were defined for marriage. Women were
empowered. In spite of opposition from religious wings, these laws were imposed. He established
Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology to advise him the religious aspects of policies. He also founded Islamic
Research Institute. These institutes were just symbolic; he never welcomed their proposals.
In the 1973 constitution, Bhutto gave no consideration to the implementation of Shariah Laws. It was
almost based on the 1956 constitution. Islamic committee was still set up, but it could only advice on
legislation. After the 1977 elections when Pakistan National Alliance was protesting on the roads against
rigging, he tried to appease the religious factions by banning gambling, restricting sale of alcohol and
declaring Friday to be the weekly holiday. These were just desperate actions. However, there was also a
little success on road of Islamization. Both President and Prime Minister were to be Muslims and had to
believe in the finality in of Holy Prophet (PBUH). The Legislation also gave a definition of a ‘Muslim’.
General Zia ulHaq tried to be a pro-Islamic leader. He established Federal Shariat Court in 1979 to consider
existing laws and judgments in the light of Islamic principles. He set up a Federal Shariat Court to consider
existing laws and legal judgements and decide if they were in keeping with Islam. He introduced Hudood
Ordinances which gave Islamic punishments to people involved in drinking, gambling, theft and adultery.
A new offense of disrespect of Holy Prophet was introduced, with imprisonment or a fine as a punishment
for offenders. He also introduced the Council of Islamic Ideology to suggest ways for bringing the legal
system closer to Islamic ideology. He also introduced Zakat and Ushr Ordinances imposing 2.5% wealth tax
and 5% tax on agricultural income respectively. Islamiyat and Pakistan Studies were made compulsory
subjects in the schools and colleges. Memorizers of the Holy Quran were given extra marks in the Civil
Service examinations. Arabic language was promoted through TV and Radio programs. No woman was
allowed to appear on the TV without scarf. Many people from the civil society raised a voice against some
of his actions, but in many areas, he has support from Ulamas Of course the reign of Zia ulHaq saw
maximum implementation of Shariah Laws. He won the support of many religious political parties, ulamas
and religious factions. In conclusion it can be said that although several and serious efforts for Islamisation
were made, but implementation of clauses of Islamisation remained in question. Desired results were not
achieved because of lack of will and proper implementation. The fact remains that governments have not
been successful in their efforts for Islamisation in Pakistan.