UNIT ONE The scope of Geography is very wide and dynamic.

Geography focus includes their causes, effects, and

Unit Outcomes
interactions of physical and human features of the
After completing this unit, you will be able to: world.
. Geography as a field of study is also concerned with
 recognize the concept, scope and branches of the economic, social, political, ecological problems
geography; and modern technology, such as computers, GPS and
 express the basic land features of the physical GIS to analyze information and draw conclusion with
environment; accuracy.
 describe the absolute and relative location of Ethiopia; Geography examines include features
 analyze the effects of shape and size of Ethiopia on its 1. Hydrosphere – it includes all the bodies of water,
sociocultural, political and economic condition; i.e., oceans, rivers, lakes and others.
 explain geologic processes that shaped the land 2. Biosphere – refers to all living organisms in and
surface of Ethiopia; and on the earth’s surface.
 describe the different landforms of Ethiopia. 3. Atmosphere – it includes all aspects of air
Main Contents composition surrounding our planet.
1. Geological history and topography of Ethiopia 4. Lithosphere – it is the solid layer of rocks that
1.1 geography: meaning, scope and branch covers the entire surface of the planet.
1.2 location, size, and shape of Ethiopia 5. Anthroposphere – it is the part of the
1.3 geological history of Ethiopia environment that is made or modified by human
1.1 geography: meaning, scope and branches Branches of Geography
1.1.1 Meaning of Geography Geography based on scope divided in to two
The term “Geography” first comes to Greek civilization. 1. Physical geography
Geography combining two words of Greek origin namely 2. Human geography
Geo and Graphos. Physical geography studies the distribution of the natural
→ Geo – which means earth features of the world and considers the causes, effects and
→ Graphos – which means writing (describing) interactions of these features.
The important definitions that scholars have proposed: Physical geography includes
 Eratosthenes (276-196 BC) – Geography is the 1. Geomorphology: it is the study of landforms, their
description of the earth. distribution, origin and the force that change them.
 Concise Oxford Dictionary (1964) - Geography is 2. Climatology: studies factors that create the climate
the science of the earth’s surfaces. and examines the variation and distribution of climate
 Hartshorne, R. (1899-1992) –It is a branch of and related causes and effects.
knowledge that is concerned with the provision of an 3. Biogeography: deals with the distribution of plants
accurate, orderly and rational description of and animals.
distributions on the surface of the earth.  Biogeography deals with patterns of vegetation
 Yeates, M. (1968) – Geography is a science that is growth in relation to climate, soil and human activities
concerned with the rational development and testing and it is known as phytogeography.
of theories.  Biogeography that studies why certain animals live in
It is difficult to forward a definition acceptable to all one region and not in other. In addition, it investigates
geographers However, the following may be widely the migration of animals and the factors that affect
accepted definitions by most scholars. their movements. This area of study is called
Geography is the scientific study of the Earth that zoogeography.
describes and analyses spatial and temporal variations of 4. Oceanography: studies the location, causes and
physical, biological and human phenomena, and their effects of ocean currents, waves and tides. It also
interrelationships and dynamism over the surface of the investigates the ocean floor.
Earth 5. Soil geography: studies the distribution of various
1.1.2 The Scope of Geography types of soils throughout the world.
Scope refers to the content (how broad or narrow) of
the field of study
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Human geography studies the distribution and influence The total length of Ethiopia’s boundary line is 5,260 km.
of human aspects of our world Ethiopia’s Boundary Line length as Shared with
Neighboring Countries
Human geography includes
SN Bordering Shared Ethiopia is found
1. Cultural geography: it examines the distribution and
Countries Boundary
interactions of cultures, including peoples’ beliefs and Length in Km
customs. It also examines the movement, expansion 1 Somalia 1,600 West and
and interaction of cultures on the surface of the earth. Northwest of
2. Population geography: it is concerned with Somalia
population distribution and factors affecting it. It also 2 South 1,006 Northeast of South
deals with birth and death rates, population structure, Sudan Sudan
population movements, house hold size and other 3 Eritrea 840 South of Eritrea
related statistical data. 4 Sudan 744 East and Southeast
3. Economic geography: it studies production, of Sudan
consumption, exchange, the spatial distribution of 5 Kenya 760 North of Kenya
goods, services and factors affecting them. 6 Djibouti 310 West of Djibouti
4. Political geography: it deals with the distribution of total 5260
political systems like that exercise power make
decisions, changes in political boundaries, and  Ethiopia shares the longest length of boundary
patterns of voting. line with Somalia while the Republic of Djibouti
5. Urban geography: it studies the development and shares the smallest boundary line length.
characteristics of towns, cities and other urban centers. ii. Strategic Location of Ethiopia
6. Historical geography: it is the study of the geography
of the past and how places, regions and patterns of Ethiopia’s strategical location can be described in
human activity have changed over time. the following ways.
1.2 LOCATION, SIZE AND SHAPE OF  In northeastern (Horn) Africa;
ETHIOPIA  to the southwest of the Asian continent;
1.2.1 Location of Ethiopia  in the Nile Basin;
Location is a place where a particular point or object  to the south of Europe;
exists. In geography, the term location is a much more  to the northwest of the Indian Ocean;
abstract concept than what an ordinary person knows.  to the southwest of the Red Sea; and
This important term is usually expressed in two ways:  to the south of the Mediterranean Sea.
1. relative location
2. Absolute (Astronomical) location. Absolute location is expressed as a geographical extent,
Relative location refers to the position of a place in in terms of latitudes and longitudes.
relation to the location of other geographic features.
The absolute location of Ethiopia is expressed as follows.
Relative location can be expressed in the following two
ways Ethiopia is located between 3oN – 15oN latitudes and
 vicinal location 33oE– 48oE longitudes
 geological location (strategic)
As a result, Ethiopia’s extreme points lie at:
Vicinal location shows the location of a country in
relation to neighboring countries  the Northern tip of Tigray in the north;
strategic also known as natural location describes a  Moyalle in the south (Borena);
country’s location in reference to water bodies and  Akobo in the west (Gambella) and
landmasses.  the tip of Ogaden in the east (Ogaden)
i. Vicinal Location of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a landlocked country that is surrounded by six
neighboring countries. Each country shares different
lengths of Ethiopia’s borderlines.
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 1.2.2 Size of Ethiopia Index of compactness using B/C ratio = Boundary
length of the country/ Circumference of the circle
Ethiopia is the tenth largest country in Africa, with a total
 The formula to find the circumference of a circle
area of 1,106,000 square kilometers.
having equal areal size as the country under
It contains about 0.7 % of the world’s land area and about consideration is 2πr
1.3 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA.
3.6 % of Africa’s land mass.
1.3.1 The Geological Processes in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is the largest country in the Horn. The geological time scale measures time on a scale
involving four major geological eras.
Advantages: Ethiopia’s large size lets it: Each era is divided into periods, the periods into epochs,
epochs into years and years into major occurrences.
 enjoy diverse agro-ecological zones, resulting in a
Each geological era is distinguished from the others based
wide variety of fauna and flora
on grounds of the following three characteristics:
 possess a large amount of arable land;
 the relative positions of the continents;
 have a great variety of mineral resources; and  the character of the prevailing climate; and
 be the home of diverse ethnic groups.  the predominant lifeform (plants and animals).
Disadvantages: Its large size forces Ethiopia to: Here are the geological eras, in chronological order.
 require expensive administrative expenditure;  The Precambrian Era – the oldest era (from 4.5
 have a large army to protect its sovereignty; billion years to 600 million years ago.
 require great financial power to construct  The Paleozoic Era (from 600 million years to 250
infrastructural facilities; and million years ago).
 face challenges for effective administration and socio-  The Mesozoic Era (from 250 million years to 70
economic integration. million years ago).
1.2.3 Shape of Ethiopia  The Cenozoic era (from 70 million years to the
Countries of Africa and the world at large vary not only in recent time).
location and size but also in shape. Precambrian Era
the oldest and longest geological era, of the earth’s
The shapes of the world countries have geological time.
 circular (compact) shapes, The following geological events occurred in the Horn
 elongated (linear) shapes, during this era.
 truncated (shortened) shapes.  Frequent orogenic movements (mountain building
 Ethiopia has more or less compact (circular) shape. process by volcanic eruptions);
 Intensive volcanic activities;
There are three theoretical indicators of the compactness  Denudation during the later periods (reduction or
of an area: wearing down of the mountains); and
 Formation of folded mountain.
 the boundary - circumference ratio (B/C);
N.B
 the area - boundary ratio (A/B);
 The first forms of life (one-celled) emerged, such
 the actual area - area of the inscribing circle
as amoeba, and jellyfish, and
(A/A’)
 The oldest rock formed – the old crystalline
 Each of these theoretical assumptions is based on a
basement/ basement complex rock. This rock is
value of 1 as indicating a perfectly compact shape
found beneath all other rocks
except A/B ratio.
Paleozoic Era
 They consider 0.5 –1.5 values as deviating only
During this era, in Ethiopia, the major geologic
slightly from circular/compact and therefore
(geomorphic) process was denudation followed by
indicating approximate compactness.
peneplanation.
 approach zero (0). These small values reflect
 The Paleozoic era is known for the predominance of
tendencies to elongation or truncation. invertebrates.

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 The Mesozoic Era  The largest rift valley in the world is the East
This era was marked by alternate slow sinking and African Rift Valley.
uplifting of the landmass (Epeirogenesis) of the Horn of  It extends from Syria to Mozambique.
Africa.  It is 7200 km long.  In Africa it is long as
The Mesozoic Era was an era of sedimentary rock 5600km.
formation in Ethiopia.  The largest rift valley touches14 countries
The Mesozoic era has three distinct periods as
 Syria Rwanda
indicated hereunder
 Jordan Burundi
1. Triassic Period 250 ‐ 180 millions
 Eritrea D.R Congo
During this Period, the landmass sank due to internal
 Ethiopia Tanzania
forces. This event was followed by transgression of a
nearby sea into the mainland of today’s Somalia and
 Djibouti Zambia
southeastern Ethiopia. During the Triassic Period, the
 Kenya Malawi
oldest sedimentary rock known as Adigrat sandstone was  Uganda Mozambique
formed.
2. Jurassic Period 180 ‐ 135 millions 2. Quaternary Period (2 million - recent years)
This event deposited another sedimentary rock known as This period is known for its recent volcanic
Hintalo limestone around northwest. activities that took place after the formation of the
3. Cretaceous Period 135 ‐ 70 million Rift Valley.
During this period, the landmass began to rise and the sea In the Quaternary Period, the structures which were
started to regress towards the southeast, depositing formed in Ethiopia and the Horn are:
sedimentary rock known as Upper Sandstone around  the Afar Horst that extends into Djibouti,
southeast.  the active volcano of Ertalle in Afar,
 NOTE  the dormant volcanic mountain of Fentalle in
The Mesozoic is also known for the predominance of Eastern Oromia,
reptiles. Huge reptiles, such as dinosaurs, were  textensive lava field and sheets of Metahara,
dominant.  thermal springs and fumeroles of the rift valley
However, at the end of this era, two other significant
biological events occurred:
 NOTE
 one was the disappearance of the dinosaurs, and
 The Cenozoic Era in its Quaternary Period is assumed
to be the period in which modern man evolved.
 the other was the emergence of mammals, birds and
1.3.2 Landforms of Ethiopia
flowering plants.
In Ethiopia there are various types of landforms that can
Cenozoic Era
be broadly categorized into three groups as highlands,
During this era very significant structural, climatic and
lowlands, and the rift valley.
biological events have occurred in Ethiopia.
Altitude varies
Thus, geologic events very recent landforms in the Horn
 116 meters below mean sea level at the Dallol
of Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular developed.
Cenozoic Era is divided into two periods namely, depression (Kobar sink)
1. Tertiary Period - (70 m - 2 m years ago)  4620 m above mean sea level (a.m.s.l.) at Ras
In the Tertiary Period, the uplifting continued and Dashen in the Semein mountain system
reached its maximum height. In Ethiopia and the Horn, it These landforms are the results of two opposite
formed huge blocks of dome forces:
The lava resulted in the formation of:  the endogenic force that originates from
 the Northwestern Highlands, inside the earth. For example, volcanic
 the Southeastern Highlands, and activity and tectonic forces, and
 the Somali plateaus.  the exogenic force that originates at the
As the cracking and faulting continued during the period, surface (denudation and penepalantion).
it formed the Great East African Rift Valley.

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Relief of Ethiopia can be divided into three main  the Bale Massif, and
physiographic divisions
 Mount Tulu Dimtu (4377 m a.m.s.l.), and
 The Western Highlands and Associated Lowlands
 The Southeastern Highlands and Associated Lowlands  Mount Batu (4307 m a.m.s.l.).
 The Rift Valley  the Sidama highlands
The Western Highlands  Genale river valley.
 The Plateau of Tigray The Southeastern Lowlands
 Mount Tsibet – 3988 m a.m.s.l.  the Ogaden plains,
 Mount Ambalage – 3291 m a.m.s.l.  the Elkeri plains,
 Mount Assimba – 3248 m a.m.s.l.  the Borena plains, and
 The North Central Massif  the Genale plains.
 Mount Ras Dashen – 4620 m a.m.s.l., The Rift Valley
 Mount Legeda – 4532 m a.m.s.l., The Afar Triangle (northern)
 Mount Analu – 4480 m a.m.s.l., This part of the Ethiopian Rift System is characterized by
 Mount Tefaw Lezer – 4456 m a.m.s.l.,
 Mount Kolo – 4300 m a.m.s.l.,
 Faulted depressions (the Dallol Depression)
and grabens (also called troughs), and
 Mount Guna – 4231 m a.m.s.l.,
 Mount Abuna Yoseph – 4190 m a.m.s.l., and  Cinder cones and Volcanic mountain
 Mount Hey – 4154 m a.m.s.l. The Afar triangle is bounded by parallel fault lines on the
 The Plateau of Shewa east and west. Its floor is made up of:
 the plateau of Gojjam by the Abbay gorge in the  Grabens such as the Tendaho Graben,
north;  Volcanic ash and lava deposits,
 the southeastern highlands by the Awash River
and the Rift Valley, and  Lacustrian and fluvial deposits, and
 the Highlands of Kafa by the Gibe River  Volcanic mountains such as Mount Fentalle.
 Mount Abbuye Meda – 4000 m a.m.s.l., and What is more, the Afar Triangle has special characteristics
 Mount Guraghe – 3721 m a.m.s.l. that do not exist in other regions of Ethiopia.
 The Southwestern Highlands  It consists Fossil rich sediments, and
 Gamo-Konso Highlands,  Rich archeological sites have shown us that the
 Maji-Korma Highlands, area was the home of the ancient ancestors of
 Dawuro-Konta Highlands, primates and hominids
 Tullu Wallel, and The Main Ethiopian Rift or the Lakes’ Region
 Benishangul mountain. (central), and
The Western Lowlands the Main Ethiopian Rift, covers the area from the
 the Tekezze and Angereb Lowlands, lower Awash basin up to Lake Chamo.
 the Abbay Dinder Lowlands, The Chew-Bahir Rift (southern).
 the Baro-Akobo Lowlands, and The southern subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift system,
 the Omo-Gibe Lowlands. the Chew-Bahir Rift, is also known as the Omo-Gibe
The Southeastern Highlands trough.
The Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia include:
 the Hararghe plateaus,
 Mount Gara Muletta (3381 m a.m.s.l.), and
 Mount Jebel Tita (3122 m a.m.s.l.)
 the Arsi plateau,
 Mount Chillallo (4136 m a.m.s.l.),
 Mount Bada (4139 m a.m.s.l.), and
 Mount Kaka (4180 m a.m.s.l.).
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 UNIT TWO Altitude
CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA Altitude is the main factor that determines the spatial
Main Contents distribution of temperature in Ethiopia. Different places
2.1 MEANING OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE that exist on the same plane or angle of the rays of the sun
2.2 ELEMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE might be expected to experience equal temperatures.
2.3 CONTROLS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE IN ETHIOPIA Mountain Barriers
2.4 CLIMATIC REGIONS AND SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN Mountain barriers can affect climate in that they exert
ETHIOPIA influence on the spatial distribution of rainfall. Places
2.5 MEASUREMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE located on the leeward side of mountains (also called rain
2.1 MEANING OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE shadow) receive little rain.
The word “weather” and “climate” are closely related Revolution of the Earth and the Inclination of the
but have quite different meaning. Earth’s Axis The axis of the earth inclines 23½o to the
Weather refers to the condition of the atmosphere in normal of the elliptic. As the earth revolves around the
terms of temperature, rainfall, pressure, wind, moisture, sun, this inclination produces a change in the angle of the
cloud cover, humidity etc. sun’s rays, thereby affecting the length of time that the
climate is a pattern of weather condition experienced in sun shines on the earth every other day.
an area over a long period of time. Distance from the Sea
2.2 ELEMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE Water bodies and landmasses have different levels of heat
Both weather and climate are composed of the following absorption. Land masses absorb and release heat energy
elements. more quickly than water bodies do.
 Precipitation - is any liquid or frozen water that Ocean Current
forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the Earth in  Note
form of rain, sleet, hail, and snow.  Among the above mentioned controls of climate, the
 Temperature - is the degree of measurement of climate of Ethiopia is dominantly controlled by
hotness or coldness of an object. altitude and latitude
 Humidity - is the concentration of water vapor 2.4 CLIMATIC REGIONS AND SEASONAL
present in the air VARIATION IN ETHIOPIA
 Air pressure - is the force exerted on a surface by the 2.4.1 Agro-climatic Zones of Ethiopia
air above it as gravity pulls it to Earth. In Ethiopia, the impact made by altitude has resulted in
 Wind - Wind is the movement of air, caused by the the formation of five agro-climatic zones.
uneven heating of the Earth by the sun and the Earth’s Agro-climatic Zones
own rotation. Altitude Traditional Global Mean
 Sunshine- is a direct sunlight to which a given area is in meters agro- equivalence annual
exposed. ecological temperature
 Cloud- is any visible mass of water droplets or ice name in oC
crystals suspended in the atmosphere. 3,300 Wurch/Kur Alpine or <10
2.3 CONTROLS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE Afro-
IN ETHIOPIA Alpine
The most important are: 2,300 – Dega Temperate 10 – 15
3,300
Latitude
1,500 – Woina Subtropical 15 – 20
Latitude, as a climate control, is the angular location of a
2,300 Dega
place or point with reference to the direct rays of the sun. 500 – Kolla Tropical 20 – 30
Ethiopia’s location within the tropical zone results in; 1500
 high temperatures during most of the year, below Bereha Desert > 30
 high daily (diurnal) ranges of temperature, 500
 relatively small annual ranges of temperature, and
 little difference between summer and winter in the Wurch-Zone Areas
ratios of daylight to night. The Wurch-zone areas have the highest altitudes and
lowest temperatures. Frequently they have temperatures

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 of less than 10o C. These areas exist in the very high Seasonal Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia
mountains of South Gondar, Wollo, Shewa, Arsi and Rainfall, like temperature is a major element of climate.
Bale. Example: Ethiopia experiences marked spatial and temporal
 Mt. Ras Dashen in Semine Gondar variations of rainfall.
 Mt. Guna in South Gondar 2.4.3 Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia
 Mt. Megezez in North Shewa Based on rainfall distribution, both in space and time,
 Mt. Batu in Bale, etc five types of rainfall regions can be identified in
Dega-Zone Areas Ethiopia. These are:
Dega-zone agro-climatic areas were the home of a) Year-round rainfall region (wet in most months)
concentrated human settlement They were chosen because E.gGore, Mizan, Metu, Bonga, Gambella, etc.
of b) Summer rainfall region E.g Debre Markos, Fitche,
 Secure location (from which people could defend Gondar, Bahir Dar, etc
themselves from threats) c) Autumn-and-spring rainfall region E.g Gode,
 Reliable rainfall Moyalle, Jigjiga, Yabello
 Absence of tropical diseases such as malaria, etc d) Winter rainfall region e.g Red Sea
Some of the humid areas of this zone support two e) Merged spring, summer, and autumn rainfall region
growing periods per year under rain-fed agriculture. e.g Assaita, Awash, and etc.
Example: 2.5 MEASUREMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Dinsho in Bale Measuring and Recording Air Temperature
Chillallo in Arsi Temperature is a very important element of climate and
Hulla in Sidama weather.
Debresina in North Shewa The instrument for measuring temperature is the
Woina-Dega-Zone Areas thermometer, which is a narrow glass tube filled with
The Woina-Dega-zone areas contain most of Ethiopia’s mercury or alcohol. On thermometers, temperatures are
agricultural land. They are the country’s main areas marked in one of two ways. In °F. (Fahrenheit) the
producing: freezing-point is 32°F. and the boiling-point is 212°F.
 Surplus grain For most scientific purposes the Centigrade °C. scale is
 Inset and its derivatives preferred. Its freezing-point is 0°C. and its boiling-point
Kolla Zone Areas is 100°C. These two scales are interconvertible.
Kolla is the climate of the hot lowlands with an altitudinal  NOTE
range of 500 to 1500 m a.s.l.  Mean daily temperature: it is calculated by
EXAMPLE western lowlands of Gambella. adding the maximum and minimum temperature
Bereha-Zone Areas of the day and dividing the sum by 2.
Bereha is the hot arid climate. Bereha is the climate of the  Daily (diurnal) range of temperature: it is the
desert lowlands that are found below 500 m above mean difference between the daily maximum and
sea level. Example: Danakil depression in Afar lowlands. daily minimum temperature.
2.4.2 Seasonal Variation in Ethiopia  Mean monthly temperature: is determined by
These variations are primarily due to: adding together the daily averages and the
 the tilting of the earth at 23½º to the normal elliptic, dividing the number of days in a month.
and  Mean annual temperature: it is calculated by
 the distance of the overhead sun and its apparent adding the mean monthly temperatures and
north-south movement across the equator as the earth dividing the sum by 12.
revolves around the sun  Annual range of temperature: it is the difference
The mean maximum temperatures are experienced over between the temperatures of the hottest and
the western, north eastern and south eastern lowlands coldest months
while the lowest temperatures are over the Semein and Measuring and Recording Rainfall
Arsi-Bale mountains. Þ The highest temperature i.e. over Rainfall is measured using a rain gauge
45o C is recorded in the Danakil Depression - the hottest  Mean monthly rainfall: it is calculated by adding
place of Ethiopia. all the amounts of rainfall on daily basis for the

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 month and dividing the sum by the number of days
of the month.
 Total annual rainfall: it is calculated by adding the
amounts rainfall of the 12 months.
 Mean annual rainfall: it is calculated by adding the
annual amounts of rainfall for 35 years and
dividing the sum by the number of those years.
Measuring and Recording Air Pressure
Air is made up of a number of mixed gases and has
weight.
The instrument for measuring pressure is a barometer.
Measuring and Recording Wind Speed
Wind speed can be measured using an anemometer

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