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Volume 21 Electricity Distribution Network Design, 2nd Edition E. It is the interconnection of
power systems, for reasonsof economy and of improved availability of supplies across broader areas,
that makeswidespread disruptions possible. The tangent component corresponding the continuation
parameter is zero at themaximum loading point and becomes negative beyond the maximum point.
The solid line represents the post-disturbance voltage stabilitymargin arranged in ascending order
(scale on the left hand side of figure). The feature selection and extraction methods are used
tocompress the information presented for the model. The data analysis also includes removing of
outliers or corrupted data, and data divisioninto training, validation and test data sets (these terms
are used in the neural networkliterature). The results prove the ability of theproposed approach to
approximate the voltage stability margin. The statorcurrent limit should be taken into account
because the limit decreases when the voltagedecreases. For getting the quick response, the quick
acting voltage regulators based on the. The results are the approximate voltage stability margin
andcontingency ranking (in parentheses). The number of hidden units is one of the parameters in
model creation;i.e. the number of hidden units should be optimised. The transmissionnetwork
developed for a vertically integrated power system is not necessarily an optimalnowadays in an
unbundled environment; For example, changes in the power productionpattern due to market
conditions may change the bottlenecks of a transmission network andrestrict the power trading in
this way. Critical clearing angle is “the load angle at which the fault will be clear and the. Control
Methods for Powered Prostheses to Improve Mobility and Stability in Persons with Lower. The
change of total load is varied with a normal distribution random number generator andadded to the
base case load. Because of the loss of two lines, a large amount of power can’t be transmitted
outside, which lead to the continuous accumulation of the generator kinetic energy. The probability
of (n-2) contingencyincreases e.g. when the weather is bad and two transmission circuits are placed
on the sametowers or when a generator may be relayed out due to a line outage. Thus it involves the
estimationof the relative robustness of the system in its present state or in near-term future
state.Direct security assessment requires calculating the probability that the power system statewill
move from the normal operation state to the emergency state. This entailssettings of generator
transformer tap position, manually switched compensation devicesand manually switched transformer
taps. The fitting of a polynomial requires three stable load-flow solutions. Therefore net torque
which causes acceleration of the motor or accelerating. Voltage collapse is the catastrophic result of a
sequence of eventsleading to a low-voltage profile suddenly in a major part of the power system. The
bestmodel was chosen mainly based on MSE, because it measures “global” properties insteadof
maximum residual, which measures more or less “local” properties of the model. The application
would be implemented to powermanagement system as a third party software. I would like to
express mygratitude to him for his support in the course of this thesis. The system was studied to
findthe maximum transfer capacity from Sweden to Finland. Selection of the opposite direction of
the normal vector is the bestway to improve the voltage stability at the collapse point. The control of
step length is obvious inthe case of load-flow divergence. A good method todecide which bus is
nearest to its voltage stability limit is to find the bus with the largestratio of differential change in
voltage to differential change in active load for the wholesystem. In practice, load-flow programs are
not capable ofsolving cases close to voltage collapse point due to load-flow numerical problems.
Thevalue of minimum singular value describes the proximity of the maximum loading point tothe
voltage collapse point.
A system is said to be Dynamically stable, if the oscillation of the system. Volume 68 Distribution
System Analysis and Automation J. Gers. The operation points of the intersection between Sweden
and Finland are well below thereal maximum transfer limit. The index should have a high value for
critical contingencies and alow value for non-critical contingencies. As the load decreases, the power
surplus phe- nomenon appears within the system. The accuracy of the mapping can beimproved by
reducing the dimensionality of the input space. Some of the unstable cases have low
intersectiontransfers at the operation point due to high production in southern Finland. In principle, a
new contract of power exchange requiresupdating of net transfer capacity and decreases the
uncertainty about future conditions.The available transfer capacity is the remaining transfer capacity
after the priorallocations of contracted power exchanges. It is assumed that the post-disturbance state
of a power system can be monitored withselected pre-disturbance parameters. The model-based
approach does not replacetraditional analysis methods, rather these methods are urgently needed at
the off-linecomputation step of the approach. The system might have many bifurcation points, but
good initial valuesfor the eigenvector guarantees convergence to the nearest voltage collapse point.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research. The performance index approximates
thepost-disturbance reactive power losses according to the pre-disturbance load-flow solution.This
performance index can be improved by computing the solutions of post-disturbanceload-flows.
When theactivation functions of output units are linear, the outputs of radial base function
neuralnetwork are the linear combination of all inputs weighted by the parameters of output
unit(weights between the hidden and the output layer and the bias terms). Page 81. For FPSS, speed
deviation and acceleration deviation are taken as inputs. A system consisting of n componentsshould
be able to operate with any combination of n-1 components, thus for any singlecomponent outage.
However, this is notthe primary concern of model-based voltage stability assessment. The restoration
of load may occur although distribution network voltage is not increased tonominal or pre-
disturbance value. The proposed approachis intended for the determination of the power system state
and the estimation of theavailable transfer capacity, and may be implemented as a decision support
tool for thepower management system. The colour of dots is used to separatesituations: dark grey
indicates a severe and light grey indicates a non-severe situationaccording to the voltage stability
margin. Page 129. The data analysis also includes removing of outliers or corrupted data, and data
divisioninto training, validation and test data sets (these terms are used in the neural
networkliterature). The intermediate results of these methodscan also be used for a quick and
approximate analysis of voltage stability in on-lineapplications. Although the load-flow
Jacobianmatrix is singular at the bifurcation point, the Jacobian matrix of Equations 3.3 or 3.4 isnon-
singular at the bifurcation point. These studies aretime-consuming and cannot be done on-line, which
is why new methods for voltagestability assessment are needed. Contingencies 3 (bus 10generator
outage), 45 (outage of line 8-9) and 47 (outage of line 9-10) are severe and areall related to generator
bus 10. Resilient back-propagation uses only the sign of thederivative to determine the direction of
parameter update. The powersystem should be able to continue its operation despite sudden outage
of a production unit,transmission line, transformer, compensation device, etc. The heatingcoefficients
of stator circuit are much larger than those of excitation circuit, why the statorcurrent limiter is not
necessary and may be done manually. The on-lineupdating is part of the third party program of the
model-based approach. Asystem with large transfer capacity is generally more robust and flexible
than a system withlimited ability to accommodate power transfers.
On the otherhand there is a possibility that slower reserves have already released some part of
spinningreserves in the study period. The value of the minimum singular value of theload-flow
Jacobian matrix is also sensitive to limitations and changes of reactive poweroutput. Simultaneous
growth in the use of electricalpower without a corresponding increase of transmission capacity has
brought many powersystems closer to their voltage stability limits. The reactive power load is chosen
randomly between certain limits (e.g. 0.06 Page 95. These are used for neural network
parameterestimation when there is a large number of parameters. The margin is determined according
to the totalload. Many of thepreviously mentioned papers note that the parameter estimation of
neural network istime-consuming. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.
Thealgorithm is then continued with decreased step length. The load compensation makes it possible
to increase the loading of the powersystem according to voltage stability. To allow power transfers
increase close to or beyond thesecurity boundary, there should be a possibility to evaluate risks and
uncertainties relatedto security limits. 1.2.2 Objectives of the thesisThe objective of this thesis is to
develop a method to be applicable in practice for amodel-based voltage stability assessment of long-
term large-disturbance voltage stability.The method is suited for transmission system on-line security
assessment. Power system control and operation practices shouldalso be included in the data
generation algorithm to ensure good quality and realistic data.The data should cover operation points
both common and rare throughout the operationspace. It is possible in the future that on-line voltage
stability assessment will be based on similartools than off-line assessment today, i.e. exact
computation of the most critical voltagestability margin. In the case of a neural network the
modelorder selection requires only the selection of the number of hidden layer nodes or
basefunctions. On the other hand unstable cases i.e. cases having zero voltage stability
marginsshould also be included. Clustering is distinct from classification methods and tries to find
similaritiesbetween cases. The computation algorithm is based on binary search, the initialstep length
is 300 MW, the minimum step length is 1 MW. The voltage problem is load-driven as described
above. The reactive power balance of the equivalent system is based onthe light transfer situation,
when the line compensation is not always appropriate and thevoltage level is unacceptably low in
high transfer situations. The stochastic nature of the system mustsomehow be taken into account. The
operation point does not have aload-flow solution in that case, because the sensitivity of the load-
flow solution to smalldisturbances is infinite. The updating ofparameters is not frequently used,
because the estimation residual should take a clear turnfor the worse in order to update the
parameters. The proposed model-based voltage stability assessment was tested on the equivalent of
theFinnish transmission network to ascertain the applicability and the problems on the realsystem. We
also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Volume
79 Vehicle-to-Grid: Linking electric vehicles to the smart grid J. Lu and J. Hossain. When the
lineflow (absolute value) increases, the share of severe situations also increases indicating
thatuncertainty of system state and risk of voltage instability is increasing. In this problem theGauss-
Newton method may fail or converge slowly. The model requires sufficient and suitable inputs forthe
accurate approximation in the wide range of operation points. The light and the dark grey indicate
stable andunstable cases respectively. Maximum loading pointand PV-curve yes Steplength hasmin.
In a day-ahead time frame the net or the available transfercapacities are calculated taking outages
into account, which is why the total and the nettransfer capacities can make discrete steps in the time
frame (see Figure 3.4). These valuesare firm values for the electricity trade. Accurate
contingencyranking requires the computation of voltage collapse points for each contingency. If the
line disconnection led to anisland, the smaller part of the system was fully disconnected. Although
restriction of power transfers is seldom needed due to power system security orstability at many
power systems, there do exist needs to rebuild parts of the transmissionnetwork or the ways in
which it is operated. The Levenberg-Marquardt method hasbeen noted the most effective method for
many cases. We know that relative angle between two machines, i.e., angle between two.
Environmental constraints limit the expansion of transmission network and generation nearload
centres, which has a negative influence on power system voltage stability, because theelectrical
distance from a generator to a load increases and the voltage support weakens inthe load area. First
the number of state variables used atcontingency clustering is reduced. A good method todecide
which bus is nearest to its voltage stability limit is to find the bus with the largestratio of differential
change in voltage to differential change in active load for the wholesystem. The state estimation
programcan be used to provide better input estimates than raw SCADA measurements for themodel.
The exact location ofthe maximum loading point requires searching with decreasing step size around
themaximum point, which is why the point of collapse method and the optimisation methodare more
effective than the continuation load-flow to find the exact voltage collapse point. This is only a
possibility, because many production unitsare shut down due to too high or low frequency or any
other reason. The aim of methods two to four is to decreasethe prediction error compared to the first
option and so to decrease the computation timeand improve the convergence near the nose of PV-
curve. A new load-flow is needed to verify the results of manual controls and operation
practices.The solution of the second load-flow is stored in the database. A smooth function which
describes the system or thephenomenon reliably is of much more use in the estimation of system
state than an exactpresentation of the data. This margin is typically afew per cent of total capacity.
Voltages andfrequency of the system are within the normal range and no equipment is overloaded
inthis state. Theanalysis of cases also shows that the severity of a case can be explained well with the
firstprincipal component. The advantage of the ISODATA algorithm compared to theK-means
algorithm is its ability to find the optimal number of clusters. The most critical post-disturbance
voltage stability margins are then computed. The Jacobian matrix is non-singular at theHopf
bifurcation. Computation capacityand power have increased remarkably since most of the previous
papers were written. The tangent component corresponding the continuation parameter is zero at
themaximum loading point and becomes negative beyond the maximum point. Thehead of the
polynomial is an estimate of maximum loading point. The pre-disturbance margindescribes the
loadability of a power system and is not interesting from the security point ofview. The number of
hidden units, i.e. thenumber of parameters, was chosen using the trial and error method. The
transmission systems are usually reliable due to redundancy in the systems. Thereliability of a
transmission system is determined according to line overload, protectionand power system dynamic
behaviour (stability). It shows that the energy is delivering through two trans- mission lines to the
receiving power system from the large power base. The main results obtained in this thesis are
analgorithm to compute the most critical voltage stability margin, a method to create ablack-box
modelling approach for on-line voltage stability assessment, and a method toapproximate the most
critical voltage stability margin accurately. Page 4. Some EHV transmission lines are heavily loaded,
the available generation capacity of the critical area is temporarily reduced e.g. due to maintenance of
unit or to marketconditions, and reactive power reserves are at the minimum or are located far from
thecritical area. 2. Due to a fault or any other reason a heavily loaded line is lost.
Theaccuracy of such indices cannot be 100 % in all situations, because the voltage stabilityproblem
is non-linear in nature. The load-flow divergesclose to maximum loading point because there are
numerical problems in the solution ofload-flow equations. The low variance variables do not explain
the changes in the system state, and itis natural to remove them from the data. The additional
network losses (compared to base case) are distributed to allgenerators to vary the production of
constant power units. This must be taken into account when considering the share ofadditional losses
and production outage due to a disturbance. Power system control and operation practices
shouldalso be included in the data generation algorithm to ensure good quality and realistic data.The
data should cover operation points both common and rare throughout the operationspace. Computed
valuesare used to fit second order polynomials for chosen power system nodes. However,some
situations can be severe even at a very low value of line flow. Thenext two columns present curve
fitting results of three operation point data. Generally it is better to choose an output
activationfunction suited to the distribution of the outputs. The base value ofactive power flow
corresponds to the maximum transfer limit of AC interconnectionbetween Sweden and Finland
determined by the deterministic (n-1)-criterion and detaileddynamic simulations. Page 145. The
effectiveness of PSS is providing damping and improving the dynamic response is well established.
Thenumber of variables can be reduced as long as the power system operation states can bereliably
separated from each other according to approximated function. Changing the settings of manually
switched compensation devices canclear these reactive power reserves. The security of a power
system is a mandatory public good necessary forconfidence in the power market. Most minimum
singular values form a curve similar to the truecontingency ranking. The unstable cases(zero margins)
are all heavily loaded. Theselection of contingency is done beforehand to reduce the computation
burden during datageneration. The chosen contingencies are different from the most
criticalcontingencies identified in Chapters 6.1.2 and 6.1.3. Here we present some electrical variables
of training, validation and test data to visualiseand to analyse the data used in the model-based
approach (see Figure 6.13). The training data is presented with dots (?) and the test data with circles
(o). It is an indicator availablefrom normal load-flow calculations. Neuro-fuzzy, fuzzy and
expertsystems, which are grey-box models, may be applied when there is also some
knowledgeavailable. The correct clustering of all critical contingencies is notpossible unless almost
all contingencies are grouped into critical clusters. Page 124. The various faults that increases severity
of equal area criterion are. Although the parameter estimation of a neural network is much moretime-
consuming than, for example, the parameter estimation of a linear regression model,it is not really a
limitation for the use of a model-based approach. The sending system is simplified as a generator G1
and the receiving system is simplified as a generator G2. This trend inevitably requires addition of
transmission capacity in the long run. Page 28. The analysis of operation points isdone by load-flow
computation. In practice, it is not possibleto work or to serve without electricity in modern society.
The further into the future the determination oftransfer capacity is made, the greater is the degree of
uncertainty in the assumedconditions and, hence, in the transfer capacity. Volume 47 Protection of
Electricity Distribution Networks, 2nd Edition J. Gers and E. Holmes.