Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Experimental study on potential suitability of natural lime and waste

ceramic dust in modifying properties of highly plastic clay
Adamu Beyene a, *, Yada Tesfaye a, b, Damtew Tsige a, Alemineh Sorsa a, Teyba Wedajo a,
Narobika Tesema c, Getnet Mekuria d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Jimma Institute of Technology, Jimma University, Ethiopia
b
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Ambo University, Ethiopia
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Debre Tabor University, Ethiopia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Working with expansive soil as pavement subgrade is not technically easy due its poor workability and insuffi-
Expansive subgrade cient capacity to support the imposed cyclic traffic loading. For satisfactory performance of the pavement
Stabilization structure constructed in such foundation hence the properties of the weak subgrade have to be modified. One of
Waste ceramic dust
the ideal solutions to these problems might be looking towards naturally abundant and industrial waste materials
Limestone
that are produced in large quantities as stabilizing agent for clay subgrades so that the instability concerns can be
alleviated. This study hence primarily aimed at experimentally scrutinizing the stabilizing potential of waste
ceramic dust and natural lime in modifying geotechnical properties of the highly plastic subgrade material. Both
the separate and combined effects of the two stabilizing agents were investigated with respect to mitigating the
key parameters required for stable road construction. The degree of improvement for various mix ratios were
compared with the design and requirements of Ethiopian roads authority specifications for road construction.
Accordingly, the optimum dosage for natural lime was 6% whereas that of the waste ceramic is 20% for safe road
subgrades. It was also indicated that natural lime is more powerful than the waste ceramic dust from effectiveness
point of view. The conducted experimental test revealed that the response of soil parameters to variation in
amount of stabilizers in the separate application method is more sensitive for natural lime than the waste ceramic
dust. The improvement rate in magnitude of the required geotechnical parameters in the combined case is by far
greater than the separate application of the additives.

1. Introduction however practically not feasible in case thickness of the soil mass extends
over larger depth [7, 15]. Hence, application of mechanical improvement
Expansive soils are commonly source of instability in construction of methods by using any viable stabilizing agent could be a solution to
road foundation [1, 17]. Existence of weak subgrades in many cases is the overcome the feasibility related challenges [13].
root cause of road failures and damages [2, 11, 51]. The expansive In the stabilization of clayey soils not only the physical properties of
behavior of highly plastic subgrades results in development of excessive the soil are affected but also its chemical properties are altered as a result
and permanent deformation in the road structure during its service life of reactions taking place between the negatively charged clay particles
[3, 22]. Likewise, roads built on this type of subgrade, unconditionally and the cation from the stabilizers like limestone and waste ceramic dust
experiences premature failure and pavement distresses [4]. Due to its low [23, 26, 33]. Limestone is rich in calcium ion (Ca2þ) and ceramic dust
consistency, expansive soil is proscribed as unsuitable material for con- contains sodium ion (Na2þ) which has paramount significance for
struction of road pavement [5, 19, 39]. Therefore, weak subgrade soils effective cation exchange and development of flocculation-agglome
are totally or partially removed through excavation before commence- tration [28]. The addition of lime to clay initiates a two phase re-
ment of the actual construction work, in the conventional road con- actions with both immediate and long term benefits in improving prop-
struction trend [6, 16]. Removal of unsuitable soil through excavation is erties of the clay soil. The short term process involves cation exchange

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: adams.180@yahoo.com (A. Beyene).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10993
Received 14 June 2022; Received in revised form 26 July 2022; Accepted 4 October 2022
2405-8440/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

between ions of clay particle and calcium ions of lime material resulting 2. Materials and methods
in suppression of diffuse water encircling the clay particles [31]. The
suppression of pore water forms strong bond between particles of clay 2.1. Characterization of the materials used
soil [32]. Similarly, its long term benefit comes from the pozzolanic re-
action which occurs as a result of critical combination of liberated SiO2 The experimental analysis considered in the current study considered
and or Al2O3 to form cementing agents like calcium silica hydrate (CSH) three different materials which include expansive clay soil, waste
and calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH). The pozzolanic reaction hence ceramic dust and limestone. The expansive clay is the material consid-
contributes to development of cementetious materials having strong ered as weak subgrade which is incompetent in its performance as
bond [30]. Application of lime stabilization expedites constructions in pavement foundation. Hence, it is unlikely to directly use it for con-
clay soil even during rainy weather, due to proven drying action of lime struction purpose without application of any improvement mechanism.
material [33]. In relation to this, the waste ceramic dust and limestone are used as
Many studies were conducted to investigate the critical performance stabilizing agents through employing various proportions of mix. These
of both limestone and waste ceramic in modifying the intrinsic engi- two materials are separately mixed and blended with the weak subgrade
neering properties of highly plastic soils for subgrade use. The achieved with varying mix ratios and their effect is investigated. Eventually, the
degree of improvement in engineering properties of a stabilized soft soil three materials are mixed up to assess joint performance of the additives
highly depends on dosage of the stabilizer and gradation of the mix [9, in modifying properties of the clay subgrade.
15]. According to Rakhil and Devi [21], ceramic waste can conveniently
be used as stabilizing material that it is found effective in improving 2.1.1. Clay soil
geotechnical properties of expansive clay soils. In using ceramic waste for The expansive soil considered to be improved in the study was sampled
weak soil stabilization, not only the properties of the soil are improved from outskirt of Asendabo town, Jimma Zone, Ethiopia. The soil samples
but also the disposal issue of the waste material can be settled [2]. Binici were collected from a depth of 2 m below the natural ground surface near
[9] stated that ceramic is known for its good stiffness, specific gravity and the damaged road segment connecting Asendabo town with Deneba town
rigidity. Nifana and Palanikumar [18] investigated effect of ceramic dust along the Addis Ababa-Jimma trunk road. The collected samples hence are
on soil index properties, unconfined compressive strength, swelling po- part of the road subgrade and have same physical properties with foun-
tential and Californian Bearing Ratio and reported that significant dation of the damaged pavement. The characteristics and nature of
improvement was achieved with addition of ceramic waste. Besides, it expansive soils are different which is highly affected by the constituent
was concluded that ceramic dust up to 30% can be used for safe and minerals [23]. Some of the physical properties of the soil were presented in
economic stabilization of weak subgrade. Rakhil and Devi [21] reported Table 1. Clay soils categorically are moisture sensitive soils highly influ-
that 30% addition of waste ceramic to soft subgrade led to reduction in enced by variation in water content that they heavily absorb water and
plasticity index by 18.2% and rise in the Californian Bearing Ratio value hence abruptly undergoes swelling and lose strength [3, 14, 17, 51]. These
by 29.4%. Besides, blending of the ceramic material with the subgrade expansive soils are easily compressible when wet and possess a tendency
reduced thickness of pavement by 45% which apparently contributed to to heave during the wet conditions and shrink in volume during dry sea-
31% cost saving. sons [20, 22]. Expansive soils are also commonly known for the presence
Lime is technically known for its fast hydrating characteristics which of large amount of clay minerals which absorb immense quantities of
make it one of the well suited stabilizing agents to modify properties of water after rainfall. Compressible soils whose free swell index exceeds
problematic soils such as clay [19]. The strength gain arises chiefly from 50% are considered as highly expansive and such soils undergo volumetric
the chemical reaction taking place between lime and clay minerals [22, changes leading to pavement distortion [2, 6, 7, 8].
24]. Jamal et al. [11] on the study on Lime Kiln Dust for Treated Sub- Figure 1 represents the Oxides compositions of the natural weak
grades found that addition of 5% lime reduced the plasticity index of subgrade. As observed from figure, the dominant chemical predomi-
compressible soil to the level its compressibility properties can be nantly found in the soil is Silicon Oxide (SiO2) followed by Aluminum
managed. Finding of the study also revealed that no significant difference Oxide (Al2O3) which accounts 60.8% and 21.26% by weight respectively.
between the degrees of improvement in swelling index of the subgrade Contrarily, Manganese oxide (MnO), Phosphorus pent oxide (P2O5) and
was observed for 5% and 8% dosage of lime. Furthermore, finding of the Water (H2O) are the least significant chemicals in composition wise.
study conducted by Prasad et al. [20] to stabilize weak subgrade using Hence, the intrinsic properties of the expansive soil are highly influenced
1%–5% of lime and 0.5%–1.5% dosage of waste plastic fiber demon- by the typical properties of the dominant oxide which is silicon dioxide.
strated that 4% is an ideal dosage for lime to desirably modify properties
of soft subgrade. Besides, optimum moisture content of the soil got
diminished with rise in dosage of lime. Meron and Samuel [15] analyzed Table 1. Some geotechnical properties of the expansive subgrade soil.
stabilizing efficiency of lime and bagasse ash for 3% lime and 15%
bagasse ash separately and in combination as well. In contrary to many SN Soil properties Values
previous works, finding of the study revealed that rise in magnitude of 1 Natural moisture content (%) 44.18
optimum moisture content were witnessed with a gradual increase in 2 Liquid limit (%) 79.60
lime content. Despite the considerable number of studies conducted on 3 Plastic limit (%) 31.41
application of lime as stabilizing material, limited information regarding 4 Plasticity index (%) 48.19
the stabilizing capacity of waste ceramic has been documented in liter- 5 Maximum dry density (g/cm3) 1.23
atures. Besides, any form of comparative analysis was not conducted to 6 Optimum moisture content (%) 34.06
compare performance of the two agents in stabilizing problematic sub- 7 Specific gravity 2.70
grades. The previously conducted works mainly focused on the separate 8 Free swell (%) 74.00
performance of the two additives and their joint effect on modifying 9 CBR (%) 2.01
properties of weak soils was not documented. In the current study hence, 10 Classification (USCS) CH, Highly plastic inorganic clay
comparative study was conducted to judge the stabilizing potential and 11 Classification (AASHTO) A-7-6, Poor clay
performance of waste ceramic dust and lime on highly plastic subgrade. 12 Cohesion (kPa) 40
The obtained degree of improvement for each parameter was compared
13 Internal friction angle ( ) 0
with the Ethiopian Roads Authority specifications for construction of
14 Poison ratio 0.40
roads.

2
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

Figure 1. Chemical composition of the expansive clay subgrade.

Texturally, the weak soil contains very small fraction of sand particles areas, the disposal issue of waste ceramic is critical environmental
and chiefly composed of large pecentage of fines. Hence, the soil is concern. Hence, the idea of utilizing it as an admixture to stabilize weak
overwhelmingly composed of fine grains (clay and silt) whose particle ground is of paramount essence from both lessening pollution and
sizes are finer than the No 200 sieve. As observed from Figure 2, the strength improvement perspectives [9, 21]. In many cases, in order to
gravel soil fraction is missing at all. The soil particle size distribution achieve a desired degree of improvement, larger values of mix pro-
reveals that almost 94.2.0% of the particles passes the No 200 sieve and portions are required. In some practical areas, however small content of
the sand fraction accounts 6.8% of the soil mass. The soil by its type is ceramic blend (up to 5%) can potentially stand out to improve the load
proscribed as a material with poor engineering property and it is not bearing and strength properties of compressible subgrade soils [2, 18].
deemed to be directly considered for subgrade construction without Waste ceramic product is widely used for stabilization of compressible
employing any form of stablization. Besides, from gradation perspective, and weak soils due to its very good characteristic properties which such
the soil is poorly graded (uniformly graded) type and its constituent as high strength, long service life, chemical inertness, non-toxicity and
particles are not well proportionated which limits its consideration for specific porosity [25, 29]. Table 2 and Figure 3 represent some physical
road construction. and chemical properties of the waste ceramic respectively.

2.1.2. Waste ceramic dust (WCD) 2.1.3. Natural lime (limestone)

The ceramic dust was collected from locally available sources and The limestone material used as stabilization agent in the study was
ceramic factories. Direct use of industrial waste for stabilization purpose obtained from naturally existing lime sources situated near Ambo town.
has contributes to reduction of environmental pollution [18]. In many Lime in its processed or natural form can be used to improve bearing

Figure 2. Particle size distribution of the clay subgrade.

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2.2. The experimental tests

Table 2. Physical properties of the waste ceramic material.

SN Parameters Values 2.2.1. Sample preparation and blending

1 Unit weight (kN/m3) 22.6 The weak and compressible clay samples were taken from the test pits
2 Liquid limit (%) None
excavated up to 2 m by using manual excavation tools. The collected
3 Plastic limit (%) None
samples were kept in sampling bags to avoid significant moisture loss and
painstakingly brought to soil laboratory. The limestone mass collected
4 Plasticity index (%) None
from the natural source was manually crushed into finer pieces passing
5 Free Swell 0.5
the 425 μ sieve and the experimental tests were carried out as per the
6 Specific gravity 2.81
recommendation of AASHTO M-145. Accordingly, five different mix
7 Cohesion (kPa) 6
proportions of natural lime ranging from 2 to 10% were considered to
8 Internal friction angle (o) 36
investigate the effect of variation in mix ratio on performance of the weak
9 Poison ratio 0.26
subgrade material. The two materials were mixed together by the use of
mechanical mixer with the purpose of uniformly dispersing the stabilizer.
Similarly, blocks of ceramic waste obtained from the locally available
capacity and plasticity characteristics of weak soils [8]. In the current
factories were crushed into same dimension with that of limestone to
study, the limestone sample was directly collected from easily accessible
make the mixing convenient and consistent with the weak soil. The
deposits (limestone rock mass) without any processing. Limestone mostly
ceramic was crushed manually by using hammer to make particles with
consists of calcium carbonate in its chemical composition. Lime is
different size uniformly distrusted in the mix. Likewise, the crushed
calcium-containing inorganic material in which carbonates, oxides, and
ceramic waste constitutes particles of various diameters to purposely
hydroxides predominate. To be strict, limestone is calcium oxide or cal-
avoid dominance of some particles having same size. Accordingly, eight
cium hydroxide whereas the natural limes are partly fossiliferous and
mix ratios varying from 2 to 25% were employed to mix the ceramic
contains abundant stylolite [7]. The properties of good quality lime,
waste with the weak subgrade material. Mix of the materials was then
which makes it suitable for use as an engineering material are; easily
directly used for different laboratory tests in order to determine
workable, possesses good plasticity, offer good resistance to moisture,
compaction characteristics, Atterberg limits, unit weight, moisture con-
stiffens early, used for stabilizing the soils and an excellent cementation
tent, California bearing ratio and swelling index.
behavior [11, 16]. The physical properties of the limestone were sum-
marized in Table 3. Another golden advantage of using lime for weak soil
2.2.2. The test design and considered case scenarios
stabilization is its fast dehydrating characteristics, which is ideal for
The overall test process of the designed experimental test encom-
modifying fine-grained soils. Unlike ceramic dust, the dosage of natural
passes four different case scenarios for comparison purposes. The first
lime required to meet road specifications and to achieve optimum
case considers characterization of the sole weak subgrade material
improvement of weak soils is by far less than that of ceramic material.
without blending with any stabilizing agent. In this case, the necessary
Even though the required percentage of mix is highly dependent on the
physical properties of the compressible and weak subgrade were deter-
intrinsic properties of weak soils, small amount of lime from 4 to 7% can
mined so as to characterize the material from suitability and workability
be used to effectively modify compressible soil [10].
perspectives. The second case is the case in which the critical effect of
Figure 4 represents the chemical properties of the natural limestone.
limestone is investigated by varying its dosage. Hence, the possible clear
As observed from figure, the dominant chemical found in limestone is
relationship between variation of the mix ratio and the achieved degree
calcium oxide (CaO) followed by Loss on ignition (LOI) and Silcon Oxide
of improvement can be established for each determined parameter.
(SiO2) accounting 44.4%, 24.18% and 10.83% by weight respectively. In
Thirdly, the mixture of crushed waste ceramic and weak subgrade was
relation to this, Sodium oxide (Na2O), Manganese oxide (MnO), Phos-
used without inclusion of other ingredients so that the stabilizing per-
phorus pent oxide (P2O5) and Titanium oxide (TiO2) are the rare chem-
formance of the waste ceramic dust (WCD) separately from the natural
icals found in limestone.
lime can be determined.

Figure 3. Chemical compositions of the waste ceramic material.

4
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

laboratory determination of soil water content. Standard compaction test

Table 3. Some physical properties of limestone material.
was conducted to determine the compaction characteristics (maximum
SN Parameters Values dry density and optimum moisture content) of the natural and treated
1 Unit weight (kN/m3) 22.67 subgrade. Many engineering properties of soil, such as the strength,
2 Liquid limit (%) 26.51 stiffness, resistance to shrinkage and imperviousness of the soil would be
3 Plastic limit (%) None improved by increasing the soil density [16]. The test was conducted ac-
4 Plastic index (%) None cording to AASHTO T-99 procedures. This method is employed for the
5 Free Swell 1.32
particles of the soil retained on the sieve No. 4 (4.75 mm).
California bearing ratio is another important soil property used as
6 Specific gravity (Gs) 2.66
improvement criteria. It is actually expressed by force exerted by a
7 Cohesion (kPa) 13
plunger and the depth of penetration into specimen and it is aimed at
8 Internal friction angle (o) 34
determining the relationship between force and penetration [10, 15].
9 Poison ratio 0.28
The California bearing ratio test indirectly measures the shearing resis-
tance of soil under controlled moisture and density conditions [23, 24]. It
In the fourth case, the combined effect of waste ceramic and lime- determines the strength and swelling potential of the subgrade soil. The
stone on the subgrade properties was studied by using mixture of the test was carried out as per ((AASHTO T-193-93) test procedure.
three materials (waste ceramic, limestone and weak soil). To do so, Furthermore, Atterberg limits (Liquid limit, plastic limit and plastic
various combinations of mix ratios of the waste ceramic and limestone index) were determined for air-dried samples by using Casagrande
were adopted. Likewise, five different combinations with varying apparatus. Standard reference of AASHTO T-89 and 90 were applied to
amount of additives were considered. These combinations are 2% natural execute the test. The same procedure was followed for the treated soil
lime þ15% WCD, 4% natural lime þ15% WCD, 6% natural lime þ15% with varying contents of limestone and waste ceramic dust. In addition to
WCD, 8% natural lime þ15% WCD and 10% natural lime þ15% WCD. the mentioned tests, specific gravity test was conducted according to
Accordingly, the improvement potential of the stabilizing agents sepa- AASHTO T 100-93 standard by using water pycnometer procedure. It is a
rately and in combination was scrutinized. Summary of the considered measure of density of a soil with respect to density of water [12, 13]. Free
mix proportions for each case scenario was presented in Table 4. swell test is the simplest but very important test conducted to study the
The improvement performance of the last three cases (Case two swelling properties of the soil. The free swell index is the increase in the
through four) was then compared with specification of Ethiopian Road volume of soil, without any external constraints, on submergence in
Authority for road construction. A systematic study on the separate water [3, 5, 6]. For the current study, IS 2720(Part 40)1977 standard was
impact of these stabilizing agents enables the effective comparative used to check the swelling potential of the soil.
analysis to be made especially from economy and workability points of With regard to particle size distribution, grain size analysis was car-
view. Eventually, the well performing and feasible option from the three ried out in accordance with ASTM D422-63 test procedure. The me-
cases was possibly selected for future applications of subgrade stabili- chanical analysis was used for the coarse grained soils by using a set of
zation practices. The dosages of stabilizers considered in the current sieves whereas hydrometer analysis was used for fine grained soils. Both
study were partly adopted from practical trends and previously docu- mechanical and hydrometer testing methods were performed for soils
mented literatures as well. comprising both coarser and finer sizes. Lastly, classification of the nat-
ural weak soil by using unified and AASHTO soil classification systems
2.2.3. The subgrade tests and procedures were done.
The soil parameters considered in the current study for attainment of
the research objective include moisture content, compaction character- 2.2.4. Chemical analysis
istics, Atterberg limits (Plastic limit, Liquid limit and Plastic index), Cal- Chemical analysis was made to characterize the materials considered
ifornia bearing ratio, Specific gravity, Swelling index and Soil particle in the study. X-ray diffraction (XRD) test was conducted to determine
distribution. Before all, moisture content of the naturally existing weak chemical properties of the clay soil, limestone and waste ceramic dust. X-
soil was determined according to AASHTO T-265 standard test method for ray diffraction analysis is basically carried out to determine the

Figure 4. Chemical compositions of the natural lime.

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charged ions such as calcium (Ca2þ), magnesium (Mg2þ), and potassium

Table 4. Mix proportions required for the case scenarios.
(Kþ), sodium (Naþ) hydrogen (Hþ), aluminum (Al3þ), iron (Fe2þ),
Scenario 2 (blending of Scenario 3 Scenario 4 (combined effect of manganese (Mn2þ), zinc (Zn2þ) and copper (Cu2þ) [28]. Clay soils have a
limestone) (blending of WCD) limestone and WCD) cation exchange capacity primarily because clay particles tends to be
(% of % (% of % (% of (% of % negatively charged. Soil as a whole does not have electric charge. Hence,
Limestone Soil WCD) Soil Limestone WCD) Soil the negative charge of the clay particles is balanced by the positive
2 98 2 98 2 15 83 charge of the cations in the limestone and waste ceramic dust.
4 96 4 96 4 15 81 Fine-textured soils like clay have larger cation exchange capacity value
6 94 6 94 6 15 79 than the coarse grained soils [28, 31]. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is
8 92 8 92 8 15 77 the potential of soil to hold on to cations. The cation exchange capacity of
10 90 10 90 10 15 75 soil is also defined as the total number of inions per unit weight of the
15 85 – – – soil. It is expressed in Milliequivalents per 100 gm of soil [28, 35].
– – 20 80 – – – The cation exchange takes place in soil in order of the replacing
– – 25 75 – – –
power of the cations. Cations with lower valence are replaced by those
– – 30 70 – – –
having higher valence. In the case of cations with same valence, smaller
cations are replaced by larger ones. For instance, both Magnesium (Mg2þ)
and Calcium (Ca2þ) have the same valence. However, Mg2þ is replaced
mineralogical phases present in different materials. The representative earlier than the Ca2þ since valence of the latter cation is larger than the
oven dried samples of the three materials were crushed until a powder former [28]. When adequate amount of lime material is added to
passes the No. 200 (0.075 mm opening) sieve. The powder samples were expansive clays soil, calcium cation from the lime replaces the weaker
step-scanned from 10 to 75 (2θ) with 1 s time step and under contin- cations found in the clay soil. Cation exchange lessens the thickness of
uous scanning speed. Testing and analysis were conducted by setting diffuse water layer bounding the clay particles that makes the particles
voltage of 30 kV with 25 mA and the scanning time for XRD test was come closer to each other which leads to development of flocculation
0.02 /sec. Diffraction is associated with a phenomena that occur when a [36, 38]. Cation exchange of soil is affected by variety of factors such as
wave encounters an obstacle or opening. It is bending of waves around soil texture, nature of clay minerals, PH value and organic content. The
the corners of an obstacle or through an aperture into the region of negatively charged clay colloids attract and hold positively charged
geometrical shadow of the obstacle [26]. X-ray diffraction is basically cations carried by limestone and ceramic material. Soils with high clay
employed to measure the average spacing and orientation between layers content have high cation exchange capacity than soils with low content
and crystals [27]. Besides, the size, shape, crystal structure and internal of clay. The calcium hydroxide formed due to reaction between quick and
stress of small crystalline regions is investigated [28]. water increases the electrolytic concentration of soil and pH of the water
continued between soil particles. As a result, the silicates (SiO2) and
2.3. Clay soil stabilization and chemical reactions aluminates (Al2O3) from the clay particles are dissolved. The silicates get
ionized with increase in PH of pore water which in turn raises the cation
Stabilizing agents when added to expansive clay soil play three pivotal exchange capacity [33, 37].
roles in the process of improving properties of the soil. These are drying,
modification and stabilization roles. During the first phase rapid fall in 2.3.2. Flocculation-agglomeration
moisture content of the clay soil rapidly drops due to the chemical reaction Clay soil stabilization is the net result of cation exchange and
taking place between water and the additives. The secondly, addition of flocculation-agglomeration processes. These two processes contributes to
stabilizing agents lessens in the plasticity, reduces swelling and shrinkage reduction in adsorbed water layer, rise in inter particle friction and in-
characteristics. In relation to this, addition of lime to clay soil increases crease in workability as the plastic soil texture through time changes to
optimum moisture content and decreases the maximum dry density of the non-plastic materials. Flocculation-agglomeration is a process in which
clay. These mentioned modifications in properties of the soil takes place change in soil texture occurs as negatively charged clay particles bonded
within short period of time after addition of lime. The third phase of together and build large size particles. This happens when the pore water
improvement process is about bringing a long term impact on properties of existing between the clay particles gets diminished because of the cation
clay soil. These improvements include long term strength, consistent exchange [35, 37, 38]. The result of XRD test presented in Figures 3 and 4
reduction in plasticity, and permanent reduction in shrinkage, swelling revealed that calcium oxide and sodium oxide are the dominant chem-
and resistance to thawing and prolonged soaking [28]. icals found in waste ceramic dust and limestone respectively. Calcium
A number of reactions take place when lime material is added to clay oxide accounts 45% of the limestone sample used for chemical analysis.
soils with high moisture content which leads to improvement in prop- When clay soil is subjected to lime stabilization, calcium and magnesium
erties of the clay soil. These chemical reactions are mainly two types atoms carried by lime material replaces sodium and hydrogen atoms
namely colloidal and pozzolanic. The immediate (colloidal) reactions carried by the clay and hence soil with very friable behavior is formed.
include but not limited to cation exchange, flocculation and carbonation. The sodium ion (Naþ) carried by the ceramic material is exchanged with
The pozzolanic reaction takes place after sometime due to dissolution of calcium ions (Caþþ) carried by the lime material. As a result, the plastic
alumina and silica sheets of clay particles. These reactions may occur clay soil gains flocculated type of structure instead of the dispersed
immediately after blending the additives with clay soils or after a long structural arrangement which improves its workability in general [30,
period of time [26, 28]. Unlike the pozzolanic and other colloidal re- 34].
actions, carbonation is an unwanted reaction that negatively influences
the stabilization process. This reaction takes place in clay-lime mixtures. 2.3.3. Pozzolanic reaction
In this reaction, lime material reacts with carbon dioxide and results in Hydrated lime via its reaction with particles of clay soil permanently
formation of calcium carbonate instead of the important cementitous transforms into a strong cementitious material. Hydrated lime is the
materials such as calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium aluminate product of chemical reaction between water and quicklime. For effective
hydrate (CAH) [31, 32]. treatment of clay soil, lime material with high content of calcium and not
more than 5 percent magnesium is preferred [28]. Upon mixing lime
2.3.1. Cation exchange with clay soils, calcium ions are combined initially with or adsorbed by
Cation exchange is one of the important reactions mainly contributing clay minerals, which significantly mitigates workability of the
to changes in the plasticity characteristics of soil. Cations are positively compressible clay soil. In process of lime stabilization, pozzolans play

6
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

critical long term role especially in generating cementitious bonds [33, With regard to the optimum moisture content, the value goes
38]. Pozzolanic materials are known for their cementing characteristics increasing with addition of waste ceramic dust whereas it undergoes
and hence good bonding performance. Due to their bonding nature and decrement with rise in amount of added natural lime (Figure 5(b)). With
cementation characteristics, their reaction and action in expansive clay blending of 10% WCD, the optimum moisture content got reduced from
soils build up firmly bonded particles which directly contributes to 34.06% to 24.38%. Addition of 30% dosage of waste ceramic dust
reduction in swelling tendency and improvement in strength properties similarly reduced the optimum moisture content by 44.6%. The reduc-
of the clay soil [40]. tion in optimum moisture content might be due to attraction of water by
These pozzolans naturally exist in clay soils. Pozzolans such as silica the dry fine dusts of crushed ceramic which eventually leads to fall in
and alumina react with calcium found in lime, and water to form calcium- water content of the mix [15]. Contrarily, addition of the 10% of natural
silicate-hydrates (C–S–H) and calcium-aluminate-hydrates (C–A–H) lime further increased optimum moisture content (OMC) of the soil from
respectively [34]. The aluminum and silicon are common to clay minerals 34.06% to 42.86% which is 25.84% increment. The rate of change in
but vary in proportions following their specific structure [26]. Pozzolanic magnitude of the optimum moisture content was faster with fluctuation
reactions involving clay soil minerals and lime result from the addition of in amount of natural lime than the waste ceramic dust. Hence, the small
lime to clay in the presence of water. Calcium cations combine with variation in amount of the natural lime leads to considerable change in
liberated Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and or Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) to form optimum moisture content of the expansive subgrade soil than the waste
cementing agents; calcium silicate hydrate (CSH–3CaO2SiO2 3H2O) and ceramic dust does. The study conducted by [23] to investigate the effect
calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH—3CaOAl2O3 Ca(OH)2 12H2O), which of cement and lime on geotechnical properties of clay soil concluded that
alter the soil structure, reduces plasticity and improves its workability as lime content increase from 2% to 10%, both the maximum dry density
[41]. The reactivity of lime is influenced by various properties of clay soil and optimum moisture content rise. However [42], reported that
such as soil pH, organic carbon content, presence of carbonates, natural maximum dry density of the treated clay decreases whereas its optimum
drainage, degree of weathering, and excessive quantities of exchangeable moisture content goes increasing with increase in lime content.
sodium, clay mineralogy, extractable iron, and silica-alumina ratio [33, The combined effect of waste ceramic dust and natural lime on
34]. maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of the clay soil was
indicated by the green curve in Figure 5(a) and (b) respectively. As
2.4. Specifications and standards used observed from the graphs, the maximum dry density goes rising with
increase in amount of limestone with constant amount of waste ceramic
The stabilizing potential of the additives and their combination was dust (15%) whereas optimum moisture content of the clay radically
compared with the existing and applicable road construction specifica- reduced. The joint performance of 4% natural lime and 15% WCD in
tions. Accordingly, the obtained degrees of improvements were lessening optimum moisture content is almost equivalent with separate
compared with Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) 2013 specification for application of the 30% WCD. The optimum moisture content of the clay
road construction and Indian standard. The Liquid Limit (LL), Plastic subgrade undergoes visible increment with addition and increase in
Index (PI) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the improved soil was dosage of natural lime for the second case scenario (separate application
compared with ERA 2013 specification whereas Indian Standard speci- of natural lime in complete absence of any other additive). However,
fication was used to reflect on swelling potential of the soil (Table 5). when it is used in combination with specified amount of waste ceramic
Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) 2013 Specification for road construc- dust, the resulting optimum moisture content got reduced. In relation to
tion primarily gives due emphasis to limited soil parameters such as this, Rakhil and Devi [21], Nifana and Palanikumar [50] posit that the
California Bearing Ratio, Plastic Index, Liquid Limit, Particle size distri- MDD increased whereas OMC reduced with gradual increase in content
bution and Degree of compaction. Besides, the manual has no limiting of WCD. The rate of change in magnitude of the parameters however is
recommendation for swelling potential of subgrade materials. lower than the rate of change observed in the current study.

3. Results and discussions 3.2. Effect of natural lime and waste ceramic dust on CBR and CBR swell
of the clay soil
3.1. Effect of natural lime and WCD on compaction characteristics of the
clay Figure 6(a) represents effect of waste ceramic dust and natural lime
dosage on California bearing ratio (CBR) of the clay soil. As shown in the
The compaction properties of the expansive clay subgrade were Figure, the uncured California bearing ratio value increased for all mixes
influenced by blending of the additives considered in this study. It was starting from 2% to 10% for the natural lime and from 2% to 30% for the
indicated that variation in dosage of the stabilizers has critical impact on waste ceramic dust. Likewise, the separate application of 6% WCD and
compaction properties of the clay subgrade. The gradual increment in natural lime resulted in 54.73% and 87.24% rise in magnitude of Cali-
dosage of waste ceramic dust (WCD) resulted in almost linear rise in fornia bearing ratio respectively. The experimental test revealed that the
magnitude of maximum dry density (MDD) of the expansive clay whereas 3% natural lime equivalently performs with 10% WCD in modifying
an increment in amount of natural lime sharply reduced the resulting California bearing ratio of the soil. Hence, it can be inferred that change
maximum dry density (Figure 5(a)). Likewise, addition of 10% and 30% in California bearing ratio of the expansive soil is more sensitive to
WCD improved the maximum dry density by 12.4% and 30.6% dosage of limestone than the waste ceramic dust. Improvement in
respectively. strength of clay soil is not fully achieved over short time duration that
strength gain is directly associated to the pozzolanic reactions [43]. The
Table 5. The ERA 2013 and IS specifications for road construction (subgrade). strength and load bearing capacity of clayey soils is a result of formation
of cementitious materials like calcium silicate hydrate and calcium
SN Subgrade Properties Recommendation of ERA 2013 IS: 2911 Part
aluminate hydrate [44]. Gradual increment in dosage of lime material
Specifcation III- 1980
apparently improves the strength properties of expansive clay soil.
1 Liquid Limit (PL) (%) <30
However, further addition of lime beyond some limit reduces the
2 Plastic Limit (LL) (%) <60
strength due to formation of excess silica which increases porosity of the
3 California Bearing >3
clay material [45]. The resulting improvement pattern in the values of
Capacity (CBR)
CBR in the current study has good agreement with Meron W, Samuel T
4 CBR Swell (%) <2
[15]. It was concluded in the study that CBR value of clay soil rose from
5 Free Swell (%) - <20
0.91% to 9.73% by addition of 3% lime material. Similarly, Akshaya KS

7
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

Figure 5. Effect of additives' dosage on; (a) Maximum dry density, (b) optimum moisture content.

[2] reported that addition of 30% ceramic material to clay soil gave rise revealed that the performance of limestone for dosages less than 6% was
to increment in the soaked CBR value from 1.6 to 4.1%. In the current categorically less significant than that of same amount of waste ceramic
study however the improvement observed was from 2% to 8.13% for the dust. For the dosages greater than 6% however the application of lime-
30% WCD. stone remained better than the waste ceramic dust. In relation to this, for
Furthermore, addition and increase in amount of the stabilizers the separate application of 10% natural lime and waste ceramic dust, the
reduced CBR Swell of the clay soil. As indicated in Figure 6 (b), CBR Swell resulting CBR Swell decreased by 49% and 40.5% respectively. As
of the natural soil was significantly lowered upon addition of both observed from Figure 6 (b), the slope of Dosage Vs CBR Swell graph is
limestone and waste ceramic dust. With application 6% natural lime, the relatively higher for limestone stabilization (Case scenario 2). It is good
CBR Swell got reduced from 6.08 to 4.91. Similarly, a considerable instrument to reflect on the clear extent to which CBR Swell of the natural
reduction from 6.08 to 4.81 was observed with application of same clay soil is sensitive to variation in dosage of the additives. Development
amount of waste ceramic dust. The conducted experimental study also of cementitious materials like calcium silicate hydrate, calcium

8
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

Figure 6. Effect of stabilizers' dosage on; (a) Californian bearing ratio (CBR), (b) CBR Swell.

aluminum silicate and gyrolite due to pozzolanic reaction, reduces the amount of natural lime in the combination rise from 2% to 4% which is
moisture sensitivity of clay which in turn reduces swelling characteristics 16.1% reduction. As dosage of lime increase, the strength and frictional
of clay [46]. In relation to this, Nifana S, Palanikumar M [50] pointed out resistance of the clay soil also increase [39].
that the dosage of ceramic material and CBR Swell of clayey soils are
inversely related to each other. 3.3. Effect of natural lime and waste ceramic dust on LL and PI of the clay
Like maximum dry density, California bearing ratio of the soil sharply soil
increased with rise in dosage of limestone. As indicated in Figure 6(a)
and (b), the rate of rise in California bearing ratio was very fast. The With respect to Atterberg limits, both liquid limit and plastic index of
California bearing ratio increases from 30% to 20% when the mix com- the soil goes decreasing with addition of the stabilizers. Figure 7(a)
bination shifts from 15% WCD þ2% Limestone to 15% WCD þ6% represents the graphical illustration of effect of mix dosage on liquid limit
Limestone is increased from 0 to 30% respectively. Furthermore, the CBR of the clay soil. Blending of 2%, 6% and 10% limestone with the clay soil
Swell got diminished with increase in dosage of stabilizers in each decreased value of the liquid limit from 79.6% to 71.45%, 58.27% and
combination. Accordingly, the free swell fell from 4.36% to 3.64% as the 29.4% respectively. The 10% limestone almost equally performs with

9
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

Figure 7. Effect of additives' dosage on; (a) Liquid limit (LL), (b) Plastic index (PI).

30% WCD in reducing liquid limit of the clay which implies that like in stated parameter by 3.8% and 10.64% respectively. The cation exchange
the case of CBR, response of the clay soil to dosage of natural lime is more taking place between the additives and the clay material eventually re-
sensitive than that of the waste ceramic dust. Hence, for waste ceramic sults in development of flocculation which is the process in which clay
dust to achieve similar degree of improvement in reducing liquid limit particles come close to each other to form strong bond due to suppression
with any arbitrary amount of natural lime, about 200% more dosage is of pore water [43]. Subhashree [28] and Bell [47] reported that floccu-
required. lation is an important process which reduces the plastic behavior of clay
Similarly, plastic index which is another important index property of soil thus, reduces plasticity index and liquid limit. Hence, the clay ma-
the expansive subgrade got reduced with increase in amount of both terial gains strength since its frictional resistance is improved. According
stabilizers. In natural state the intact plastic index of the soil was 50.32%. to Rakhil and Devi [21], an increase in ceramic content of the clay-WCD
With addition of 6% and 10% limestone however the resulting plastic mixture gives rise to decrease in both plasticity index and liquid limit of
index value fell to 14.14% and 7.15% respectively. Likewise, application clay soil. Finding of the study also revealed that the decrement rate of
of the same amount of waste ceramic dust decreased magnitude of the liquid limit is by far less than that of the plasticity index. Furthermore,

10
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

Nifana and Palanikumar [50] found out that addition of 30% ceramic both natural lime and waste ceramic dust resulted in decrease in free
material to clay soil lessened the liquid limit from 42% to 33% which is swell. Addition of the additives to the clay soil significantly altered its
21.4% reduction. Similar decrement trend in the magnitude of liquid expansive characteristics. After employment of stabilization to the soil,
limit was observed in the current study. However, the degree of the clay did not experience exaggerated volume change upon addition of
improvement in the latter study is greater than the former one that the water. Accordingly, upon separate application of 6% and 10% natural
stated parameter reduced by 65%. lime, the free swell decreased from 74% to 25.59% and 13.65% respec-
In the combination of limestone and waste ceramic dust, the magni- tively. Similarly, value of the stated parameter got diminished to 66%
tude of both liquid limit and plastic index goes decreasing with rise in and 46.44% for the same dosage of waste ceramic dust. The colloidal
amount of limestone on the 15% WCD. The combined effect of limestone reactions occurring right after addition of lime material, considerably
and waste ceramic dust on liquid limit and plastic index of the clay soil lowers the plasticity and swelling properties of clay thus, mitigates its
was depicted in Figure 7(a) and (b) respectively. Liquid limit and plastic workability [48].
index of the natural (non-stabilized) expansive clay was 79.6% and The expansive behavior of the clay subgrade was considerably
50.32% respectively. The post stabilization values however were lowered minimized with rise in amount of limestone material. As observed from
to 46.83% and 9.88% for the combination of 15% WCD and 6% natural Figure 8, the graph, magnitude of the free swell fell from 74% to 20% and
lime. Similarly, the plastic index value was lowered to 10.2% upon 10% upon addition of 4% and 8% natural lime to the waste ceramic dust
blending the 15% WCD and 4% natural lime with the expansive sub- respectively. Besides, the decrement rate in free swell for the joint
grade. Among all available combinations of the stabilizers’ dosage, the consideration of additives was faster than the separate blends. Likewise,
4% and 15% combination was found to be the most economical alter- the resulting degree of improvement in reducing free swell for the
native to modify properties of the clay. identified optimum dosage of limestone and waste ceramic dust is less
The partial replacement of some portion of the plastic clay particles than that of the joint action. In the case of separate application, the 10%
with the non-plastic waste ceramic dust and less plastic limestone ma- limestone resulted in 81.5% reduction in magnitude of the free swell
terial considerably reduced the plastic index of the stabilized clay sub- whereas the free swell reduced by 88.3% with combination of 4%
grade. The reduction in magnitude of the plasticity index is mainly due to limestone and 15% waste ceramic dust. The study conducted by [49]
availability of calcium in limestone and silicate in clay soil which is very indicated that blending quicklime (CaO) or hydrated lime (Ca (OH)2)
important for effective cation exchange to take place [15]. Besides, the with clayey and expansive soils lessens the swelling and swelling pres-
ionic exchange of lime and clay minerals of the soil led to agglomeration sure and hence reduces the sensitivity of clay soil to moisture variation.
and flocculation of clay particle which in turn result in reduction of Likewise, Nifana and Palanikumar [50] reported that linear shrinkage of
plasticity of the soil [22]. Meron , Samuel [15] and Rakhil and Devi [21] clayey soil decreased by an average of approximately 4–7% with addition
pointed out that the liquid limit and plasticity reduces as dosage of lime of 5% lime.
material increases. Besides, the swelling and shrinkage characteristics
drop with increase in content of lime material.
3.5. Combined effect of the additives on geotechnical properties of the cay

3.4. Effect of natural lime and waste ceramic dust on free swell of the clay The experimental analysis revealed that the separate application 6%
soil natural lime in absence of the waste ceramic dust met all the re-
quirements of ERA 2013 specification for road construction. For the 4%
The variation of free swell with change in dosage of the stabilizers natural lime however not magnitude of all parameters were above the
(WCD and limestone) was presented in Figure 8. Like other geotechnical minimum requirement. Similarly, the minimum waste ceramic dust
properties, free swell of the soil was influenced by the stabilizers. As it dosage required to let all parameters fall above the lowest safe margin of
can be observed from the Figure, addition and increment in amount of ERA specification is 20%. Hence, the 6% and the 20% WCD can be

Figure 8. Effect of additives' dosage on free swell of the clay subgrade.

11
A. Beyene et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10993

considered as the optimum dosages identified for separate application of Damtew Tsige; Alemineh Sorsa; Teyba Wedajo: Analyzed and inter-
the materials. To obtain further improvement in performance of the clay preted the data.
soil however joint influence of the two additives was investigated. It is Narobika Tesema: Performed the experiments; Analyzed and inter-
the case in which various amount of natural lime is mixed with the 15% preted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.
of waste ceramic dust in order to compare the degree of improvement Getnet Mekuria: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or
achieved in the separate (case 2 and 3) and combined (case 4) application data.
of the additives. Accordingly, the natural lime with dosages ranging from
2% to 10% was blended with 15% WCD to have an alternative optimum Funding statement
dosage in addition to the amounts identified for the separate employment
of the stabilizers. The second alternative might be effective option incase This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies
availability of one of the materials matters. Besides, the combined in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
application of the stabilizers is of paramount importance especially not to
miss advantage of the better performing material [4]. Furthermore,
Data availability statement
combined stabilization approach in many cases is more effective than the
separate consideration of stabilizers not only from degree of improve-
Data will be made available on request.
ment view point but also with respect to having variety of chemical
compositions within the blend [22]. Existence of various oxides and
chemicals having different properties in the mix facilitates the cat ion Declaration of interest’s statement
exchange between the clay particles and the stabilizing agents which is
vital for attainment of the anticipated degree of improvement [22, 23]. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

4. Conclusion Additional information

Application of the industrial waste ceramic dust and natural lime- No additional information is available for this paper.
stone considerably modified the geotechnical properties of the expansive
subgrade. The achieved degree of improvement in properties of the sta- References
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