UNIT – I

PYTHON PROGRAMMING

WHAT IS PYTHON?

Python is a very popular general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level

programming language. Python is dynamically-typed and garbage-collected programming language. It
was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985- 1990. Like Perl, Python source code is also available
under the GNU General Public License (GPL). Python supports multiple programming paradigms,
including Procedural, Object Oriented and Functional programming language. Python design philosophy
emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation.

PYTHON JOBS

Today, Python is very high in demand and all the major companies are looking for great Python
Programmers to develop websites, software components, and applications or to work with Data Science,
AI, and ML technologies. When we are developing this tutorial in 2023, there is a high shortage of
Python Programmers whereas market demands more number of Python Programmers due to its
application in Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence etc. Today a Python Programmer with 3-5 years
of experience is asking for around $150,000 annual package and this is the most demanding programming
language in America. Though it can vary depending on the location of the Job. It's impossible to list all of
the companies using Python, to name a few big companies are: Google Intel NASA PayPal
Facebook IBM Amazon Netflix Pinterest Uber

WHY LEARN PYTHON?

Python is consistently rated as one of the world's most popular programming languages. Python is fairly
easy to learn, so if you are starting to learn any programming language then Python could be your great
choice. Today various Schools, Colleges and Universities are teaching Python as their primary
programming language. There are many other good reasons which makes Python as the top choice of any
programmer: Python is Open Source which means its available free of cost.

 Python is simple and so easy to learn

 Python is versatile and can be used to create many different things.

 Python has powerful development libraries include AI, ML etc.

 Python is much in demand and ensures high salary

Python is a MUST for students and working professionals to become a great Software Engineer specially
when they are working in Web Development Domain. I will list down some of the key advantages of
learning Python: Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do not
need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and PHP.

Python is Interactive − You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with the interpreter directly
to write your programs.
Python is Object-Oriented − Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of programming that
encapsulates code within objects.

Python is a Beginner's Language − Python is a great language for the beginner level programmers and
supports the development of a wide range of applications from simple text processing to WWW browsers
to games.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PYTHON

Following are important characteristics of Python Programming − It supports functional and structured
programming methods as well as OOP

. It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building large applications.
It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking. It supports
automatic garbage collection.

 It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.

Python History and Versions

o Python laid its foundation in the late 1980s.

o The implementation of Python was started in December 1989 by Guido Van Rossum at CWI in
Netherland.

o In February 1991, Guido Van Rossum published the code (labeled version 0.9.0) to alt.sources.

o In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new features like lambda, map, filter, and reduce.

o Python 2.0 added new features such as list comprehensions, garbage collection systems.

o On December 3, 2008, Python 3.0 (also called "Py3K") was released. It was designed to rectify
the fundamental flaw of the language.

o ABC programming language is said to be the predecessor of Python language, which was capable
of Exception Handling and interfacing with the Amoeba Operating System.

o The following programming languages influence Python:

o ABC language.

o Modula-3

Why the Name Python?

There is a fact behind choosing the name Python. Guido van Rossum was reading the script of a popular
BBC comedy series "Monty Python's Flying Circus". It was late on-air 1970s.

Van Rossum wanted to select a name which unique, sort, and little-bit mysterious. So he decided to select
naming Python after the "Monty Python's Flying Circus" for their newly created programming
language.

The comedy series was creative and well random. It talks about everything. Thus it is slow and
unpredictable, which made it very interesting.

Python is also versatile and widely used in every technical field, such as Machine Learning, Artificial
Intelligence, Web Development, Mobile Application, Desktop Application, Scientific Calculation, etc.

Python Version List

Python programming language is being updated regularly with new features and supports. There are lots
of update in Python versions, started from 1994 to current release.

A list of Python versions with its released date is given below.

Python Version Released Date

Python 1.0 January 1994

Python 1.5 December 31, 1997

Python 1.6 September 5, 2000

Python 2.0 October 16, 2000

Python 2.1 April 17, 2001

Python 2.2 December 21, 2001

Python 2.3 July 29, 2003

Python 2.4 November 30, 2004

Python 2.5 September 19, 2006

Python 2.6 October 1, 2008

Python 2.7 July 3, 2010

Python 3.0 December 3, 2008

 Python 3.1 June 27, 2009

Python 3.2 February 20, 2011

Python 3.3 September 29, 2012

Python 3.4 March 16, 2014

Python 3.5 September 13, 2015

Python 3.6 December 23, 2016

Python 3.7 June 27, 2018

Python 3.8 October 14, 2019

Python Variables

A variable is the name given to a memory location. A value-holding Python variable is also known as an
identifier.

Since Python is an infer language that is smart enough to determine the type of a variable, we do not need
to specify its type in Python.

Variable names must begin with a letter or an underscore, but they can be a group of both letters and
digits.

The name of the variable should be written in lowercase. Both Rahul and rahul are distinct variables.

Identifier Naming

Identifiers are things like variables. An Identifier is utilized to recognize the literals utilized in the
program. The standards to name an identifier are given underneath.

o The variable's first character must be an underscore or alphabet (_).

o Every one of the characters with the exception of the main person might be a letter set of lower-
case(a-z), capitalized (A-Z), highlight, or digit (0-9).

o White space and special characters (!, @, #, %, etc.) are not allowed in the identifier name. ^, &,
*).

o Identifier name should not be like any watchword characterized in the language.

o Names of identifiers are case-sensitive; for instance, my name, and MyName isn't something very
similar.
 o Examples of valid identifiers: a123, _n, n_9, etc.

o Examples of invalid identifiers: 1a, n%4, n 9, etc.

Declaring Variable and Assigning Values

o Python doesn't tie us to pronounce a variable prior to involving it in the application. It permits us
to make a variable at the necessary time.

o In Python, we don't have to explicitly declare variables. The variable is declared automatically
whenever a value is added to it.

o The equal (=) operator is utilized to assign worth to a variable.

Variable Names

The process for declaring the valid variable has already been discussed. Variable names can be any length
can have capitalized, lowercase (start to finish, a to z), the digit (0-9), and highlight character(_). Take a
look at the names of valid variables in the following example.

1. name = "Devansh"
2. age = 20
3. marks = 80.50
4.
5. print(name)
6. print(age)
7. print(marks)

Output:

Devansh
20
80.5

Consider the following valid variables name.

1. name = "A"
2. Name = "B"
3. naMe = "C"
4. NAME = "D"
5. n_a_m_e = "E"
6. _name = "F"
7. name_ = "G"
8. _name_ = "H"
9. na56me = "I"
10.
11. print(name,Name,naMe,NAME,n_a_m_e, NAME, n_a_m_e, _name, name_,_name, na56me)

Output:

ABCDEDEFGFI

The multi-word keywords can be created by the following method.

o Camel Case - In the camel case, each word or abbreviation in the middle of begins with a capital
letter. There is no intervention of whitespace. For example - nameOfStudent, valueOfVaraible,
etc.

o Pascal Case - It is the same as the Camel Case, but here the first word is also capital. For
example - NameOfStudent, etc.

o Snake Case - In the snake case, Words are separated by the underscore. For example -
name_of_student, etc.

Multiple Assignment

Multiple assignments, also known as assigning values to multiple variables in a single statement, is a
feature of Python.

We can apply different tasks in two ways, either by relegating a solitary worth to various factors or doling
out numerous qualities to different factors. Take a look at the following example.

1. Assigning single value to multiple variables

Eg:

1. x=y=z=50
2. print(x)
3. print(y)
4. print(z)

Output:

50
50
50

2. Assigning multiple values to multiple variables:

Eg:

1. a,b,c=5,10,15
2. print a
3. print b
4. print c

Output:

5
10
15
The values will be assigned in the order in which variables appear.

Python Variable Types

There are two types of variables in Python - Local variable and Global variable. Let's understand the
following variables.

Local Variable

The variables that are declared within the function and have scope within the function are known as local
variables. Let's examine the following illustration.

Example -

1. # Declaring a function
2. def add():
3. # Defining local variables. They has scope only within a function
4. a = 20
5. b = 30
6. c=a+b
7. print("The sum is:", c)
8.
9. # Calling a function
10. add()

Output:

The sum is: 50

Explanation:

We declared the function add() and assigned a few variables to it in the code above. These factors will be
alluded to as the neighborhood factors which have scope just inside the capability. We get the error that
follows if we attempt to use them outside of the function.

1. add()
2. # Accessing local variable outside the function
3. print(a)

Output:

The sum is: 50

print(a)
NameError: name 'a' is not defined

We tried to use local variable outside their scope; it threw the NameError.

Global Variables

Global variables can be utilized all through the program, and its extension is in the whole program.
Global variables can be used inside or outside the function.

By default, a variable declared outside of the function serves as the global variable. Python gives the
worldwide catchphrase to utilize worldwide variable inside the capability. The function treats it as a local
variable if we don't use the global keyword. Let's examine the following illustration.

Example -

1. # Declare a variable and initialize it

2. x = 101
3.
4. # Global variable in function
5. def mainFunction():
6. # printing a global variable
7. global x
8. print(x)
9. # modifying a global variable
10. x = 'Welcome To Javatpoint'
11. print(x)
12.
13. mainFunction()
14. print(x)

Output:

101
Welcome To Javatpoint
Welcome To Javatpoint

Explanation:

In the above code, we declare a global variable x and give out a value to it. We then created a function
and used the global keyword to access the declared variable within the function. We can now alter its
value. After that, we gave the variable x a new string value and then called the function and printed x,
which displayed the new value.

Delete a variable

We can delete the variable using the del keyword. The syntax is given below.

Syntax -

1. del <variable_name>

In the following example, we create a variable x and assign value to it. We deleted variable x, and print it,
we get the error "variable x is not defined". The variable x will no longer use in future.

Example -

1. # Assigning a value to x
2. x = 6
3. print(x)
4. # deleting a variable.
5. del x
6. print(x)

Output:

6
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:/Users/DEVANSH SHARMA/PycharmProjects/Hello/multiprocessing.py", line 389, in
print(x)
NameError: name 'x' is not defined
Python Data Types

Every value has a datatype, and variables can hold values. Python is a powerfully composed language;
consequently, we don't have to characterize the sort of variable while announcing it. The interpreter binds
the value implicitly to its type.

1. a = 5

We did not specify the type of the variable a, which has the value five from an integer. The Python
interpreter will automatically interpret the variable as an integer.

We can verify the type of the program-used variable thanks to Python. The type() function in Python
returns the type of the passed variable.

Consider the following illustration when defining and verifying the values of various data types.

1. a=10
2. b="Hi Python"
3. c = 10.5
4. print(type(a))
5. print(type(b))
6. print(type(c))

Output:

<type 'int'>
<type 'str'>
<type 'float'>

Standard data types

 A variable can contain a variety of values. On the other hand, a person's id must be stored as an integer,
while their name must be stored as a string.

The storage method for each of the standard data types that Python provides is specified by Python. The
following is a list of the Python-defined data types.

1. Numbers

2. Sequence Type

3. Boolean

4. Set

5. Dictionary

The data types will be briefly discussed in this tutorial section. We will talk about every single one of
them exhaustively later in this instructional exercise.

Numbers

Numeric values are stored in numbers. The whole number, float, and complex qualities have a place with
a Python Numbers datatype. Python offers the type() function to determine a variable's data type. The
instance () capability is utilized to check whether an item has a place with a specific class.

When a number is assigned to a variable, Python generates Number objects. For instance,

1. a = 5
2. print("The type of a", type(a))
3.
4. b = 40.5
5. print("The type of b", type(b))
6.
7. c = 1+3j
8. print("The type of c", type(c))
9. print(" c is a complex number", isinstance(1+3j,complex))

Output:

The type of a <class 'int'>

 The type of b <class 'float'>
The type of c <class 'complex'>
c is complex number: True

Python supports three kinds of numerical data.

o Int: Whole number worth can be any length, like numbers 10, 2, 29, - 20, - 150, and so on. An
integer can be any length you want in Python. Its worth has a place with int.

o Float: Float stores drifting point numbers like 1.9, 9.902, 15.2, etc. It can be accurate to within 15
decimal places.

o Complex: An intricate number contains an arranged pair, i.e., x + iy, where x and y signify the
genuine and non-existent parts separately. The complex numbers like 2.14j, 2.0 + 2.3j, etc.

Sequence Type

String

The sequence of characters in the quotation marks can be used to describe the string. A string can be
defined in Python using single, double, or triple quotes.

String dealing with Python is a direct undertaking since Python gives worked-in capabilities and
administrators to perform tasks in the string.

When dealing with strings, the operation "hello"+" python" returns "hello python," and the operator + is
used to combine two strings.

Because the operation "Python" *2 returns "Python," the operator * is referred to as a repetition operator.

The Python string is demonstrated in the following example.

Example - 1

1. str = "string using double quotes"

2. print(str)
3. s = '''''A multiline
4. string'''
5. print(s)

Output:

string using double quotes

 A multiline
string

Look at the following illustration of string handling.

Example - 2

1. str1 = 'hello javatpoint' #string str1

2. str2 = ' how are you' #string str2
3. print (str1[0:2]) #printing first two character using slice operator
4. print (str1[4]) #printing 4th character of the string
5. print (str1*2) #printing the string twice
6. print (str1 + str2) #printing the concatenation of str1 and str2

Output:

he
o
hello javatpointhello javatpoint
hello javatpoint how are you

List

Lists in Python are like arrays in C, but lists can contain data of different types. The things put away in
the rundown are isolated with a comma (,) and encased inside square sections [].

To gain access to the list's data, we can use slice [:] operators. Like how they worked with strings, the list
is handled by the concatenation operator (+) and the repetition operator (*).

Look at the following example.

Example:

1. list1 = [1, "hi", "Python", 2]

2. #Checking type of given list
3. print(type(list1))
4.
5. #Printing the list1
6. print (list1)
7.
8. # List slicing
9. print (list1[3:])
10.
11. # List slicing
12. print (list1[0:2])
13.
14. # List Concatenation using + operator
15. print (list1 + list1)
16.
17. # List repetation using * operator
18. print (list1 * 3)

Output:

[1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]

[2]
[1, 'hi']
[1, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]

Tuple

In many ways, a tuple is like a list. Tuples, like lists, also contain a collection of items from various data
types. A parenthetical space () separates the tuple's components from one another.

Because we cannot alter the size or value of the items in a tuple, it is a read-only data structure.

Let's look at a straightforward tuple in action.

Example:

1. tup = ("hi", "Python", 2)

2. # Checking type of tup
3. print (type(tup))
4.
5. #Printing the tuple
6. print (tup)
7.
8. # Tuple slicing
9. print (tup[1:])
10. print (tup[0:1])
11.
12. # Tuple concatenation using + operator
13. print (tup + tup)
14.
15. # Tuple repatation using * operator
16. print (tup * 3)
17.
18. # Adding value to tup. It will throw an error.
19. t[2] = "hi"

Output:

<class 'tuple'>
('hi', 'Python', 2)
('Python', 2)
('hi',)
('hi', 'Python', 2, 'hi', 'Python', 2)
('hi', 'Python', 2, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 'hi', 'Python', 2)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "main.py", line 14, in <module>
t[2] = "hi";
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Dictionary

A dictionary is a key-value pair set arranged in any order. It stores a specific value for each key, like an
associative array or a hash table. Value is any Python object, while the key can hold any primitive data
type.

The comma (,) and the curly braces are used to separate the items in the dictionary.

Look at the following example.

1. d = {1:'Jimmy', 2:'Alex', 3:'john', 4:'mike'}

2.
3. # Printing dictionary
4. print (d)
5.
6. # Accesing value using keys
7. print("1st name is "+d[1])
8. print("2nd name is "+ d[4])
9.
10. print (d.keys())
11. print (d.values())

Output:

1st name is Jimmy

2nd name is mike
{1: 'Jimmy', 2: 'Alex', 3: 'john', 4: 'mike'}
dict_keys([1, 2, 3, 4])
dict_values(['Jimmy', 'Alex', 'john', 'mike'])

Boolean

True and False are the two default values for the Boolean type. These qualities are utilized to decide the
given assertion valid or misleading. The class book indicates this. False can be represented by the 0 or the
letter "F," while true can be represented by any value that is not zero.

Look at the following example.

1. # Python program to check the boolean type

2. print(type(True))
3. print(type(False))
4. print(false)

Output:

<class 'bool'>
<class 'bool'>
NameError: name 'false' is not defined

Set

The data type's unordered collection is Python Set. It is iterable, mutable(can change after creation), and
has remarkable components. The elements of a set have no set order; It might return the element's altered
sequence. Either a sequence of elements is passed through the curly braces and separated by a comma to
create the set or the built-in function set() is used to create the set. It can contain different kinds of values.
 Look at the following example.

1. # Creating Empty set

2. set1 = set()
3.
4. set2 = {'James', 2, 3,'Python'}
5.
6. #Printing Set value
7. print(set2)
8.
9. # Adding element to the set
10.
11. set2.add(10)
12. print(set2)
13.
14. #Removing element from the set
15. set2.remove(2)
16. print(set2)

Output:

{3, 'Python', 'James', 2}

{'Python', 'James', 3, 2, 10}
{'Python', 'James', 3, 10}
Python Keywords

Every scripting language has designated words or keywords, with particular definitions and usage
guidelines. Python is no exception. The fundamental constituent elements of any Python program are
Python keywords.

This tutorial will give you a basic overview of all Python keywords and a detailed discussion of some
important keywords that are frequently used.

Introducing Python Keywords

Python keywords are unique words reserved with defined meanings and functions that we can only apply
for those functions. You'll never need to import any keyword into your program because they're
permanently present.
 Python's built-in methods and classes are not the same as the keywords. Built-in methods and classes are
constantly present; however, they are not as limited in their application as keywords.

Assigning a particular meaning to Python keywords means you can't use them for other purposes in our
code. You'll get a message of SyntaxError if you attempt to do the same. If you attempt to assign anything
to a built-in method or type, you will not receive a SyntaxError message; however, it is still not a smart
idea.

Python contains thirty-five keywords in the most recent version, i.e., Python 3.8. Here we have shown a
complete list of Python keywords for the reader's reference.

False await else import pass

None break except in raise

True class finally is return

and continue for lambda try

as def from nonlocal while

assert del global not with

async elif if or yield

In distinct versions of Python, the preceding keywords might be changed. Some extras may be
introduced, while others may be deleted. By writing the following statement into the coding window, you
can anytime retrieve the collection of keywords in the version you are working on.

Code

1. # Python program to demonstrate the application of iskeyword()

2. # importing keyword library which has lists
3. import keyword
4.
5. # displaying the complete list using "kwlist()."
6. print("The set of keywords in this version is: ")
7. print( keyword.kwlist )

Output:

The set of keywords in this version is :

 ['False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'async', 'await', 'break', 'class', 'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else',
'except', 'finally', 'for', 'from', 'global', 'if', 'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or', 'pass', 'raise',
'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', '

Value Keywords: True, False, None

Three Python keywords are employed as values in this example. These are singular values, which we can
reuse indefinitely and every time correspond to the same entity. These values will most probably be seen
and used frequently.

Code

1. print( 4 == 4 )
2. print( 6 > 9 )
3. print( True or False )
4. print( 9 <= 28 )
5. print( 6 > 9 )
6. print( True and False )

Output:

True
False
True
True
False
False
Python Operators

Introduction:

In this article, we are discussing Python Operators. The operator is a symbol that performs a specific
operation between two operands, according to one definition. Operators serve as the foundation upon
which logic is constructed in a program in a particular programming language. In every programming
language, some operators perform several tasks. Same as other languages, Python also has some
operators, and these are given below -

o Arithmetic operators

o Comparison operators

o Assignment Operators

o Logical Operators
 o Bitwise Operators

o Membership Operators

o Identity Operators

o Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators used between two operands for a particular operation. There are many arithmetic
operators. It includes the exponent (**) operator as well as the + (addition), - (subtraction), *
(multiplication), / (divide), % (reminder), and // (floor division) operators.

Consider the following table for a detailed explanation of arithmetic operators.

Operator Description

+ (Addition) It is used to add two operands. For example, if a = 10, b = 10 => a+b = 20

- (Subtraction) It is used to subtract the second operand from the first operand. If the first operand is
less than the second operand, the value results negative. For example, if a = 20, b = 5
=> a - b = 15

/ (divide) It returns the quotient after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For
example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a/b = 2.0

* It is used to multiply one operand with the other. For example, if a = 20, b = 4 => a *
(Multiplication) b = 80

% (reminder) It returns the reminder after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For
example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a%b = 0

** (Exponent) As it calculates the first operand's power to the second operand, it is an exponent
operator.

// (Floor It provides the quotient's floor value, which is obtained by dividing the two operands.
division)

ow we give code examples of arithmetic operators in Python. The code is given below -

1. a = 32 # Initialize the value of a

2. b = 6 # Initialize the value of b
3. print('Addition of two numbers:',a+b)
4. print('Subtraction of two numbers:',a-b)
5. print('Multiplication of two numbers:',a*b)
6. print('Division of two numbers:',a/b)
7. print('Reminder of two numbers:',a%b)
8. print('Exponent of two numbers:',a**b)
9. print('Floor division of two numbers:',a//b)

Output:

Now we compile the above code in Python, and after successful compilation, we run it. Then the output is
given below -

Addition of two numbers: 38

Subtraction of two numbers: 26
Multiplication of two numbers: 192
Division of two numbers: 5.333333333333333
Reminder of two numbers: 2
Exponent of two numbers: 1073741824
Floor division of two numbers: 5

Comparison operator

Comparison operators mainly use for comparison purposes. Comparison operators compare the values of
the two operands and return a true or false Boolean value in accordance. The example of comparison
operators are ==, !=, <=, >=, >, <. In the below table, we explain the works of the operators.

Operator Description

== If the value of two operands is equal, then the condition becomes true.

!= If the value of two operands is not equal, then the condition becomes true.

<= The condition is met if the first operand is smaller than or equal to the second operand.

>= The condition is met if the first operand is greater than or equal to the second operand.

> If the first operand is greater than the second operand, then the condition becomes true.

< If the first operand is less than the second operand, then the condition becomes true.

Program Code:

Now we give code examples of Comparison operators in Python. The code is given below -
 ADVERTISEMENT

1. a = 32 # Initialize the value of a

2. b = 6 # Initialize the value of b
3. print('Two numbers are equal or not:',a==b)
4. print('Two numbers are not equal or not:',a!=b)
5. print('a is less than or equal to b:',a<=b)
6. print('a is greater than or equal to b:',a>=b)
7. print('a is greater b:',a>b)
8. print('a is less than b:',a<b)

Output:

Now we compile the above code in Python, and after successful compilation, we run it. Then the output is
given below -

Two numbers are equal or not: False

Two numbers are not equal or not: True
a is less than or equal to b: False
a is greater than or equal to b: True
a is greater b: True
a is less than b: False

Bitwise Operators

The two operands' values are processed bit by bit by the bitwise operators. The examples of Bitwise
operators are bitwise OR (|), bitwise AND (&), bitwise XOR (^), negation (~), Left shift (<<), and Right
shift (>>). Consider the case below.

For example,

1. if a = 7
2. b=6
3. then, binary (a) = 0111
4. binary (b) = 0110
5.
6. hence, a & b = 0011
7. a | b = 0111
8. a ^ b = 0100
9. ~ a = 1000
10. Let, Binary of x = 0101
11. Binary of y = 1000
12. Bitwise OR = 1101
13. 8 4 2 1
14. 1 1 0 1 = 8 + 4 + 1 = 13
15.
16. Bitwise AND = 0000
17. 0000 = 0
18.
19. Bitwise XOR = 1101
20. 8 4 2 1
21. 1 1 0 1 = 8 + 4 + 1 = 13
22. Negation of x = ~x = (-x) - 1 = (-5) - 1 = -6
23. ~x = -6

In the below table, we are explaining the works of the bitwise operators.

Operator Description

& (binary A 1 is copied to the result if both bits in two operands at the same location are 1. If not, 0
and) is copied.

| (binary or) The resulting bit will be 0 if both the bits are zero; otherwise, the resulting bit will be 1.

^ (binary xor) If the two bits are different, the outcome bit will be 1, else it will be 0.

~ (negation) The operand's bits are calculated as their negations, so if one bit is 0, the next bit will be
1, and vice versa.

<< (left shift) The number of bits in the right operand is multiplied by the leftward shift of the value of
the left operand.

>> (right The left operand is moved right by the number of bits present in the right operand.
shift)

Program Code:
 Now we give code examples of Bitwise operators in Python. The code is given below -

1. a = 5 # initialize the value of a

2. b = 6 # initialize the value of b
3. print('a&b:', a&b)
4. print('a|b:', a|b)
5. print('a^b:', a^b)
6. print('~a:', ~a)
7. print('a<<b:', a<<b)
8. print('a>>b:', a>>b)

Output:

Now we compile the above code in Python, and after successful compilation, we run it. Then the output is
given below -

a&b: 4
a|b: 7
a^b: 3
~a: -6
a<>b: 0

Logical Operators

The assessment of expressions to make decisions typically uses logical operators. The examples of logical
operators are and, or, and not. In the case of logical AND, if the first one is 0, it does not depend upon the
second one. In the case of logical OR, if the first one is 1, it does not depend on the second one. Python
supports the following logical operators. In the below table, we explain the works of the logical operators.

Operato Description
r

and The condition will also be true if the expression is true. If the two expressions a and b are the
same, then a and b must both be true.

or The condition will be true if one of the phrases is true. If a and b are the two expressions,
then an or b must be true if and is true and b is false.

not If an expression a is true, then not (a) will be false and vice versa.

Program Code:
 Now we give code examples of arithmetic operators in Python. The code is given below -

1. a = 5 # initialize the value of a

2. print(Is this statement true?:',a > 3 and a < 5)
3. print('Any one statement is true?:',a > 3 or a < 5)
4. print('Each statement is true then return False and vice-versa:',(not(a > 3 and a < 5)))

Output:

Now we give code examples of Bitwise operators in Python. The code is given below -

Is this statement true?: False

Any one statement is true?: True
Each statement is true then return False and vice-versa: True
Python Comments

We'll study how to write comments in our program in this article. We'll also learn about single-line
comments, multi-line comments, documentation strings, and other Python comments.

Introduction to Python Comments

We may wish to describe the code we develop. We might wish to take notes of why a section of script
functions, for instance. We leverage the remarks to accomplish this. Formulas, procedures, and
sophisticated business logic are typically explained with comments. The Python interpreter overlooks the
remarks and solely interprets the script when running a program. Single-line comments, multi-line
comments, and documentation strings are the 3 types of comments in Python.

Advantages of Using Comments

Our code is more comprehensible when we use comments in it. It assists us in recalling why specific
sections of code were created by making the program more understandable.

Aside from that, we can leverage comments to overlook specific code while evaluating other code
sections. This simple technique stops some lines from running or creates a fast pseudo-code for the
program.

Below are some of the most common uses for comments:

o Readability of the Code

o Restrict code execution

o Provide an overview of the program or project metadata

o To add resources to the code

 Types of Comments in Python

In Python, there are 3 types of comments. They are described below:

Single-Line Comments

Single-line remarks in Python have shown to be effective for providing quick descriptions for parameters,
function definitions, and expressions. A single-line comment of Python is the one that has a hashtag # at
the beginning of it and continues until the finish of the line. If the comment continues to the next line, add
a hashtag to the subsequent line and resume the conversation. Consider the accompanying code snippet,
which shows how to use a single line comment:

Code

1. # This code is to show an example of a single-line comment

2. print( 'This statement does not have a hashtag before it' )

Output:

This statement does not have a hashtag before it

The following is the comment:

1. # This code is to show an example of a single-line comment

The Python compiler ignores this line.

Everything following the # is omitted. As a result, we may put the program mentioned above in one line
as follows:

Code

1. print( 'This is not a comment' ) # this code is to show an example of a single-line comment

Output:

This is not a comment

This program's output will be identical to the example above. The computer overlooks all content
following #.

Multi-Line Comments

Python does not provide the facility for multi-line comments. However, there are indeed many ways to
create multi-line comments.
 With Multiple Hashtags (#)

In Python, we may use hashtags (#) multiple times to construct multiple lines of comments. Every line
with a (#) before it will be regarded as a single-line comment.

Code

1. # it is a
2. # comment
3. # extending to multiple lines

In this case, each line is considered a comment, and they are all omitted.

Using String Literals

Because Python overlooks string expressions that aren't allocated to a variable, we can utilize them as
comments.

Code

1. 'it is a comment extending to multiple lines'

We can observe that on running this code, there will be no output; thus, we utilize the strings inside triple
quotes(""") as multi-line comments.

Python Docstring

The strings enclosed in triple quotes that come immediately after the defined function are called Python
docstring. It's designed to link documentation developed for Python modules, methods, classes, and
functions together. It's placed just beneath the function, module, or class to explain what they perform.
The docstring is then readily accessible in Python using the __doc__ attribute.

Code

1. # Code to show how we use docstrings in Python

2.
3. def add(x, y):
4. """This function adds the values of x and y"""
5. return x + y
6.
7. # Displaying the docstring of the add function
8. print( add.__doc__ )

Output:

This function adds the values of x and y

Run on Command Line

The python script file is saved with '. py' extension. After saving the python script, we can run it from the
Command Line. In the cmd, type keyword 'python' followed by the name of the file with which you saved
the python script.

After writing the code, we need to run the code to execute and obtain the output. On running the program,
we can check whether the code is written is correct and produces the desired output.

Running a python program is quite an easy task.

Run on IDLE

To run a python program on IDLE, follow the given steps −

 Write the python code and save it.

 To run the program, go to Run > Run Module or simply click F5.

Run on Command Line

The python script file is saved with ‘.py’ extension. After saving the python script, we can run it from the
Command Line. In the cmd, type keyword ‘python’ followed by the name of the file with which you
saved the python script.

Example

Let us suppose, we have a python script saved with the name ‘hello.py’. To run it on command line, type
the following −

python hello.py

Run On IDE (PyCharm)

To run a python program on an IDE like PyCharm, we need to follow the given steps −
  Create a new python file and save it with some name, say “hello.py”.You don’t need to specify
the extension as it will pick it automatically.
 After writing the required code in the python file, we need to run it.
 To run, Click on the Green Play Button at the top right corner of the IDE. The second way to
run is, Right click and select ‘Run File in Python Console’ option.
This will open a console box at the bottom and output will be shown there.

Interactive Mode

Interactive mode is the method to type and run python code in command line. In interactive mode, the
python code is written and run line by line in a sequential manner.To enter into interactive mode, open
Command Prompt and type ‘python’ and press Enter.

Write one line of code and press enter to execute it and enter the second line.

Example

To run the code in interactive mode, You must have python installed on your system. On typing
‘python’ , the version of the python installed on your system is displayed. This means that python is
installed on your system and we can move forward in running python scripts. On entering one line of
code i.e. print(“Hello World”) ,after pressing enter the “Hello World” is displayed.

Run on Text Editor(Visual Studio)

We can run python script on a text editor. To do so,follow the following steps −

 Create a file with a name ,let “hello.py”.

 Write some python code in the file.
 To run the code, Right Click > Select Run Code. Else, press ‘Ctrl+Alt+N’ to run the code.
  Python Files IO
 Python File Handling:

 File handling simply means to open a file and to process it according to the required tasks. Python

facilitates several functions to create, read, write, append, delete and close files.

 ❏ Open File:

 To open a file in Python, open() function is used.

 Syntax:

 f = open(“filename“, “mode“)

 Filename: This parameter specifies the name of the file to be opened.

 Mode: This parameter specifies the mode in which the file should be opened.

 Different MODES of open function:

$mode MODE DESCRIPTION

r Read only mode Pointer starts from the beginning of the file.

Overwrites the existing file or creates a new

w Write only mode file if it doesn’t exist. Pointer starts from the
beginning of the file.

Continues writing in the existing file or

a Write only mode creates a new file if it doesn’t exist. Pointer
starts from the end of the file.

r+ Read Write mode Pointer starts from the beginning of the file.

Overwrites the existing file or creates a new

w+ Read Write mode file if it doesn’t exist. Pointer starts from the
beginning of the file.
 Continues writing in the existing file or
a+ Read Write mode creates a new file if it doesn’t exist. Pointer
starts from the end of the file.

Read only mode in

rb Pointer starts from the beginning of the file.
Binary format.

Overwrites the existing file or creates a new

Write only mode in
wb file if it doesn’t exist. Pointer starts from the
Binary format.
beginning of the file.

Continues writing in the existing file or

Write only mode in
ab creates a new file if it doesn’t exist. Pointer
Binary format.
starts from the end of the file.

Read Write mode in

rb+ Pointer starts from the beginning of the file.
Binary format.

Overwrites the existing file or creates a new

Read Write mode in
wb+ file if it doesn’t exist. Pointer starts from the
Binary format.
beginning of the file.

Continues writing in the existing file or

Read Write mode in
ab+ creates a new file if it doesn’t exist. Pointer
Binary format.
starts from the end of the file.

 ❏ Close File:

 To close a file in Python, close() function is used.

 Syntax:

 f.close()

 ❏ Read File:

 ● To read a file in Python, read() function is used.

  Syntax:

 f.read()

 To read a line of a file in Python, readline() function is used.

 Syntax:

 f.readline()

 ❏ Write File:

 To write a file in Python, write() function is used.

 Syntax:

 f.write(statement)

 ❏ Delete File:

 ● To delete a file in Python, os is imported and then os.remove() function is used.

 Syntax:

 import os

 os.remove(“filename“)

 To delete a folder in Python, os is imported and then os.rmdir() function is used.

 Syntax:

 import os

 os.rmdir(“filename“)

 Python File Handling Methods:

METHODS SYNTAX USES

To replace the existing

os.rename(“existing_file_name”,
rename() python file name with a new
“new_file_name”)
python file name.

remove() os.remove(“file_name”) To delete a python file.

 To create a directory to store
mkdir() os.mkdir(“file_name“)
python files.

To change the current

chdir() os.chdir(“file_name“)
working directory.

rmdir() os.rmdir(“directory_name”) To delete a directory.

To get the exact position in

tell() –
the python file.

To get the current working

getcwd() os.getcwd()
directory.

 Example:

f = open("pythonex.txt", "w")
f.write("HELLO PYTHON!\nPython facilitates several functions to create, read, write, append, delete and close files.")
f.close()

f = open("pythonex.txt", "r")
b = f.read()
print b
f.close()