Political Ideologies TD 2011-2012

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POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
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WHAT’S AN IDEOLOGIE?!
For Antoine Destutt DE TRACY (1754-1836) : idéologie refers to a new « science of ideas »,
literally an idea-ology. !
Among the meanings that have been attached to ideology are the following:!
! - A political belief system.!
! - An action-orientated set of political ideas.!
! - The ideas of the ruling class.!
! - The world-view of a particular social class or social group.!
! - Political ideas that embody or articulate class or social interests.
! - Ideas that propagate false consciousness amongst the exploited or oppressed.!
! - Ideas that situate the individual within social context and generate a sense of collective
belonging.!
! - An officially sanctioned set of ideas used to legitimize a political system or regime.!
! - An all-embracing political doctrine that claims a monopoly of truth.!
! - An abstract and highly systematic set of political ideas. !
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LIBERALISM!
Set of values and beliefs:!
! - The individual!
! - Freedom!
! - Reason!
! - Justice!
! - Toleration and diversity!
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CONSERVATISM!
Set of values and beliefs:!
! - Tradition!
! - Human Imperfection!
! - Organic Society!
! - Hierarchy and authority!
! - Property!
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SOCIALISM!
Set of values and beliefs:!
! - Community!
! - Cooperation!
! - Equality!
! - Social Class!
! - Common ownership!
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NATIONALISM!
Set of values and beliefs:!
! - The nation!
! - Organic community!
! - Self determination!
! - Identity politics!
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ANARCHISM!
Set of values and beliefs:!

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 Political Ideologies TD 2011-2012
! - Anti-statism!
! - Natural order!
! - Anticlericalism!
! - Economic freedom!
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FASCISM!
Set of values and beliefs:!
! - Anti-rationalism!
! - Struggle!
! - Leadership and elitism!
! - Socialism!
! - Ultranationalism!
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FEMINISM!
Set of values and beliefs:!
! - The public/private divide!
! - Patriarchy!
! - Sex and gender!
! - Equality and difference!
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ECOLOGY!
Set of values and beliefs:!
! - Ecology!
! - Holism!
! - Sustainability!
! - Environmental ethics!
! - Self-actualization!
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RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM!
Set of values and beliefs:!
! - Religion and politics!
! - The fundamentalist impulse!
! - Anti-modernism!
! - Militancy!
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The linear spectrum!

! Communism! Socialism! Liberalism! Conservatism! Fascism!

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 Political Ideologies TD 2011-2012
The horseshoe spectrum!
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! Communism! ! ! ! ! ! Fascism!
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! ! Socialism ! ! ! Conservatism!
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! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! Liberalism!
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The two-dimensional spectrum!
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! ! ! ! Authority!
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! Stalinism! ! ! ! ! ! Nazism!
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! ! ! ! ! New Right!
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Left! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Right!
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! ! Social
! ! Democracy!
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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Anarcho-capitalism!
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! ! ! ! Liberty!
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Perspective on ideology!
! - Liberals, particularly during the Cold War period, have viewed ideology as an official
sanctioned belief system that claims !a monopoly of truth, often through a spurious claim to be
scientific. Ideology is therefore inherently repressive, even totalitarian; it’s prime examples are
communism and fascism.!
! - Conservatives have traditionally regarded ideology as a manifestation of the arrogance
of rationalism. Ideologies are elaborate systems of thought that are dangerous or unreliable
because, being abstracted from reality, they establish principles and goals that lead to repression
or are simply unachievable. In this light, socialism and liberalism are clearly ideological.!
! - Socialists, following Marx, have seen ideology as a body of ideas that conceal the
contradictions of class society, thereby promoting false consciousness and political passivity
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amongst subordinate classes. Liberalism is the classic ruling-class ideology. Later Marxists
adopted a neutral concept of ideology, regarding it as the distinctive ideas of any social class,
including the working class. !
! - Fascists are often dismissive of ideology as an over-systematic, dry and intellectualized
form of political understanding that is based on mere reason rather than passion and the will. The
Nazis preferred to portray their own ideas as a Weltanschauung or « world view », not a systematic
philosophy. !
! - Ecologists have tended to regard all conventional political doctrines as part of a super-
ideology of industrialism. Ideology is thus tainted by its association with arrogant humanism and
growth-orientated economics - liberalism and socialism be inn its most obvious examples. !
! - Religious fundamentalists haves treated key religious texts as ideology, on the grounds
that, by expressing the revealed world of God, they provide a programme fro comprehensive social
reconstruction. Secular ideologies are therefore rejected because they are not founded on religious
principles and so lack moral substance. !
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Perspective on Freedom!
! - Liberals give priority to freedom as the supreme individualist value. While classical
liberals support negative freedom, understood as the absence of constraints or freedom of choice,
modern liberals advocate positive freedom in the sense of personal development and human
flourishing. !
! - Conservatives have traditionally endorsed weak view of freedom as the willing
recognition of duties and responsibilities, negative freedom posing a threat to the fabric of society.
The new right, however, endorses negative freedom in the economic sphere, freedom of choice in
the marketplace.!
! - Socialists have generally understood freedom in positive terms to refer to self-fulfillment
achieved through either free creative labour or cooperative social interaction. Social democrats
have drawn close to modern liberalism in treating of freedom as the realization of individual
potential. !
! - Anarchists regard freedom as an absolute value, believing it to be irreconcilable with any
form of political authority. Freedom is understood to mean the achievement of personal autonomy,
not merely being « left alone » but being rationally self-willed and self-directed.!
! - Fascists reject any form of individual liberty as a nonsense. « True » freedom, in contrast,
means unquestioning submission to the will of the leader and the absorption of the individual into
the national community.!
! - Ecologists, particularly deep ecologists, treat freedom as the achievement of oneness,
self-realization through the absorption of the personal ego into the ecosphere or universe. In
contrast with political freedom, this is sometimes seen as « inner « freedom, freedom as self
actualization.!
! - Religious fundamentalists see freedom as essentially an inner or spiritual quality.
Freedom means conformity to the revealed will of God, spiritual fulfillment being associated with
submission to religious authority.!
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Perspectives on Democracy!
! - Liberals understand democracy in individualist terms as consent expressed through the
ballot box, democracy being equated with regular and competitive elections. Whilst democracy
contrains abuses of power, it must always be conducted within constitutional framework in order to
prevent majoritarian tyranny.!
! - Conservatives endorse liberal-democratic rule but with qualifications about the need to
protect property and traditional institutions from the untutored will of « the many ». The new right,
however, has linked electoral democracy to the problems of over-governments and economic
stagnation. !
! - Socialists traditionally endorsed a form of radical democracy based on popular
participation and the desire to bring economic life under public control, dismissing liberal
democracy as simply capitalist democracy. Nevertheless modern social democrats are now firmly
committed to liberal-democratic structure. !
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! - Anarchists endorse direct democracy and call for continuous popular participation and
radical decentralization. Electoral or representative democracy is merely a facade that attempts to
conceal elite domination and reconcile the masses to their oppression.!
! - Fascists embrace the ides of totalitarian democracy, holding that a genuine democracy is
an absolute dictatorship as the leader monopolises ideological wisdom and is alone able to
articulate the true interests of the people. Party and electoral competition are thus corrupt and
degenerate. !
! - Ecologists have often supported radical or participatory democracy. « Dark » greens
have developed a particular critique of electoral democracy that portrays it as a means of imposing
the interests of the present generation of humans on (un-enfranchised) later generations, other
species and nature as a whole. !
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Perspective on Human Nature!
! - Liberals view human nature as a set of innate qualities intrinsic to the individual, placing
little or no emphasis on social or historical conditioning. Humans are self-seeking and largely self-
reliant creatures; but they are so governed by reason and are capable of personal development,
particularly through education. !
! - Conservatives believe humans are essentially limited and security-seeking creatures,
drawn to the known, the familiar, the tried and the tested. Human rationality is unreliable, and moral
corruption is implicit in each human individual. The new right nevertheless embraces a form of self-
seeking individualism.!
! - Socialists regards humas as essentially social creatures, their capacities and behavior
being shaped more by nurture (=education) than by nature, and particularly by creative labour.
They propensity for cooperation, sociability and rationality means that the prospect for human
human development and personal growth are considerable. !
! - Anarchists view human nature in highly optimistic terms. Humans are either seen to have
a powerful inclination toward sociable gregarious and cooperative behavior, being capable of
maintaining order through collective effort alone, or to be basically self-interested but rationally
enlightened.!
! - Fascist believe that humans are ruled by the will and other non-rational drives, most
particularly by a deep sense of social belonging focused on nation or race. Although the masses
are fitted only to serve and obey, elite members of the national community are capable of personal
regeneration as « new men » through dedication to the national or racial cause.!
! - Feminism usually hold that men and women share common human nature, gender
differences being culturally or socially imposed. Separatist feminists nevertheless argue that men
are genetically disposed to domination and cruelty, while women are naturally sympathetic,
creative and peaceful.!
! - Ecologists, particularly deep ecologists, see human nature as part of the broader
ecosystem, even as part of nature itself. Materialism, greed and egoism therefore reflect the extent
to which humans have become alienated from the oneness of life and thus from their own true
nature. Human fulfillment requires a return to nature. !
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Perspective on Society!
! - Liberals regard society not as an entity in its own right but as a collection of individuals.
To the extent that society exists, it is fashioned out of voluntary and contractual agreements made
by self-interested human beings. Nevertheless there is a general balance of interests in society
that tends to promote harmony and equilibrium. !
! - Conservatives see society as an organisation, a living entity. Society thus has an
existence outside the individual, and in a sense is prior to the individual; it is held together by the
bond of tradition, authority and a common morality. The new right nevertheless subscribes to a
form of liberal atomism. !
! - Socialists have traditionally understood society in terms of unequal class power, economic
and property divisions being deeper and more genuine than any broader social bonds. Marxists
believe that society is characterized by class struggle, and argue that the only stable and cohesive
society is a class one.!
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! - Anarchists believe that society is characterized by unregulated and natural harmony,
based on the natural human disposition towards cooperation and sociability. Social conflict and
disharmony are thus clearly unnatural, a product of political rule and economic inequality. !
! - Nationalists view society in term of cultural and ethnic distinctiveness. Society is thus
characterized by shared values and beliefs, ultimately rooted in a common national identity. This
may imply that multinational societies are inherently unstable.!
! - Fascists regard society as a unified organic whole, meaning that individual existence is
meaningless unless it is dedicated to the common good rather than the private good. Nevertheless
membership of society is strictly restricted on national or racial grounds.!
! - Feminism have understood society in terms of patriarchy and an artificial division
between the « public » and « private » spheres of life. Society may therefore be seen as an
organized hypocrisy designed to routines and uphold a system of male power.!
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Perpective on Equality!
! - Liberals believe that the people are « born » equal in the sense that they are of equal
moral worth. This implies formal equality, notably legal and political equality of opportunity; but
social equality is likely to be purchased at the expense of freedom and through the penalizing of
talent. Nevertheless, whereas classical liberals emphasize the need for strict meritocracy and
economic incentives, modern liberals have argued that genuine equal opportunities require relative
social equality.!
! - Conservatives have traditionally viewed the society as naturally hierarchical and have
thus dismissed equality as an abstract and unachievable goal. Nevertheless, the new right evinces
a strongly individualist belief in equality of opportunity while emphasizing the economic benefit of
material inequality.!
! - Socialists regards equality as a fundamental value and, in particular, endorse social
equality. Despite shifts within social democracy towards a liberal belief in equality of opportunity,
social equality, whether in its relative (social democracy) or absolute (communism) sense, has
been seen as essential to ensuring social cohesion and fraternity, establishing justice or equity,
and enlarging freedom in a positive sense. !
! - Anarchists place a particular stress upon political equality, understood as an equal and
absolute right to personal autonomy, implying that all forms of political inequality amount to
oppression. Anarcho-communists believe in absolute social equality achieved through the
collective ownership of productive wealth.!
! - Fascists believe that humankind is marked by radical inequality, both between leaders
and followers and between the various nations or races of the world. Nevertheless, the emphasis
on the nation or race implies that all members are equal, at least in terms of their core social
identity. !
! - Feminists take equality to mean sexual equality, in the sense of equal rights and equal
opportunities (liberal feminism) or equal social or economic power (socialist feminism) irrespective
of gender. However, some radical feminist have argued that the demand for equality may simply
lead to women being « male-identified ».!
! - Ecologists advance the notion of biocentric equality, which emphasizes that all life forms
have an equal right to « live and blossom ». Conventional notions of equality are therefore seen as
anthropocentric, in that they exclude the interests of all organisms and entities other than
humankind. !
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Perspective on Economy!
! - Liberals see the economy as a viral part of civil society and have a strong preference for
a market or capitalist economic order based on property, competition and material incentives.
However, while classical liberals favor laissez-faire capitalism, modern liberals recognize the
limitations of the market and accept limited economic management. !
! - Conservatives show clear support for private entreprise but have traditionally favored
pragmatic if limited intervention, fearing the free-for-all of laissez-faire and the attendant risks of
social instability. The new right, however, endorses unregulated capitalism.!

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! - Socialists in the Marxist tradition have expressed a preference for common ownership
and absolute social equality, which in orthodox communism was expressed in state collectivization
and central planning. Social democrats, though, support welfare or regulated capitalism, believing
that the market is a good servant but a bad master.
! - Anarchists rejet any form of economic control or management. However while anarcho-
communists endorse common ownership and small-scale self-management, anarcho-capitalists
advocate an entirely unregulated market economy.!
! - Fascists have sought a « third way » between capitalism and communism, often
expressed through the ideas of corporatism, supposedly drawing labour and capital together into
an organic whole. Planning and nationalisation are supported as attempts to subordinate profit to
the (alleged) needs of the nation or race.!
! - Ecologists condemn both market capitalism and state collectivism for being growth-
obsessed and environmentally unsustainable. Economics, therefore, must be subordinate to
ecology, and the drive for profit at any cost must be replaced by a concern with long-term
sustainability and harmony between humankind and nature. !
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Perspectives on The Nation!
! - Liberals subscribe to a « civic » view of the nation that places as much emphasis on
political allegiance as on cultural unity. Nations are moral entities in the sense that they are
endowed with rights, notably an equal right to self-determination.!
! - Conservatives regard the nation as primarily an « organic entity, bound together by a
common ethnic identity and by shared history. As the source of social cohesion and collective
identity, the nation is perhaps the most politically significant of social groups.!
! - Socialists tend to view the nation as an artificial division of humankind whose purpose is
to disguise social injustice and prop up the established order. Political movements and allegiances
should therefore have an international, not a national, character.!
! - Anarchists have generally held that the nation is tainted by it’s association with the state
and therefore with oppression. The nation is thus seen as a myth, designed to promote obedience
and subjugation in the interests of the ruling elite.!
! - Fascists view the nation as an organically unified social whole, often defined by race,
which gives purpose and meaning to individual existence. However, nations are pitted against one
another in a struggle for survival in which some are fitted to succeed and others to go to the wall.!
! - Fundamentalists regard nations as, in essence, religious entities, communities of
« believers ». Nevertheless, religion is seldom coextensive with conventional nations, hence the
idea of transnational religious communities, such as the « nation of Islam ».!
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Perspective on the State!
! - Liberals see the state as a neutral arbiter amongst the competing interests and groups in
society, a vital guarantee of social order. While classical liberals treat the state as a necessary evil
and extol the virtues of a minimal or nightwatchman state, modern liberals recognize the state’s
positive role in widening freedom and promoting equal opportunities.!
! - Conservatives link the state to the need to provide authority and discipline and to protect
society from chaos and disorder, hence their traditional preference for a strong state. However,
whereas traditional conservatives support a pragmatic balance between the state and civil society,
neoliberals have called for the state to be « rolled back » as it threatens economic prosperity and is
driven, essentially, by bureaucratic self-interest.!
! - Socialists have adopted contrasting views of the state. Marxists have stressed the link
between the state and the class system, seeing it either as an instrument of class rule or as a
mean of ameliorating class tensions. Other socialists, however, regard the state as an embodiment
of the common good and thus approve of interventionism in either its social-democratic or state-
collectivist form.!
! - Anarchists reject the state outright, believing it to be an unnecessary evil. The sovereign,
compulsory and coercive authority of the state is seen as nothing less than legalized oppression
operating in the interests of the powerful, propertied and privileged. As the state is inherently evil
and oppressive, all states have the same essential character.!
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! - Fascist, particularly in the Italian tradition, see the state as a supreme ethical idea,
reflecting the undifferentiated interests of the national community, hence their belief in
totalitarianism. The Nazis, however, saw the state more as a vessel that contains, or tool that
serves, the race or nation.!
! - Feminists have viewed the state as an instrument of male power, the patriarchal state
serving to exclude women from, or subordinate them within, the public or « political » sphere of life.
Liberal feminists nevertheless regard the state as an instrument of reform that is susceptible to
electoral pressures.!
! - Fundamentalists have adopted a broadly positive attitude towards the state, seeing it as
a means of bringing about social, moral and cultural renewal. The fundamentalist state is therefore
regarded as a political manifestation of religious authority and wisdom.
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Perspectives on Authority!
! - Liberals believe that authority arises « from below » through the consent of the governed.
Though a requirement of orderly existence, authority is rational, purposeful and limited, a view
reflected in a preference for legal-rational authority and public accountability.!
! - Conservatives see authority as arising from natural necessity, being exercised « from
above » by virtue of the unequal distribution of experience, social position and wisdom. Authority is
beneficial as well as necessary, in that it fosters respect and loyalty and promotes social cohesion.!
! - Socialists, typically, are suspicious of authority, which is regarded as implicit oppressive
and generally linked to the interests of the powerful and privileged. Socialist societies have
nevertheless endorsed the authority of the collective body, however expressed, as a means of
checking individualism and greed.!
! - Anarchists view all form of authority as unnecessary and destructive, equating authority
with oppression and exploitation. Since there is no distinction between authority and naked power,
all checks on authority and all forms of accountability are entirely bogus.!
! - Fascists regard authority as a manifestation of personal leadership or charisma, a quality
possessed by unusually gifted (if not unique) individuals. Such charismatic authority is, and should
be, absolute and unquestionable, and is thus implicitly, and possibly explicitly, totalitarian in
character.!
! - Religious fundamentalists see authority as a reflection of unequal access to religious
wisdom, authority being, at heart, an essentially moral quality possessed by enlightened
individuals. Since such authority has a charismatic character it is difficult to challenge or reconcile it
with constitutionalism. !
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Perspectives on Gender!
! - Liberals have traditionally regarded differences between women and men as being of
entirely private or personal significance. In public and political life all people are considered as
individuals, gender being as irrelevant as ethnicity or social class. In this sense, individualism is
« gender-blind ».!
! - Conservatives have traditionally emphasized the social and political significance of
gender divisions, arguing that they imply that the sexual division of labour between women and
men is natural and inevitable. Gender is thus one of the factors that gives society its organic and
hierarchical character.!
! - Socialists, like liberals, have rarely treated gender as a politically significant category.
When gender divisions are significant it is usually because they reflect and are sustained by
deeper economic and class inequalities.!
! - Fascist view gender as a fundamental division within humankind. Men naturally monopoly
leadership and decision-making, while women are suited to an entirely domestic, supportive and
subordinate role.!
! - Feminists usually see gender as a cultural or political distinction, in contrast to biological
and ineradicable sexual differences. Gender divisions nevertheless believe that gender differences
reflect a psycho-biological gulf between female and male attributes and sensibilities.!

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! - Religious fundamentalists usually regard gender as a God-given division, and thus as
one that is crucial to social and political organization. Patriarchal structures and the leadership of
males therefore tend to be regarded as natural and desirable.!
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Perspectives on Nature!
! - Liberals see nature as a ressource to satisfy human needs, and thus rarely question
human dominion over nature. Lacking value in itself, nature is invested with value only when it is
transformed by human labor, or when it is harnessed to human ends.!
! - Conservatives often portray nature as threatening even cruel, characterized by an
amoral struggle and harshness that also shapes human existence. Humans may be seen as part
of nature within a « great chain of being », their superiority nevertheless being enshrined in their
status as custodians of nature.!
! - Socialists, like liberals, have viewed and treated nature as merely a resource. However a
romantic or pastoral tradition within socialism has also extolled the beauty, harmony and richness
of nature, and looks to human fulfillment through a closeness to nature. !
! - Anarchists have often embraced a view of nature that stresses unregulated harmony and
growth. Nature therefore offers a model of simplicity and balance, which humans would be wise to
apply to social organization in the form of social ecology.!
! - Fascists have often adopted a dark and mystical view of nature that stresses the power
of instinct and primal life forces, nature being able to purge humans of their decadent
intellectualism. Nature is characterized by brutal struggle and cyclical regeneration.!
! - Feminists generally hold nature to be creative and begin. By virtue of their fertility and
disposition to nurture, women are often thought to be close to nature and in tune with natural
forces, while men, creatures of culture, are out of step or in conflict with nature.!
! - Ecologists, particularly deep ecologists, regard nature as an interconnected whole,
embracing humans and non-humans as well as the inanimate world. Nature is sometimes seen as
a source of knowledge and « right living », human fulfillment coming from a closeness to and
respect for nature, not from the attempt to dominate it.!
! - Religious fundamentalists view nature as an expression of divine creation: what is
« natural » is thus God-given. While this may imply a duty of respect towards nature, it may also
suggest that nature was created specifically to satisfy human ends.!
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Perspectives on Religion!
! - Liberals see religion as a distinct « private » matter linked to individual choice and
personal development. Religious freedom is thus essential to civil liberty and can only be
guaranteed by a strict division between religion and politics, and between church and state.!
! - Conservatives regard religion as a valuable (perhaps essential) source of stability and
social cohesion. As it provides society with a set of shared values and the bedrock of a common
culture, overlaps between religion and politics, and church and state are inevitable and desirable.!
! - Socialists have usually portrayed religion in negative terms, as at best a diversion from
the political struggle and at worst a form of ruling-class ideology (leading in some cases to the
adoption of state atheism). In emphasizing love and compassion, religion may nevertheless
provide socialism with an ethical basis. !
! - Anarchism generally regard religion as an institutionalized source of oppression. Church
and sate are invariably linked, with religion preaching obedience and submission to earthly rulers
while also prescribing a set of authoritative values that rob the individual of mortal autonomy.!
! - Fascists have sometimes rejected religion on the ground that it serves as a rival source
of allegiance or belief, and that it preaches « decadent » values such as compassion and human
sympathy. Fascism nevertheless seeks toi function as a « political » religion, embracing its
terminology and internal structure — devotion, sacrifice, spirit, redemption and so on. !
! - Religious fundamentalists view religion as a body of « essential » and unchallengeable
principles, which dictate not only personal conduct but also the organization of social, economic
and political life. Religion cannot and should not be confined to the « private » sphere but finds its
highest and proper expression in the politics of popular mobilization and social regeneration.!
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Perspective on History!
! - Liberals see history as progress, brought about as each generation advances further than
the last through the accumulation of knowledge and understanding. Liberals generally believe that
this will happen through gradual or incremental reform, not through revolution.!
! - Conservatives understand history in terms of tradition and continuity, allowing little scope
for progress. The lessons of the past provide guidance for present and future conduct. Reactionary
conservatives believe that history is marked by decline, and wish to return to an earlier and
preferred time. !
! - Socialists are committed to a progressive view of history, which places heavy emphasis
on the scope for social and personal development. Marxists believe that class conflict is the motor
of history and that a classless, communist society is history’s determinant end-point.!
! - Fascists generally view history as a progress of degeneration and decay, a decline from a
past « golden age ». They nevertheless subscribe to a cyclical theory of history that holds out the
possibility of national rebirth and regeneration, usually through violent struggle and war.!
! - Religious fundamentalists have an ambivalent attitude towards history. Although they
tend to see the present as morally and spiritually corrupt in comparison with an idealized past, they
conceive of social regeneration in modernist terms, thus rejecting conservatism traditionalism. !
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Tension within Liberalism!
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Universal Liberalism Pluralist Liberalism

Universal Reason Scepticism

Search of truth Pursuit of order

Fundamental values Value pluralism

Liberal toleration Politics of difference

Human rights Cultural rights

liberal-democratic culture Multiculturalism

liberal triumphisim Plural political forms

Classical Liberalism Modern Liberalism

Economic Liberalism Social Liberalism

Egoistical individualism Developmental Individualism

Maximise Utility Personal Growth

Negative Freedom Positive Freedom

Minimal State Enabling State

Free-market Economiy Managed Economy

Rights-based Justice Justice as Fairness

Strict Meritocracy Concern for the Poor

Individual Reponsability Social Responsibility

Safety-net welfare Cradle-to-grave welfare

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Tension within Conservatism!

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Pragmatic conservatism Libertarian conservatism

Pragmatic Ideological

Traditionalist Radicalism

Social duty Egoism

Organic society Atomistic individualism

Hierarchy Meritocracy

Paternalism Self-help

Moral responsibility Economic rights

Natural order Market order

« Middle way » economics Laissez-faire economics

Qualified welfarism Anti-welfarism

Liberal New Right Conservative New Right

Classic liberalism Traditional conservatism

Atomism Organicism

Radicalism Traditionalism

Libertarianism Authoritarian

Economic dynamism Social order

Self-interest / Entreprise Traditional values

Equality of opportunity Natural hierarchy

Minimal state Strong state

Internationalisation Insular nationalism

Pro-globalization Anti-globalization
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Tension within Socialism !
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Social democracy Communism

Ethical socialism Scientific socialism

Revisionism Fundamentalism

Reformism Utopianism

Evolution / Gradualism Revolution

« Humanize » capitalism Abolish capitalism

Redistribution Common ownership

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Social democracy Communism

Ameliorate class conflict Classless society

Relative equality Absolute equality

Mixed economy State collectivisation

Economic management Central planning

Parliamentary party Vanguard party

Political pluralism Dictatorship of proletariat

Liberal-democratic state Proletarian / People’s state

Third Way Social Democracy

Pragmatic Ideological

Globalization Nation-state

Information society Industrial society

Community Class politics

Market economy Mixed economy

Full employability Full employment

Equality of oppotunity Equality of outcome

Meritocracy Concern the underdog

Opportunity for all Social justice

Promote inclusion Eradicate poverty

Rights and responsabilities Social rights

Welfare-to-work Cradle-to-grave welfare

Competition / Market state Social-reformist state

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Tension within Nationalism!
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Civic nationalism Ethnocultural nationalism

Political nation Cultural / Historial nation

Inclusive Exclusive

Universalism Particularism

Equal nations Unique nations

Rational / Principled Mystical / Emotional

National sovereignty National « spirit »

Voluntaristic Organic

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Civic nationalism Ethnocultural nationalism

Based on citizenship Based on descent

Civic loyalty Ethnic allegiance

Cultural diversity Cultural unity

Liberal nationalism Expansionist nationalism

National self-determination National chauvinism

Inclusive Exclusive

Voluntaristic Organic

Progressive Reactionary

Rational / Principled Emotional / Instictive

Human Rights National interest

Equal nations Hierarchy of nations

Constitutionalism Authoritarianism

Ethnic / Cultural pluralism Ethnic / Cultural purity

Cosmopolitanism Imperialism / Militarism

Collective security Power politics

Supranationalism International anarchy

!
Tensions within Anarchism!
!
Individualist anarchism Collectivist anarchism

Ultra-liberalism Ultra-socialism

Extreme individualism Extreme collectivism

Sovereign individual Common humanity

Civil disobedience Social revolution

Atomism Class politics

Egoism Cooperation / Mutualism

Contractual obligation Social duty

Market mechanism Communal organization

Private property Common ownership

Anarcho-capitalism Anarcho-communism
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Tensions within Fascism!

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Fascism Nazism

State worship State as vessel

Chauvinist nationalism Extreme racialism

Voluntarism Essentialism

National greatness Biological superiority

Organic unity Racial purity / Eugenics

Pragmatic anti-Semitism Genocidal anti-Semitism

Futurism / Modernism Peasant ideology

Corporatism War economy

Colonial expansion World domination

!
Tensions within Feminism!
!
Egalitarian feminism Difference feminism

Androgyny Essentialism

Personhood Sisterhood

Human rights Women’s rights

Gender equality Sexual liberation

Reduce difference Celebrate difference

Sex / Gender divide Sex equals gender

Transcend biology Embrace biology

Pro-human Pro-woman

Men are redeemable Men are « the problem »

Engagement with men Feminist separatism

Radical feminism Liberal feminism

Women’s liberation Female emancipation

Patriarchy Gender inequalities

Sisterhood Individualism

The personal is political Conventional politics

Transform private realm Public / Private divide

Gender equality Access to public realm

Sexual politics Equal rights / Opportunities

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Radical feminism Liberal feminism

Revolutionary change Reform / Gradualism

Consciousness raising Political activism

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Tension within Ecologism!
!
« Deep » ecologism « Shallow » ecologism

Ecologism Environmentalism

Ecocentrism « Light » anthropocentrism

Mysticism Science

Nature Humankind

Radical holism Reluctant holism

Value-in-nature Instrumental value

Biocentric equality Conserce non-human nature

Animal rights Animal welfare

Anti-growth Sustainable growth

Ecological consciousness Personal development

!
CONCEPTS!
!
! Authoritarianism!
Authoritarianism is belief in or the practice of government « from above », in which authority is
exercised over a population with or without its consent. Authoritarianism thus differs from authority.
The latter rest on legitimacy, and in that sense arise « from below ». Authoritarianism thinkers
typically base their views on either a belief in the wisdom of established leaders or the idea that
social order can only be maintained by unquestioning obedience. However, authoritarianism is
usually distinguished from totalitarianism. The practice of government « from above », which is
associated with monarchial absolutism, traditional dictatorships and most forms of military rule, is
concerned with the repression of opposition and political liberty, rather than the more radical goal
of obliterating the distinction between the sate and the civil society. !
!
! Fundamentalism!
Fundamentalism is a style of thought in which certain principles are recognized as essential
« truths » that have unchallengeable and overriding authority, regardless of their content.
Substantive fundamentalisms therefore have little or nothing in common, except that their
supporters tend to evince an earnestness or fervor born out of doctrinal certainty. Although it is
usually associated with religion and the literal truth of sacred texts, it can also be found in political
creeds. Even liberal skepticism can be said to incorporate the fundamental belief that all theories
should be doubted (apart from its own). Although the term is often used pejoratively to imply
inflexibility, dogmatism and authoritarianism, fundamentalism may also give expression to
selflessness and a devotion to principle.!
!
! Individualism!
Individualism is the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group of
collective body. In the form of methodological individualism, this suggest that the individual is
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central to any political theory or social explanation - all statements about society should be made in
term of the individuals who compose it. Ethical individualism, on the other hand, implies that
society should be constructed so as to benefit to that individual, giving moral priority to individual
rights, needs or interests. Classical liberals and the new right subscribes to egoistical individualism,
which place emphasis on self-interestedness and self-reliance. Modern liberals, in contrast, have
advanced a developmental form of individualism that prioritize human flourishing over the quest for
interest satisfaction. !
!
! Libertarianism!
Libertarianism refers to a range of theories that give strict priority to liberty (understood in negative
terms) over other values, such as authority, tradition and equality. Libertarians thus seek to
maximise the realm of individual freedom and minimize the scope of public authority, typically
seeing the state as the principal threat to liberty. The two best-known libertarian traditions are
rooted in the idea of individual rights and in laissez-faire economic doctrine, although socialists
have also embraced libertarianism. It’s sometimes distinguished from liberalism on the ground that
the latter, event in it’s classical form, refuses to give priority to liberty over order. How ever, it differs
from anarchism in that libertarians generally recognize the need for a minimal or nightwatchman
state, sometimes styling themselves as « monarchists ».!
!
! Pluralism!
Pluralism, in its broadest sense, is a belief in or commitment to diversity or multiplicity, the
existence of many things. As a descriptive term, pluralism may denote the existence of party
competition (political pluralism), a multiplicity of ethical values (moral or values pluralism), a variety
of cultural beliefs (cultural pluralism) and so on. As a normative term it suggests that diversity is
healthy and desirable, usually because it safeguards individual liberty and promotes debate,
argument and understanding. More narrowly, pluralism is a theory of the distribution of political
power. As such it holds that power is widely and evenly dispersed in society, not concentrated in
the hands of an elite or a ruling class. In this form pluralism is usually seen as a theory of « group
politics », implying that group access to government ensures broad democratic responsiveness. !
!
! Populism!
Populism (from the Latin populus, meaning « the people ») has been used to describe both
distinctive political movements and a particular tradition of political thought. Movements or parties
described as populist have been characterized by their claim to support the common people in the
face of « corrupt » economic or political elites. As a political tradition, populism reflects the belief
that the instincts and wishes of the people provide the principal legitimate guide to political action.
Populist politicians therefore make a direct appeal to the people and claim to give expression to
their deepest hopes and fears, all intermediary institutions being distrusted. Although populism may
be linked to any cause or ideology, it is often seen as implicitly authoritarian, « populist »
democracy being the enemy of ‘pluralist » democracy. !
!
! Pragmatism!
Pragmatism refers generally to a concern with practical circumstances rather than theoretical
beliefs, with what can be achieved in the real world, as opposed to what should be achieved in an
ideal world. As a philosophical doctrine (most commonly associated to William James (1842-1910)
and John Dewey (1859-1952)), pragmatism holds that the meaning and justification of beliefs
should be judged by their practical consequences. Though by definition a pragmatic style of politics
is non-ideological, it does not amount to unprincipled opportunism. Pragmatism suggests a
cautious attitude towards change that reject sweeping reforms and revolution as a descent into the
unknown, and prefers instead incremental adjustments and, perhaps, evolutionary progress. !
!
! Rationalism!
Rationalism is the belief that the world has a rational structure, and that this can be disclosed
through the exercise of human reason and critical enquiry. As a philosophical theory, rationalism is
the belief that knowledge flows from reason rather than experience, and thus contrast with
empiricism. As a general principle, however, rationalism places a heavy emphasis on the capacity
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of human beings to understand and explain their world, and to find solutions to problems. While
rationalism does not dictate the ends of human conduct, it certainly suggest how these ends
should be pursued. It is associated with an emphasis on principle and reason-governed behavior,
as opposed to reliance on custom or tradition, or non-rational drives and impulses.!
!
! Totalitarianism!
Totalitarianism is an all-encompassing system of political rule that is typically established by
pervasive ideological manipulation and open terror and brutality. It differs from autocracy,
authoritarianism and traditional dictatorship in that it seeks « total power » through the politicization
of every aspect of social and personal existence. Totalitarianism thus implies the outright abolition
of civil society: the abolition of « the private ». Fascism and communism have sometimes been
seen as left-wing and right-wing forms of totalitarianism, based upon their rejection of toleration,
pluralism and the open society. However, radical thinkers such as Marcuse have claimed that
liberal democracies also exhibit totalitarian features. !
!
! Utilitarianism!
Utilitarianism is a moral philosophy that was developed by Bentham. It equates « good » with
pleasure or happiness, and « evil » with pain or unhappiness. Individuals are therefore assumed to
act so as yo maximise pleasure and minimize pain, these being calculated in term of utility or use-
value, usually seen as satisfaction derived from material consumption. The « greatest happiness »
principle can be used to evaluate laws, institutions and even political systems. Act utilitarianism
judges an act to be right it it produces at least as much pleasure-over-pain as any other act. Rule
utilitarianism judges an act to be right if it conforms to a rule which, if generally followed, produces
good consequences. !

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