SEMESTER – III

B.Sc Nautical Science - 2023

Cargo Handling and Stowage – I
Syllabus

UNIT-V

CONTAINERS

1. Parts of a container Features of a container

2. Types of container

3. Segregation and care of container carrying dangerous goods

4. Reefer containers and out-of-gauge(OOG) cargoes.

5. Stowage and securing gear of containers viz. container shoes, stacking

cones, interlayer stackers, twist locks, bottle screws and turnbuckles.

REFRIGERATED CARGO

1. Cooled, chilled and frozen cargoes with examples.

2. Preparation of holds

3. Dunnaging requirements

4. Inspections of the cargo

5. Use of brine traps

6. Purpose of temperature recording

 1. Container Ships
Container ships (sometimes spelled containerships) are cargo ships that carry all of
their load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called
containerization. They are a common means of commercial intermodal freight
transport and now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo.

As the name suggests, a vessel structured specifically to hold huge quantities of

cargo compacted in different types of containers is referred to as a container vessel
(ship).

What is the main function of container ship?

Twenty-Foott Equivalent Units

Forty-Foot Equivalent Units

Container ships carry most of the world's manufactured goods and products,
usually on scheduled liner services. Container ships transport a combination of two
standardized container sizes known as 20- or 40-Feet Equivalent Units, abbreviated
to TEUs and FEUs.

Types of Container Ships On Basis Of Sizes:

• Small feeder -

• Feeder -

• Feedermax -

• Panamax - Panamax is the term given to ships specifically designed to

travel through the original dimensions of the Panama Canal and the smallest
of its locks. The width of those locks is 110 feet, the length 1,050 feet and
the draft in tropical freshwater of 41.2 feet.

• Suezmax - The largest ships that can transit the Suez Canal, these tankers
are some 275 metres (900 feet) long and have a capacity of 120,000 to
200,000 dwt. They carry about 800,000 to more than 1,000,000 barrels.
 • Post-Panamax - Post-Panamax or over-Panamax denote ships larger than
Panamax that do not fit in the original canal locks, such as supertankers and
the largest modern container and passenger ships.

• Post-Suezmax - These are Ultra-large container vessels with a carrying

capacity of 18000 TEU with a breadth of 60m 21m max draught. These
vessels are known as Post Suezmax as their dimensions are too big for the
vessel to pass the Suez canal.

• Post-Malaccamax - “Malaccamax” is a ship classification based on the size

of the ship. Malaccamax vessels are broadly categorised as VLCCs (Very
Large Crude Carriers), these vessels bear the name ‘Malaccamax’ denoting
the specific purpose of their construction and extensive areas of operation.
As per these limitations, only vessels with a maximum draft of about 25
metres are allowed passage through the maritime channel.

Length of around 470 metres with a beam of about 60 metres

Operational draft of about 20 metres with a TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent
Unit) capacitance of about 18,000
Operational speeds touching up to 24 knots
• Refrigerated Container Ships: These Vessels carry refrigerated cargo
(mainly in refrigerated containers)

2. ISO Container Types

What are the types of Containers?

There are several types of containers in everyday use. They all have the same
frame, and the differences relate to what they can use and access.

The exterior dimensions of all containers conforming to ISO standards are 20 feet
long x 8 feet wide x 8 feet 6 inches high or 9 feet 6 inches high for high cube
containers.

Some of the most commonly used types are:

Ventilated Container - 20'

Ventilated containers are used for cargoes that require ventilation in transit, such as
green coffee beans, hence the units are often referred to as coffee containers.

The ventilation galleries along the top and bottom side rails are designed to prevent
the ingress of water, and thus the units can also be used for general cargo.

Bulk Container - 20'

The dry bulk container resembles a general-purpose container with loading hatches
in the roof, doors at one end, and a discharge hatch either in the end wall or in the
doors. It may be used for dry bulk cargoes and general cargo. Bulk cargo needs a
container is placed on a tipping trailer.

Bulk Shipping containers can hold free-flowing dry cargo such as cement, grains,
and ores. It is loaded from the top and discharged from the bottom.
Tank Container - 20'

Tank containers are used for the carriage of a wide variety of bulk liquids ranging
from edible products, e.g., fruit juice, wine, and spirits, to hazardous and non-
hazardous commodities including liquefied gases. They may be heated or
refrigerated.

Most tanks are owned/operated by shippers and or specialist tank operators and are
carried as shipper- owned equipment. Some carriers provide tanks for specific
trades, e.g., Scotch whiskey, rum.
Some hazardous materials must be transported in tank containers with no in- or
outlet openings below the surface of the liquid. Steel skeletal framework within
which the tank is housed.

Dry Freight Container - 20' and 40'

General purpose container : The workhorse of the container trades, the dry
container is used for those cargoes described as "general", i.e. any commodity that
does not need specialised equipment. Standard dry freight shipping containers are
used for multiple purposes ranging from international trade to domestic on-site
storage.

High Cube Container - 40' and 45' 9'6" High

For over height and voluminous cargo :High-cube containers are similar in
structure to standard containers, but taller. In contrast to standard containers, which
have a maximum height of 2591 mm (8'6"), high-cube containers are 2896 mm, or
9'6", tall. High-cube containers are for the most part 40' long, but are sometimes
made as 45' containers.
Open top container - 20' and 40'

It is a unit without a fixed roof but with portable roof supports and tilt or cover for
protection from the weather. Typically used for weighty cargo, cargo that can only
be loaded with an overhead crane or for over-height pieces.

The walls of open-top containers are generally made of corrugated steel. The floor
is made of wood.

Flat Rack Container - 20' and 40'

A flatrack is a container without side walls but with collapsible end walls or corner
posts. Commonly used for large and or heavy pieces of cargo that can be loaded
"in gauge" (i.e., within the dimensions of the unit) and can thus be handled as a
standard unit and incorporated within container stacks ashore and in cellular holds.
Extensively used for over width and heavy cargo. The container frame can be
folded flat for ease of transportation when empty.

The structure must have equivalent strength to a dry van box.

Platform Container - 20' and 40'

A platform is the floor of a container with container fittings at each corner but
without corner posts.

A platform can only be lifted with a spreader by fitting custom-made wires or

chains between the spreader twist locks and the platform twist-lock pockets.
Another unit cannot be stowed above a platform. Thus they are only suitable for
top stowage.

Insulated Container - 20' and 40'

For additional insulation of sensitive cargo
This type of container is often referred to not as a refrigerated container but as an
insulated container, as it has no integral refrigeration unit.

The lack of a refrigeration unit allows such containers to have a larger internal
volume and payload than integral units.

Onboard, the inside of the container is supplied with cold air via the ship's central
cooling plant.

The air flows through the container in the same way as in integral units.

Cold air is blown in at the bottom, and the "warm" air is removed at the top.

Reefer Container - 20' and 40'

The majority of refrigerated containers in use are those with an integral

refrigeration unit that plugs into the ship's electrical power supply.

When in a terminal the container is plugged into the shore power supply.

Refrigerated containers are used for the carriage of foodstuffs ranging from chilled
fruit and chocolate to deep frozen meat and fish.

Additionally, they are used to carry certain pharmaceutic als and hazardous
cargoes that require temperature control.
High Cube Reefer Container - 40' and 45' 9'6" High

For over height and voluminous cargo requiring cooling or freezing

Dry Van Boxes

The most common type

They have corrugated steel walls, timber base, steel or glass-reinforced plastic
(GRP) top.
Corrugated walls can be made from a plate from as little as 1.6mm (1/16 inch) in
thickness.
Their frame consists of side and end rails and corner pillars, fitted with corner
castings.
The closed-end is approximately 4.5 times stiffer, in racking strength than the door
end.
 ISO Container Sizes
Containers are standardized cargo units. They are manufactured in a large variety
of sizes and types, each designed to meet specific cargo and transportation
requirements.

Their length is usually 20 or 40 feet, although longer containers are used,

principally in the US trade; these containers are 45, 48, and 53 feet long.

Their width is always 8 feet, although their height can vary.

The term High cube container usually refers to a standard-sized container with a
height of 9 feet 6 inches.

Container heights can be 8 feet, 8 feet 6 inches, 9 feet 6 inches, or 10 feet 6 inches.

Containers are referred to by the acronym TEUs – 20 Foot Equivalent Units,

or 40 Foot Equivalent Units (FEUs).

The ISO standard for containers defines dimensions, both internal and external,
and load ratings.
 The Carriage of Containes
Definition
A freight container is an article of transport equipment having the following
Characteristics:-

1. It is permantent character and strong enough for repeated use

2. It designed to fecilitate the transport of goods by more than one mode of

transport viz. Road, Rail and Sea, without intermediate unloading and reloading

3. It is fitted with devices permittting easy handling especially when transferring

from one mode of transport to another mode of transport

4. It is designed to be easy to fill and empty

5. It has an internal volume of 1 m3 or more

A general purose container is a freight container of rectangular shape which is
weather proof and used for transporting and strong a number of unit loads,
packages or bulk material.

It confines and protects the contents from loss or damage and can be separated
from the means of transport, handled as a unt load and transshipped without
rehandling the contents.

What are the features of Containers?

The dimensions of containers have been stanardized by the International

Organization for Standardization (ISO - International Standard Organization). ISO
recommended dimensions are as follows:-

Length:

40 feet - 12,192 mm designated as group A

30 feet - 9,125 mm designated as group B

20 feet - 6,058 mm designated as group C

10 feet - 2,991 mm designated as group D

Height:

8 feet - 2,438 mm

8' 6'' - 2591 mm designated as groups AA/BB/CC for 40'/30'20'

respectively

Width:

8 feet - 2,438 mm
The width of all containers is standardized at 8' ao that containers can be stacked
and secured over each other in tiers.

ISO has also prescribed regulations for construction andtesting of containers.

The length of 20' and 40' containers permits two 20' containers to be stowed in the
same space as a40' one using the same location devices. with a gap of 76mm
between them. The dimension stated in ISO specifications are maximum and
overall.

ISO specifications are only recommended and it is not unusual to fnd owners and
operators of containers having containers of varying length such as

Matson - 24 feet

Sealand - 35 feet

and others with length of 43', 45', 48' 49' and 53'.

These containers may have heights of 9' or 9' 6".

The width of containers above 48' may have 8'6"

The Maximum Gross weights have alsobeen specified by ISO:-

40' - 30,480 kgs

30' - 25,400 kgs

20' - 20,320 kgs (24,000 kgs if the container has a reinforced construction)

10' - 10,160 kgs

The Tare weight of a box is around,

2000 kgs for a 20 feet container

3500 kgs for a 40 feet container

The above weight may vary by around 10% depending on the construction of the
container and moredepending on the material of the containers made up of Steel,
Aluminium or Fibreglass and if the box has refrigeration machinery, cooling pipes,
insulation etc.

The 20' containers are mor suitable for high weight cargoes and 40' containers are
better for high volume cargoes.

Parts of the Container

The strength of a container lies mainly in the four vertical corner posts which
separate the horizontal base frame and roofframe.

In these frames, the roof railsand bottom side rails are the outer most longitudinal
strength members which bear the bending moments that the container is subjected
to.

In a collapsble container, these components can be easily folded or deassembled so

as to occupy less space when repositoned as empties.

The following are the main parts of and marking on a container:-

1. Corner Posts and Corner fittings

Container Ships with cell guides

There are different categories of container ships, based on different ways in which
they can be categorised. The most widely operating types are as follows:

Based on overall sizing-

• Based on volumetric capacity (In older days, container ships were sized
based on their volume)

• Based on TEU (This is the modern day sizing parameter of a container ship.
The TEU of a container ship is the number of twenty foot equivalent
containers that can be carried by the ship.)
Based on Length, Beam, Depth, and Tonnage-

• Panamax

• Post- Panamax

• Suezmax

• Post- Suezmax

• Malacamax

Diagram of container
Parts of Containers

Markings of Container
 Container operation by gantry
The modern container shipping industry is booming because of the provision for
faster voyages and less port stays.

The major factor for this “quick work” is the introduction of the new types of
gantry cranes in the market which is quicker and more reliable.

This provides a great turnaround time for cargo operation at ports.

A container gantry crane is the biggest crane which is used in the operation sector
of the shipping industry. It is designed for loading and unloading the container
cargo from a container vessel.
The crane is operated by a specially trained crane operator from within the cabin
located on the top end of the crane and suspended from the trolley.

It is the operator who lifts the container from the ship or dock for unloading or
loading of cargo.

It is very important for both the ship and the shore staff (gantry operator,
stevedores and foremen) to be alert and to maintain proper communication
between them to avoid any accidents.

Basic Construction of Container Gantry Crane

Supporting Frame: The supporting frame is the giant structure of the crane which
holds the boom and the spreader. For transverse movement of the crane in the jetty,
frames can be rail mounted or moved by rubber tyres only.

Transverse operator cabin: It is incorporated in the bottom of the support frame,

in which, a crane operator, for transverse movement of the crane in the yard, will
sit and operate.
Boom: The boom of the gantry crane is hinged at the water side, so that it can be
moved up and down as per the requirement of the cargo operation or navigation.
For smaller gantry, where there is a fly zone located near the port, low profile
booms are used which are pulled towards the gantry when off operation.

Spreader: Spreader is attached with the operator’s cabin on the rail structure and
in the boom so that it can also move transversely on the boom for lifting cargo. The
spreader itself can open and close depending upon the size and the number of
containers to be lifted. The modern built spreader can lift up to 4 containers
together.

Gantry operator cabin: Located at the top of the supporting frame, the cabin is 80
% transparent so that the operator can get a clear view of the loading and unloading
operation.

How does a container gantry crane work?

The Basic Operation of Container Gantry Cranes

Unloading:

– For the loading operation, the stevedores remove the container lashing and the
twist locks. Then as per the cargo plan, the selected container is discharged by a
gantry crane.

– The spreader is lowered on top of the container, and it locks the four corners
(corner castings) by a twist lock mechanism.

– Now the operator lifts the container and uses the transverse motion of the
spreader to remove the container from the ship and load it over the truck in the
shore platform.

– The gantry operator can lift up to 4 containers at a time, depending upon the
type of gantry and size of containers.

Loading:

– The loading of the container is done one by one as per the cargo plan, keeping
the ship stability in mind.

– Normally truck and trailers bring the containers from the storage point to the
gantry and spreader picks the container and loads it on the ship.

– Only one container is grabbed by the gantry crane for loading purpose as more
precision is require to load the container, and aligning the hold guide and other
containers.

The lifting capacity of gantry cranes may differ for different manufactures and this
depends upon the size of the crane. The safe load lifting capacity is displayed
clearly in the gantry structure.

The power source for gantry crane is from the shore electrical power supply or
from diesel generator attached to the framework. Normally A.C shore power
supply is used which may vary from 4000 to 13500 volts.
There are two common types of container handling gantry crane:

High profile, where the boom is hinged at the waterside of the crane structure and
lifted in the air to clear the ships for navigation, and

Low profile, where the boom is shuttled toward and over the ship to allow the
trolley to load and discharge
Container Ships with cell guides

Containers are commonly stowed below deck and sometimes on deck within fixed
vertical cell guides, which guide them into place and ensure that they do not move
during the voyage.

- Rolled container guides

- Special T-shape profiles used as slim container guides.

What is the purpose of the cell guides?
MacGregor deck and hold cell guides improve stack weights, container-carrying
capacity and handling and the overall efficiency of a cargo handling system.
Bay Plan of the Container Ship's loading

The Bay Plan is a numbering system that gives a cross-sectional view of the
arrangement of containers on a vessel above and below the deck.

It consists of 6 digits. The first two digits indicate the bay, the middle two indicates
the row and the last two represents the tier.
 3. SEGREGATION AND SEPARATION OF CONTAINER CARGOES

Segregation
Certain cargo may contaminate due to the presence of other cargoes in the vicinity
and therefore need to be segregated either by means of proper dunnaging or by
loading in a separate compartment.

Contamination of cargo means degradation of the quality of cargo carried. Once

the cargo has been loaded on board it becomes the responsibility of the ship's staff
to maintain the quality and quantity of cargo. If these two are not maintained the
cargo may not be accepted and claim on ship owners for the loss or damage to the
cargo.

Some cargoes may be affected due to strong smells of other cargoes and should be
loaded well away of such cargoes. Other cargoes contain pungent smell and may
affect other cargoes. Deodorizing of the compartment becomes necessary if such
cargoes have been loaded in them previously.
Dirty Cargoes are those that give stains, strong smells, fumes or dust e.g. oils,
paints and animal products.

Clean Cargoes are those that do not give stains, smell or dusts e.g. finished
products of timber, steel, etc.

Separation
Separation may be required for the different grades of cargo or different parcels of
the same cargo.

Method of separation depends on the type of cargo e.g.

Bales are separated by rope yarns;

Steel rails are separated by marking them with paint or wire strands;

Boxes and bagged cargo are separated with the help of burlap;

Colour coding of bags is done to separate same cargo for different ports.

Precautions for Segregation and Separation

 Dirty cargoes should be segregated from clean cargoes.

 Odorous cargoes should be separated from sensitive cargoes.
 Light and fragile cargoes should not be loaded along with heavy cargoes.
 Dangerous cargoes have their own segregation table and should be stowed
strictly as per the IMO guidelines.
 Block stowage should be given to same type of cargo carried for two
different ports to avoid over-carriage.
 Markings, separation nets or other means of identifying the cargoes for
different ports should be used in the cargo holds and reflected on the cargo
plan.
  Detailed information should be obtained from various publications for
segregation and separation to avoid any damage to cargo.

Certain cargoes may get contaminated due to the presence of other cargoes in the
vicinity and therefore need to be segregated either by means of proper dunnaging
or by loading in a separate compartment.

Whatis Contamination of Cargo?

Contamination of cargo means degradation of the quality of cargo carried. Once

the cargo has been loaded on board it becomes the responsibility of the ship’s staff
to maintain the quality and quantity of cargo. If these two are not maintained the
cargo may not be accepted and claim on ship owners for the loss or damage to the
cargo.

Some cargoes may be affected due to strong smells of other cargoes and should be
loaded well away of such cargoes.

Other cargoes contain pungent smell and may affect other cargoes.

Deodorizing of the compartment becomes necessary if such cargoes have been

loaded in them previously.

What is Dirty Cargo?

Dirty Cargoes are those that give stains, strong smells, fumes or dust e.g. oils,
paints and animal products.

What is Clean Cargo?

Clean Cargoes are those that do not give stains, smell or dusts e.g. finished
products of timber, steel, etc.
 4. Reefer containers

What is Reefer Container?

A refrigerated container or reefer is an intermodal container (shipping container)

used in intermodal freight transport that is capable of refrigeration for the
transportation of temperature-sensitive, perishable cargo such as fruits,
vegetables, meat, dairy Products and other similar items.

What are the types of reefer containers?

There are three main types of reefer containers in use:

 Type 1 – Closed Reefer. The closed reefer is the most common type of
reefer.
 Type 2 – Modified/Controlled Atmosphere (MA/CA) .
  Type 3 – Automatic Fresh Air Management Containers (AFAM)
 Temperature.
 Humidity, ventilation, and atmosphere.

What are the different types of reefer container?

Three main types of reefer containers are in use:

 Closed Reefer. The closed reefer is the conventional model used most often.
 Modified/Controlled Atmosphere (MA/CA) These more advanced container
units are distinguished by enhanced insulation.
 Automatic Fresh Air Management Containers (AFAM)

What is Out-of-gauge(OOG) cargoes.

The list of OOG cargo is long. Some examples are very large automobiles such as
luxury coaches, automobile trailers, aircraft parts, parts of wind turbines,
construction machinery, abnormally large parts of machinery used in electricity
generation, etc.
What is out of gauge shipment?

Out of Gauge (OOG) cargo means loads that cannot be shipped in a standard six
wall transport container. This term loosely classifies all kinds of freight, which
dimensions exceed maximum dimensions of a 40' HC container.

What is out of gauge cargo container?

Cargo that cannot be loaded on a dry container due to its dimensions (height,
width, and length) or weight is called Out Of Gauge (OOG) cargo. This type of
cargo is transported on a open top container or flat rack container.

What is an example of OOG?

OOG cargo can be large automobiles such as luxury buses, car trailers, special
works of art or mining equipment. Other examples of OOG cargo are construction
machinery, aircraft parts, wind turbines and machinery for power generation.
 5. Stowage and securing gear of containers viz. container shoes,
stacking cones, interlayer stackers, twist locks, bottle screws
and turnbuckles.

What is the Stowage and Securing Gear?

The proper stowage and securing of the cargo is the basis for ensuring that the
vessel is maintained in a safe condition, the prevention of accidents, the prevention
of damage to the cargo.
What is the difference between stowage and securing?

The stowage consists of the proper placement and distribution of the goods in a
cargo transport unit or CTU (transport container, truck box, etc.), while the
fastening or securing is the set of techniques designed to avoid movement of said
goods during transport.
What are the securing gears for container in a container ship?

Containership cargo securing devices consist of portable securing devices and

fixed securing devices. Fixed fittings are Stacking cones, foundations, deck
foundations, lashing plates, lashing eyes, lashing pots, d-rings.
What is Container Shoe?

When a container is loaded underdeck, it is fitted with “TWIST STACKERS “ that

fit in all four corner casting shoes of the container and then loaded underdeck. This
locks one container to another and prevents it from moving at sea.

What is stacking cones?

Single stacking cone for container

The cone has one upper and one lower corner. Designed to keep adjacent
containers from horizontal displacement. They are used on container ships, adapted
shipping vessels and modular buildings.

What is the purpose of fixed stacking cones on a container vessel?

Stacking Cones and Twistlocks align containers on a vessel and prevent them from
falling off the ship. Stacking Cones are mainly used in the hold of the cargo ship,
where the Twistlocks are mainly used on the deck.

What is Interlayer stackers?

Shipping container interlocks or stackers are used to fix and lock containers
together in a stack. This stops them falling off the container vessels when they are
at sea. These heavy duty interlocks are the same type used at many ports and on
container boats around the world.
What is container stacking?

This involves stacking containers on top of each other in dense blocks using
handling equipment like straddle carriers and gantry cranes. Stacking containers in
multiple tiers often leads to reshuffling, the removal of a container stacked on top
of a desired container.

What is twist locks?

Twistlocks are generally used to fasten multiple containers as a stack together and
to secure them to the deck of the vessel. They come in various types with all their
own unique properties and we have them all in stock. Supply can be provided
directly to the vessel at any preferred port or destination in the world.

What is bottle screws?

Bottle screws are largely used for setting up the shrouds of sailing vessels and the
guardrails and davit guys fitted in ships. A large bottle screw is also used in a cable
stopper called a screw slip.
What is turn buckles?
Container turnbuckles are used in combination with lashing bars to secure
containers above deck on a container ship or barge. The jaw end of the turnbuckle
is secured to a d ring or lashing plate which is welded to the ships deck.
 REFRIGERATED CARGO

1. Cooled, chilled and frozen cargoes with examples.

2. Preparation of holds

3. Dunnaging requirements

4. Inspections of the cargo

5. Use of brine traps

6. Purpose of temperature recording

 1. Cooled, chilled and frozen cargoes with examples.

What is Reefer or Refrigerated Ship?

The term 'reefer' is used in shipping to refer to refrigerated ships and refrigerated
shipping containers that transport perishable commodities by sea. Temperature-
controlled transportation is used for perishables such as fruit, meat, fish,
vegetables, and dairy products.

What is the use of refrigerator ship?

Reefer ships are mainly used to transport spoilable goods. In today's times
refrigerated carriers play a very vital role in transporting food products that are
necessary for daily use but face the threat of perishing very fast.

What are the Refrigerated Cargoes?

Refrigerated cargoes include meat carcasses, carton (packed) meat, fruit, cheese,
butter, fish and offal.

Ships are specifically designed for their carriage, with separate spaces in holds and
'tween decks, each fitted with suitable insulation and individual control of
ventilation.

What are the types of reefer cargo?

Refrigerated cargo is divided into 3 categories:

 Frozen cargoes.
 Chilled cargoes.
 Cooled cargoes.

What is the difference between Frozen Cargo, Chilled Cargo and Air Cooled
Cargo?

Frozen Cargo:

Frozen goods.

The frozen goods include ice cream, frozen seafood, meat, poultry, and more.

These cargoes are carried in a hard frozen state at a temperatures around -8oC to -
12 oC to prevent the growth of bacteria. E.g. meat, butter, poultry, and fish.

Chilled Cargo:

Chilled goods. The chilled goods include vegetables, seafood, dairy, eggs, and
more

These cargoes are carried at the temp. -2 oC to 6 oC. Maintaining the right temp. is
more critical with chilled cargoes than with frozen cargoes as condensation of
moisture due to variation of temp. encourages bacterial growth. e.g. cheese,eggs
and fresh vegetables.

Cooled Cargo reefer ship

The cooled cargo has well insulated holds which are cooled by brine (salted
water) which is cooled by the ship's refrigeration equipment and pumped through
pipes situated in the holds. It has small hatches through which the packaged cargo
is loaded.

What is Cooled Cargo?

Temperatures maintained around 2°C to 13°C by air circulation. The temperature
at which the above cargoes are carried may vary beyond the above mentioned
limits depending on. the nature of the cargo, the ambient temperature at the load
port, the duration of the voyage.

These cargoes are carried at a temp. from 2 oC to 12 oC. e.g. fruits

What is a frozen cargo?

Frozen Cargo

This is cargo that has been deep frozen prior to loading and should be at a
temperature of 18°C or lower with the task of the ship to maintain the deep frozen
condition. In some instances there are legal requirements to carry particular
commodities at a temperature below a certain value .

What are the example of frozen cargoes?

Frozen Cargo: Needs temperature setting less than 0-degree Centigrade. Frozen
fish, meat, etc. are examples of such categories.

What is the temperature of air cooled cargo?

Air Cooled Cargoes:

These cargoes are carried at a temperature from +20 to 120C. Generally these types
of cargoes are fruits. Rapid deterioration if proper temperatures are not maintained
during loading, voyage and discharging. Susceptible to tainting and moisture
contact damage.
 2. Preparation of holds

Preparations to be carried out prior to Loading Refrigerated Cargoes:

 Reefer cargo should be loaded onboard only under the supervision of a

recognized surveyor.
 Cargo should not be allowed to wait for long time on the quay.
 Hold should be pre-cooled to temp below the carriage temp.
 Damp, wet and torn packages should be inspected if the cargo has
deteriorated. If the cargo is fine then only it should be loaded after re-
packing.
 Contents of at least 5-10% cartons should be examined from each hold on a
random basis.
 Cartons with soft or dripping contents should be rejected.
 Refrigeration of holds should be turned on during long breaks and during
meal breaks.
 Once loaded, the cargo should be covered with tarpaulin.
 During operations, the frost formed on top of the bripe pipes should be
brushed carefully. It should not fall on top of the cargo.
 In tropical climates avoid loading in the noon. Try to load cargo during night
time.
 Upon completion of loading, the reefer chamber must be closed air tight and
cooling resumed immediately.

Loading precautions

Absolute cleanliness is required during the loading of refrigerated cargo, and the
following points should be observed:
1. The compartment should be cleaned of all debris and previous cargo.
2. The deck should be scrubbed and the bulkheads and deck wiped with a light
disinfectant.
3. All bilges must be cleaned and bilge suctions tested.
4. ’Tween deck scuppers must be tested, together with all ‘U’ brine traps.
5. Bilge plugs should be inspected and sealed. Cover plug over bilge suction
may be left off for the purpose of survey.
6. Fans must be checked for direction of air flow.
7. All odours must be cleared from the compartment.
8. All outside ventilation must be shut down.
 9. Pre-cooling of the compartment must take place before the cargo is received,
times being noted in the cargo log or deck log book.
10.Before loading, the compartment should be surveyed.The surveyors’
comments together with the opening temperature of the chamber should be
recorded in the mate’s deck log book.

Any dunnage required for the cargo should be of a similar standard of cleanliness
as that of the compartment.All slings, chains etc. should also be clean and pre-
cooled in advance of cargo reception.

Principle & Working of different types of Refrigerated Cargo:-

1. Closed Reefer: This is a conventional type refrigerated container. It comes in

one-piece with integral front wall and an all-electric automatic cooling and heating
unit for ISO sea-going Containers.

2. Modified/ Controlled Atmosphere (MA/CA) reefer containers: These type of

insulated shipping containers maintain a constant atmosphere by replacing
consumed oxygen using an air exchange system, keeping an ideal atmosphere in
equilibrium with the product’s deterioration rate.

3. Automatic Fresh Air Management Containers: Popularly known by its

acronym – AFAM reefer containers uses advanced technology to regulate the air
combination by automatically adjusting the scale of fresh air exchange. It works
similar to Controlled Atmosphere refrigerated container, controlling the
composition of oxygen, carbon dioxide and others. The controls of the AFAM
refrigerated containers can be adjusted to influence and extend the shelf lives of the
cargo they carry.

3. Dunnaging requirements

What is Dunnage?

Dunnage is the durable padding material used to protect goods during shipping.
Dunnage can be anything from bubble wrap and packing peanuts, to industrial
solid plastics that provide cushioning so items stay put. Of course, dunnage will do
its job best when accompanied by the appropriate box or poly bag.
Dunnage is inexpensive or waste material used to load and secure cargo during
transportation; more loosely, it refers to miscellaneous baggage, brought along
during travel. The term can also refer to low-priority cargo used to fill out transport
capacity which would otherwise ship underweight.
 4. Inspections of the cargo

What is reefer inspection?

A pre-trip inspection is carried out before a reefer container will be released to the
customer of the shipping lines. This inspection includes testing for structural
damages, cleaning of the reefer box and checking the operation of the reefer's
machinery.

Any discrepancies between the actual temperature setting and the cargo shipping
instructions should be reported immediately.

Reefers should be inspected at intervals of no more than six hours during the
voyage.

Each time, record the time of the inspection and the supply and return air
temperatures.

How do you inspect a reefer container?

Unit exterior: Inspect open areas and ensure all panels on the outside seal properly
and are secure.

Undercarriage: Check the undercarriage of the reefer to ensure there is no damage.

Doors and locks: Ensure all doors have reliable locking mechanisms and secure
plates to prevent seal tampering.
Before power on

 General inspection (Ensure unit and components are free from physical
damage and are not missing (Box, Contactors, Cable, Plug, Compressor,
Loosen wire, etc.)
 Check Cleanliness: No extra labels, Cargo Debris/Remnants, etc.
 Check Refrigerant and Lubricant
 Inspect Partlow: Ensure chart drive is rewound and battery level is in range
 Check electric insulation value (compressor, motors, heaters)

After power on

 Ensure phase correction contractors are in function (Measure and record

voltage)
 Check of serviceability of engine:
Ensure no abnormal noises components
Ensure fan and blower are in proper direction
Initiate LPPP (CFII), FPT (Smart), LPP (MHI), AutoPTI (Microlink) or
FPTI(MPC)
Detect proper working unit at reaching set-point
Calibrate sensors and Partlow element
 Check RV%
 Preset temperature setting to –18°C:
Initiate and check that the unit goes into manual defrost and complete cycle
Check cleanliness of drains
Record oil level directly after defrost
Upon temperature reach to –18°C and unit is running in full cool
 Measure compressor pressure
 Measure currents (Compressor, Cond. Fan motor, Evap. Motor, heater)
Detect proper working unit at reaching set-point –18°C check Freon level
Set temp to 0°C and run – Switch off upon reaching 0°C temp
Upon unit reaching to 0°C, record and calibrate sensors and Partlow element
Final check
 Switch off unit on/off switch, leave power selection switch to 380/440V
 Ensure doors locked secure (reefer, controller box, Partlow, etc.)
It’s worth noting that above content is only the guideline and should not replace or
override PTI procedures recommended by the manufacturer of a particular refer
container or the procedures set up by an individual shipping company.
 5. Use of brine traps

What is Brine Trap in Reefer Ship?

Brine traps are provided to seal the drain pipe from tween decks to bilges in order
to allow only one drain passage from tween deck to bilges and stop any back flow
of gases/ foul odours from bilges to cargo space.

What is the brine system in ships?

Brine is chosen because of its low freezing point, 20° to 30°C, depending on its
concentration and composition. The brine is passed through separate grids
surrounding the same compartment. If one grid is blocked or chocked, the brine
supply can be increased to other grids so that cooling will not be affected.

Refrigerated cargo, initilly used to be carried in one of the compartments of a

general cargo ship. The compartment, invariably would be just forward orjust aft
of the engineroom.
Different Refrigerated Cargoes

Frozen Cargoes: These cargoes are carried in frozen state and is also in deep
frozen prior to loading. The temperature maintained is about -8 to -12 0C. This
temperature keeps the growth of bacteria down. Deep frozen cargoes are not living,
and do not respire or produce heat, so the task of the refrigeration system is much
simpler.

Chilled Cargoes:. These cargoes are carried at temperatures around -20 to +60C. In
case of chilled cargoes, to maintain the right temperature is very important. The
precise temperature control is more important than frozen cargoes. Examples of
cargoes in this category are: cheese, eggs & fresh vegetables.

Air Cooled Cargoes: These cargoes are carried at a temperature from +2 0 to 120C.
Generally these types of cargoes are fruits.

Properties of Refrigerated Cargoes

1. Rapid deterioration if proper temperatures are not maintained during

loading, voyage and discharging.
2. Susceptible to tainting and moisture contact damage.
3. Effected by presence of CO2.

Carriage temperatures of certain cargoes

Frozen lamb, mutton, beef, pork – 8oC to – 10oC

Packed in cases and carried at – 10oC to – 12oC
Fish < -120C
Cheese +50C to 7oC
Apple +10C to 20C
Pears -10C to 00
Grapes & peaches -1oC to 2oC
Oranges and lemons +20C to 6oC
Banana +120C
Vegetables Above zero
Onions and potatoes Ventilation
Construction of Reefer Space

Insulation

Insulation must be provided to enclose the refrigerated compartments effectively.

Acrylic foam, cork, glass reinforced plastic, etc may be used for insulating
purposes.

Glass fiber has many advantages that are desired. Thus, it is light, vermin proof
and fire resistant, and does not absorb moisture.

On the decks and tank top, the insulation must be appropriate to take load.

Thickness would depend on the type of material used and the temperature to be
maintained in the compartment. Insulating material is placed between hull plating
and the GI sheets or aluminium alloy using metal screws.

The frames are used to provide support.

An air space of about 50 mm is maintained between tank top and the insulation
above.

Suitable insulated doors are provided to cold rooms. These are 25 to 30 cm thick
doors of GI sheets covering the inside material of steel frames wooden supports
and insulation. Brine traps are provided in drains from the tween decks and
insulated holds. The brine in the trap forms an effective seal against ingress of
warm air. It does not freeze, thus, helps in removal of water from the compartment.

A reefer ship may be of two types:

1. Conventional vessels with normal hatches and cranes, derricks, etc. Hatches
must be closed if it rains.

2. Vessels with side doors. Ramps, conveyors, etc shorten the turn around time
considerably. During rain the cargo work may continue.
Refrigeration Systems

Refrigeration is a process in which the temperature of a space or its contents is

reduced to below that of their surroundings. Refrigeration is used:
 in the carriage of some liquefied gases and bulk chemicals;
 in air conditioning systems; and
 to preserve perishable foodstuffs during transportation.

Ships refrigeration plant can be for:

 the small one for provisions; or
 large one for reefer vessels.

Refrigeration engineer or Chief engineer as the case may be is responsible for:

 Domestic ref. plant.
 Cargo ref. plants
 Air conditioning plants
 Ventilation and heating plants
 Cargo refrigerated containers

Components of a Refrigeration System

The four main components of a refrigeration system working on the vapour

compression cycle are:

 The compressor
 the condenser
 the expansion valve
 the evaporator.

Compressor : The function of the compressor in a refrigeration system is to:

1. Raise the pressure of the vapourised refrigerant, causing its saturation

temperature to rise so that it is higher than that of seawater or an air cooled
condenser.
2. Promote circulation of the refrigerant by pumping it around the system.

Condenser :The function of the condenser is to:

1. Liquefy the refrigerant and sub cool it to below the saturation temperature
by circulating seawater or air.
 2. Transfer latent heat received from evaporator to the cooling medium.
3. Allow the liquid refrigerant (still at pressure) to go to the expansion valve.

Expansion valve : The function of the expansion valve in a refrigeration system is

to:

1. Regulate the flow of refrigerant from the HP side of the system to the LP
side of the system, (The drop in pressure causes the saturation temperature
of the refrigerant to fall) causing it to boil at the low temperature of the
evaporator.
2. Control the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator thermostatically.

Evaporator : The function of the evaporator is to:

1. Cool the air in the fridge space.

2. Cause the refrigerant to receive latent heat and evaporate.
3. Through a fan circulate the air around it.

Three desirable properties of a refrigerant are:

1. Low boiling point

2. low condensing pressure
3. high specific enthalpy of vaporisation. (This reduces the quantity of
refrigerant in circulation and lower machine speeds, sizes, etc).

Details of refrigeration cycle

The transfer of heat takes place in a simple system:

 firstly, in the evaporator where the lower temperature of the refrigerant cools
the body of the space being cooled; and
 secondly, in the condenser where the refrigerant is cooled by air or water.

Cycle

The pressure of the refrigerant gas is increased in the compressor and it thereby
becomes hot. This hot, high-pressure gas is passed through into a condenser.
1. The refrigerant gas will be cooled either by air or water, and because it is
still at a high pressure it will condense.
 2. The liquid refrigerant reaches a control valve alongside an evaporator. This
regulating valve meters the flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator,
which is at a lower pressure.
3. The liquid refrigerant, boils and evaporates cooling the air.
4. The gas is slightly superheated as it returns to the compressor at a low
pressure to be recompressed.
Thus it will be seen that heat that is transferred from the air to the evaporator
is then pumped round the system until it reaches the condenser where it is
transferred or rejected to the ambient air or water.

Preparation of Spaces to Receive Cargo

Cleanliness

The refrigerated cargo requires very careful preparation of the space. Cleanliness is
of great importance I respect of foodstuffs. The space must be free of odours and
micro-organisms. The brine pipes, insulation, bins, gratings, air ducts, etc need
particular attention. Disinfectant fluid may be used to prevent formation of mould.
Deodorizing agents may be used for air and surface. The lingering smell, which is
absorbed by the insulation may require the removal and renewal of the respective
gratings, etc. Fans should be run in both directions to clear smells and dust, etc.,
from the air trunking.

Cleaning at ambient temperature

It is desirable that holds are allowed to warm to ambient temperature before

cleaning begins. The odours of residue from previous cargo are then more readily
detectable and are not masked by the residue remaining in frozen state.

Bilges and scuppers

Bilges must be clean, tested and U-bend vapour traps sealed with brine to prevent
cross taint between compartments. Brine traps are provided to seal the drain pipe
from tween decks to bilges in order to allow only one drain passage from tween
deck to bilges and stop any back flow of gases/ foul odours from bilges to cargo
space. These should be checked and topped up to prevent cold air from entering the
bilges and freezing them or odour from reaching the refrigerated compartment

Sensors and indicators

Thermometers, gas sampling points, fire detection and extinguishing equipment
should be carefully checked and inspected.

Pipes and joints

Inspection should be made of any pipes passing through the space, particularly
their joints, for signs of leakage.

Insulation and gratings

Timber dunnage though common, nowadays, reefer ships are fitted with large
gratings bolted to the deck and folding `tween deck hatch covers. The gratings can
be of timber or alloyed aluminium construction. Plastic gratings have been tried
now. The gratings are of sufficient strength to support a forklift truck with a loaded
pallet.

Closing arrangements

Closing arrangements (weather and `tween deck covers) and access hatch plugs
should also receive careful examination.

Precooling

The space can then be cooled down to slightly below the carrying temperature and
held there for at least 24 hours to ensure that all the residual heat is removed from
insulation and other fittings within the space. The air temperature will quickly rise
when the compartment is opened for loading and every opportunity should be
taken to run the fans during breaks in the loading operation.

Advantages of precooling:

 temp fluctuations reduce during loading;

 carriage temp is achieved ASAP; and
 dunnage is cooled.


Ventilation after cooling

  After cooling, or throughout in the absence of cooling, the rate of fresh air
ventilation for fresh produce should be specified.

Loading, handling and carriage

General and particular carriage requirement must be known to the ship’s staff.
Colour of fruits, characteristics, origin, age, etc would be useful.

Condition as received

 Fruit should not be ripe. Thus, upon peeling banana skin it should give fiber
thread.
 Softened carcasses must be rejected. Blood-stains indicate that a carcass has
partially thawed since initial freezing and should be considered with
suspicion.
 Cargo received for carriage should be pre-cooled to the carrying
temperature.

Maintaining the temperature

 Hold duly cleaned and deodorized must be maintained at suitable

temperature for the commodity.
 Close monitoring and maintaining specified temperature during
loading, transportation and discharging very important.
 It may be necessary to close a compartment for some time and then re open
it to maintain required temperature. Working shoes should be covered with
appropriate material, when in reefer space.
 The possible rise in the temperature of the surface during transit should be
attended. Chilled cargoes are of less concern than the cooled cargoes, but
great care must be taken during receiving and stowage due their sensitive
nature.
 1Frosting of grid pipes can reduce cooling due the formation of insulating
layer and give water upon melting. Cooling must be adjusted accordingly.
 Compartments not in use should be kept closed.

Correct stowage is important

  To carry different commodities in a single cargo space could be complex.
Different temperature requirement, compatibility, tainting, etc must be
considered.
 Cargo should not be dragged or thrown. It should be handled with proper
slings.
 Thick paper should be pasted over joints to prevent air leak.
 The airflow and securing must be considered while stowing cargoes.
 Dunnage should be used efficiently: to cause required separation from metal;
form appropriate ventilation channel; support frazil cargo; and protect ducts,
etc.
 Fruit should not be stowed with any other cargo that might be tainted.
 Individual commodities should be kept separated, even though they may
require the similar temperature and humidity.

Ventilation and odour

 Control of CO2 concentration in the compartment with ventilation is essential

for certain commodities
 Fruit and vegetables respire, taking in oxygen and producing carbon dioxide.
This produces heat. The temperature change should be controlled
accordingly.
All fruits and vegetables need ventilation even if carried at ambient
temperatures.
 Even a pleasant smell trespassing into some food product where any foreign
smell may cause a loss of taste. When dealing with living cargo adequate
amount of fresh air must be introduced. Also, the expelled air is not drawn
into a space where it might cause contamination.

6. Purpose of temperature recording