UNIT 4: ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND COMPONANTS

SUB:FEE{SEC A}………..By Alishiba Sheikh

Electronic components?
Electronic component means an item that operates by controlling the flow of
electrons or other electrically charged particles in circuits, using interconnections
of electrical devices such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, diodes, switches,
transistors, or integrated circuits.
Two types of electronic components
Active components: are those that deliver or produce energy or power in the form
of a voltage or current. Examples of the active components are diodes, transistors,
SCR, integrated circuits, etc.
Passive components: are those that utilize or store energy in the form of voltage
or current. Examples of the passive components are resistor, capacitor, and
inductor.
Comparison Chart

BASIS ACTIVE COMPONENTS PASSIVE COMPONENT

Nature of source Active components deliver Passive elements utilizes
power or energy to the circuit. power or energy from the
circuit.
Examples Diodes, Transistors, SCR, Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor
Integrated circuits etc. etc.
Function of the Devices which produce energy Devices which stores energy in
component in the form of voltage or the form of voltage or current.
current.
Power Gain They are capable of providing They are incapable of
power gain. providing power gain.
Flow of current Active components can control Passive components cannot
the flow of current. control the flow of the
current.
Requirement of They require an external source They do not require any
external source for the operations. external source for the
operations.
BASIS ACTIVE COMPONENTS PASSIVE COMPONENT
Nature of energy Active components are energy Passive components are
donor. energy acceptor.

Define the following

1. Resistance: It is the property of a material which opposes the flow of
electric current through it. Conductors have low resistance while insulators
have very high resistance. It is measured in Ohms. The symbol is R

2. Capacitance: Capacitance is the ability of a device to store electric charge.

The amount of charge that can be stored inside a capacitor at a given voltage
is called Capacitance. It gets charged when charges are forced into the
positive (or upper) plate of the capacitor due to emf. Similarly, it discharged
when charges are forcefully pulled out of the capacitor. Capacitance is
measured in Farad. The symbol is C.

3. Inductance: Inductance is the ability of a device to generate a voltage when

the current through it changes. It is the property of a coil to resist any change
in electric current flowing through it. Self inductance is caused when a coil
resists the current change through itself. Mutual inductance occurs when a
secondary coil opposes current change in a primary coil. Inductance is
measured in Henry.The symbol is L.

RESISTERS
COLOR CODING OF RESISTER:
1. We know that a resistor is a two-terminal device and is an important
component in building many electronic devices. The resistor is a component
that is used to limit or regulate the flow of electric current.
2. We commonly see resistors printed with different colours. It usually contains
four bands of colours.
3. To know the value of resistors, one must know how to calculate the
resistance colour code.
 4. let us learn what is resistance colour code, how to read resistor colour code,
and examples to find resistance colour code.
5. All leaded resistors with a power rating up to one watt are marked with
colour bands.
6. They are given by several bands and together they specify the resistance
value, the tolerance rate and sometimes the reliability or failure rates.
7. The number of bands present in a resistor varies from three to six.
8. The first two bands indicate the resistance value and the third band serves
as a multiplier.
9. let us discuss how to read resistor colour codes, look at an example and learn
a mnemonic to remember the number sequence.

Resistor Colour Table

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,00,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

 Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

How to Read Resistor Colour Code?

 To read them, hold the resistor such that the tolerance band is on your right.
The tolerance band is usually gold or silver in colour and is placed a little
further away from the other bands.
 Starting from your left, note down all the colours of the bands and write
them down in sequence.
 Next, use the table given below to see which digits they represent.
 The band just next to the tolerance band is the multiplier band. So if the
colour of this band is Red (representing 2), the value given is 102.
Learning with an example
After learning about resistance colour codes, let us learn how to find resistor colour
codes with an example. Here’s an example to get you started:
The band colours for resistor colour code in the order:

Band colours in order RED RED BLACK GOLD

Digit representation 2 2 1 ±5%

Value 22 Ω ±5 %

The tolerance values represent by how much the resistance can vary from its mean
value in terms of percentage. A gold band represents the lowest variation, so be
sure to buy these at the electronics store. The value of the given resistance is: 22
Ω ± 5%. The tolerance of the resistor can be calculated as follows:
Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band
= 22 Ω × 5% = 1.1 Ω

Resistor Colour Code Mnemonic: You can remember the colour code values using
the following mnemonic:
## BB ROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wife ##
The capital letters represent the first letters of the colours and their positions the
digit values. Now that we have an idea to determine the resistance value of a given
resistor. Let us solve some problems related to this in the next section.

Resistor Colour Code Examples

Q1) Determine the resistance of the given resistor with the given colour sequence
(Red, Green, Red, Gold).
As we know, the first two colours represent the significant digits of resistance value
so the given colours represent digits 2 and 5. The third band is a multiplier band.
Hence, the colour red represents a multiplier factor of 102. The last band represents
the tolerance level and the tolerance level of the resistor is ±5%. Hence, the
resistance value of the given resistor is 2500 ± 5% Ω or 2.5 kΩ.

Q2) What colour bands would a resistor of resistance value 1000 Ω with a
tolerance level ±5% have?
The colour bands of the resistor would look like this:
What is light dependent resistor [LDR]?
It is a passive component that decreases resistance with respect to receiving
luminosity (light) on the component's sensitive surface. Also known as
photoresistor (also known as a photocell, or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or
photo-conductive cell).
Types of photoresistors and working mechanisms

Based on the materials used, photo resistors can be divided into two types:

Intrinsic and extrinsic.

Intrinsic photo resistors: It use undoped materials such as silicon or germanium.

Photons that fall on the device excite electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band. This creates more free electrons in the material that are available
to carry current, and therefore less resistance.

Extrinsic photo resistors: Are made of materials doped with impurities, also called
dopants. The dopants create a new energy band above the existing valence band,
populated by electrons. These electrons need less energy to make the transition to
the conduction band thanks to the smaller energy gap. The result is a device
sensitive to different wavelengths of light.

Regardless, both types will exhibit a decrease in resistance when illuminated. The
higher the light intensity, the larger the resistance drop is. Therefore, the
resistance of LDRs is an inverse, nonlinear function of light intensity.

What is a Variable Resistor?

A variable resistor is defined as a resistor whose value of electrical resistance can
be changed on demand. It is a common component in electronic circuits that allows
the adjustment of current or voltage according to Ohm’s Law.
The principle of operation of a variable resistor is based on changing the length of
a resistive track by moving a wiper contact along it. The position of the wiper
determines the effective resistance between the terminals of the variable resistor.

A variable resistor typically has three terminals: two fixed terminals at the ends of
the resistive track and one movable terminal (the wiper). Depending on how the
terminals are connected to a circuit, a variable resistor can function as a rheostat or
a potentiometer.
A rheostat is a device that controls the current in a circuit by varying the resistance.
It uses only two terminals: one fixed terminal and the wiper. The resistance
between these two terminals increases or decreases as the wiper moves along the
track.
A potentiometer is a device that controls the voltage across a load by dividing the
input voltage. It uses all three terminals: both fixed terminals are connected to an
input voltage source, and the output voltage is taken from one fixed terminal and
the wiper. The output voltage is proportional to the ratio of the resistances on
either side of the wiper.

CAPACITORS
What Is a Capacitor?
A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in the form of
an electric charge. It consists of two electrical conductors that are separated by a
distance. The space between the conductors may be filled by vacuum or with an
insulating material known as a dielectric.

Construction of a capacitor

The basic construction of all capacitors is similar. The construction of capacitor is

very simple. A capacitor is made of two electrically conductive plates placed close
to each other, but they do not touch each other. These conductive plates are
normally made of materials such as aluminum, brass, or copper.

The conductive plates of a capacitor is separated by a small distance. The empty

space between these plates is filled with a non-conductive material or electric
insulator or dielectric region. The non-conductive material or region between the
two plates may be an air, vacuum, glass, liquid, or solid. This non-conductive
material is called dielectric.
The two conductive plates of the capacitor are good conductors of electricity.
Therefore, they can easily pass the electric current through them. The conductive
plates of the capacitor also hold the electric charge. In capacitors, these plates are
mainly used to hold or store the electric charge.

A dielectric material or medium is the poor conductor of electricity. They cannot

pass electric current through them. In capacitors, the dielectric medium or material
block the flow of charge carriers (especially electrons) between the conductive
plates. As a result, the electric charges that try to move from one plate to another
plate will be trapped within the plate because of the strong resistance from the
dielectric.

If we place the conductive medium between these plates, the electric charges flow
easily from one plate to another plate.

We know that electric current is the flow of charge carriers whereas electric force
or electric field is the property of electric charges. Dielectric material does not allow
the flow of charge carriers, but they allow the electric force, electric charge, or
electric field produced by the charged particles (electrons). As a result, when
charge is build up on the two plates, a strong electric field is generated between
the two plates.

How capacitor works?

Capacitor with no voltage source

When no voltage is applied to the capacitor, the total number of electrons and
protons in the left plate of the capacitor are equal. We know that any object, which
has equal number of electrons and protons is said to be electrically neutral. Hence,
the total charge of the left plate cancels out and becomes electrically neutral.
Therefore, the left plate of the capacitor is said to be electrical neutral.
Charging a capacitor

Charge will be built on an object that has excess number of electrons or protons. In
order to produce excess number of electrons or protons, we need apply voltage to
the capacitor.

When voltage is applied to the capacitor in such a way that, the positive terminal
of the battery is connected to the left side plate of the capacitor and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the right side plate of the capacitor, the
charging of capacitor takes place.

Because of this supply voltage, a large number of electrons start moving from the
negative terminal of the battery through the conductive wire. When these
electrons reach the right side plate of the capacitor, they experience a strong
opposition from dielectric material. The dielectric material or medium present
between the plates will strongly oppose the movement of electrons from the right
side plate. As a result, a large number of electrons are trapped or build up on the
right side plate of the capacitor.
Because of the gaining of excess electrons from outside, the number of electrons
(negative charge carriers) on the right side plate will become higher than the
number of protons (positive charge carriers). As a result, the right side plate of the
capacitor becomes negatively charged.

On the other hand, the electrons on the left side plate experience a strong
attractive force from the positive terminal of the battery. As a result, the electrons
leave left side plate and attracted or moved towards the positive terminal of the
battery.

Because of the loss of large number of electrons from the left side plate, the
number of protons (positive charge carriers) will become higher than the number
of electrons (negative charge carriers). As a result, the left side plate of the
capacitor becomes positively charged. Thus, both the conductive plates of a
capacitor are charged.

The positive and negative charges on the both plates exert force on each other.
However, they do not touch each other.
Because of the excess number of electrons on one plate and shortage of electrons
on another plate, a potential difference or voltage is established between the
plates. As the capacitor continues to charge, the voltage produced between the
plates increases.

The voltage produced between the plates opposes the source voltage. As a result,
when the capacitor is fully charged (voltage between the plates is equal to the
source voltage), the capacitor stops charging. Because at this point, the energy of
source voltage and the capacitor voltage are equal.

Capacitors are designed and manufactured to operate at a certain maximum

voltage. If the voltage applied to capacitor exceeds its maximum voltage, the
electrons starts moving between the plates. This will result in permanent damage
of a capacitor.

Discharging a capacitor

If the external voltage source connected to the capacitor is removed, the capacitor
remains charged. However, when the capacitor is connected to any electric device
such as electric bulb through a conductive wire, it starts discharging.

When the capacitor is connected to an electric bulb through a conductive wire, the
electrons trapped on the right side plate starts flowing through the circuit. We
know that electric current is the flow of charge carriers (free electrons). Therefore,
when the free electrons or electric current reaches the light bulb, it glows with high
intensity.
The electrons that started flowing from the right side plate through the conductive
wire finally reach the left side plate and fill the holes of the left side plate. As a
result, the charge on the left side plate and right side plate starts decreasing. This
decreases the intensity of electric bulb, because the electric current flowing
through the electric bulb decreases.

Finally, the charge stored on the left plate and the right plate is completely
released. As a result, the bulb will turn off, because no electric current flows
through the bulb. Thus, the charge stored on the left plate and right plate of the
capacitor is discharged.

Capacitor circuit symbol

The circuit symbol of a basic capacitor is shown in the below figure. The capacitor
symbol is represented by drawing two parallel lines close to each other, but not
touching. It consists of two terminals. These terminals are used to connect in the
circuit.

Capacitance
The ability of a capacitor to store electric charge is called capacitance. Capacitors
with high capacitance will store large amount of electric charge whereas the
capacitors with low capacitance will store small amount of electric charge.

The relationship between the charge, voltage and capacitance can be

mathematically written in three forms:

What is Ceramic Capacitor?

A fixed value type of capacitor where the ceramic material within the capacitor acts
as a dielectric is the Ceramic Capacitor. This capacitor consists of more number of
alternating layers of ceramic and also a metal layer which acts as an electrode.

What is a ceramic material?

Ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride, or
carbide material. Example: carbon and silicon.
The applications of ceramic capacitors include:

 Transmitter stations
 Induction furnaces

 High voltage laser power supplies

 Power circuit breakers

 High-density applications

 Printed circuit boards

These capacitors are also used as a general-purpose capacitor and are also used
across the brushes of the DC motors in order to minimise the RF noise.
 What is electrolytic capacitors?

An electrolytic capacitor is a sort of capacitor that utilizes an electrolyte to obtain

greater capacitance than the other type of capacitors. An electrolyte is a gel or fluid
in which the concentration of ions is very high

Applications

 Used to reduce voltage fluctuations in various filtering devices.

 Used in output and input smoothing to filter when the DC signal is weak with
the AC component.
 They are extensively used for noise filtering or decoupling in power supplies.
 They are used for coupling signals between amplifier stages and also to store
energy in flashlamps.

INDUCTORS

What Is an Inductor?
1 An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits
to store energy in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it.

2 One of the key properties of an inductor is that it impedes or opposes any change
in the amount of current flowing through it.

3 Whenever the current across the inductor changes, it either acquires charge or
loses the charge in order to equalise the current passing through it. The inductor is
also called a choke, a reactor or just a coil.

Functions of an Inductor

1. To control signals.
2. To store energy.
Applications of inductors can be seen in the following
 Tuning circuits.
 Sensors.
 Store energy in a device.
 Induction motors.
 Transformers.
 Filters.
 Chokes.
 Ferrite beads.

 ACTIVE COMPONANTS:

An integrated circuit (IC) :

Integrated circuits are made up of several components such as R, C, L, diodes and
transistors.

An integrated circuit is electronic circuit or device that has electronic components

on a small semiconductor chip. It has functionality of logic AND or amplifying of a
signal. These are mainly two types of circuits: Digital or Analog. Analog ICs handle
continuous signals such as audio signals and Digital ICs handle discrete signals such
as binary values.

Types of Integrated Circuits

There are different types of integrated circuits based various criteria. Based on
intended application, the Integrated Circuit (IC) can be classified as following:

 Digital Integrated Circuits handle discrete signals such as binary values (0 and
1) These circuits use digital logic gates, multiplexers, flip flops etc.These
circuits are easier to design and economical.
 Analog Integrated Circuits handle contiguous signals. These are two types:
linear integrated circuits (Linear ICs) and Radio frequency integrated circuits
(RF ICs).
 Mixed Integrated Circuits are obtained by the combination of analog and
digital integrated circuits. Therefore it have digital to analog (A/D) converter,
digital to analog (D/A) converter, and clock/timing integrated circuits.

## Comparison between Analog IC and digital IC :

Explain the concept of Dielectric material :

A dielectric material is a non-metallic substance having a high specific resistance,

a negative temperature coefficient of resistance and a high insulating resistance.
Another definition of dielectric material is a non-conducting substance that holds
electrical charges.

When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, the electric charges do not flow
through the material. Electric charges slightly shift from their average equilibrium
positions, causing dielectric polarisation.
Dielectric polarisation causes positive charges to flow in the direction of the field
and negative charges to shift in the opposite direction of the field. This
phenomenon yields an internal electric field, which in turn reduces the overall
electric field within the dielectric material.
Electric susceptibility gives the measure of how easily a dielectric material can be
polarized when placed in an electric field.
Above figure explains the polarisation of dielectric molecules when the electric
field is applied.
Dielectric materials are mostly solids. The dielectrics are mostly solids. Some of
the dielectrics are composed of weakly bonded molecules. In such scenarios,
along with polarisation, we can also observe that molecules reorient themselves
to align their symmetry axes with the field.
Dielectric materials are used to store energy. These materials exist in solid, liquid
and gaseous forms. Some examples of dielectric materials are:

 Solid Dielectrics – Ceramic, Plastic, Mica, and Glass.

 Dielectric Liquid – Distilled Water.
 Dielectric Gas – Dry Air, vacuum, nitrogen and helium.

Explain Semi conductors :

Semiconductor, any of a class of crystalline solids intermediate in electrical

conductivity between a conductor and an insulator. Semiconductors are employed
in the manufacture of various kinds of electronic devices,
including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.