Lecture 4 Computer Principles

University of Technology
Computer Engineering Department
Computer Principles

Asst.Lect. Zinah Jaafer Mohammed Ameen

Lecture 4
System Software

Lecture Layout:

• System Software
• The Operating System
 Windows
 Mac Os
 Unix and Linux
 Netware
• Mobile Phone Operating Systems
• Utilities
• Device Drivers
• Programming Language Processors

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

 System Software
Systems software is used to control the computer hardware so that all
computer devices can interact with application software smoothly. It
creates a layer of insulation between the computer hardware and
application software, which can greatly help simplify the design of
application software.

System software is not a single program. Rather it is a collection or a

system of programs that handle hundreds of technical details with
little or no user intervention. System software consists of four types of
programs:

• Operating systems coordinate computer resources, provide an interface

between users and the computer, and run applications.
• Utilities perform specific tasks related to managing computer resources.
• Device drivers are specialized programs that allow particular input or
output devices to communicate with the rest of the computer system.
• Language translators convert the programming instructions written by
programmers into a language that computers understand and process.
 The Operating System (OS)
The operating system (OS) consists of the master system of programs
that manage the basic operations of the computer. These programs
provide the control and use of hardware resources, including disk
space, memory, CPU time allocation, and peripheral devices. They are
also the interface between computer hardware and application
programs so that end users can concentrate on their own tasks or
applications rather than on the complexities of managing the
computer.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

A good operating system can dramatically improve the effectiveness

and the efficiency of program execution performance. Many different
operating systems are available for computers. For example, Cray
supercomputers use UNICOS and COS, IBM mainframes use MVS and
VM.
Some operating systems are designed for a microcomputer single-user
environment and others for multiple users.
The complexity is much higher in a multiple-user OS due to the
management of computer memory and CPU time shared by many users.
Today, many computers use an operating environment that provides end
users with a user-friendly interface.
Functions
Every computer has an operating system and every operating system
performs a variety of functions. These functions can be classified into
three groups:
• Managing resources: Operating systems coordinate all the
computer’s resources including memory, processing, storage, and
devices such as printers and monitors. They also monitor system
performance, schedule tasks, provide security, and start up the
computer.
• Managing tasks: Operating systems are designed to run user tasks
more efficiently.
They can be classified into three types: multitasking,
multiprogramming (time sharing), and multiprocessing.
 Multitasking is the execution of two or more programs by one
user concurrently on the same computer with one CPU.
 Multiprogramming is the execution of two or more programs
on a multiuser operating system. The CPU time is shared by
many users in the management of the OS.
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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

 Multiprocessing uses multiple CPUs to perform work

simultaneously. In other words, tasks can be broken down into
several subtasks, and each subtask is assigned to a CPU for
processing.
• Providing user interface: Operating systems allow users to
interact with application programs and computer hardware through
a user interface. Many older operating systems used a character-
based interface in which users communicated with the operating
system through written commands such as “Copy A: assign.doc
C:”. Almost all newer operating systems use a graphical user
interface (GUI), a graphical user interface uses graphical elements
such as icons and windows.
• Running applications: Operating systems load and run
applications such as word processors and spreadsheets. Most
operating systems support multitasking, or the ability to switch
between different applications stored in memory. With
multitasking, you could have Word and Excel running at the same
time and switch easily between the two applications. The program
that you are currently working on is described as running in the
foreground. The other program or programs are running in the
background.
Features
Starting or restarting a computer is called booting the system. Booting
refers to the process of loading an operating system into a computer’s
main memory from the hard disk. This loading is accomplished by a
program that is stored permanently in ROM.
You typically interact with the operating system through the graphical
user interface. Most provide a place, called desktop, that provides access

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

to computer resources. Operating systems have several features in

common with application programs, including:
• Icons —graphic representations for a program, type of file, or function.
• Pointer —controlled by a mouse or touch screen, the pointer changes
shape depending upon its current function. For example, when shaped
like an arrow, the pointer can be used to select items such as an icon.
• Windows —rectangular areas for displaying information and running
programs.
• Menus —provide a list of options or commands.
• Tabs—divide menus into major activity areas.
• Dialog boxes —provide information or request input.
• Help —provides online assistance for operating system functions and
procedures.

Categories
While there are hundreds of different operating systems, there are only
three basic categories: embedded, network, or stand-alone.
• Embedded operating systems are used for handheld devices such as
smart phones, cable and satellite television receiver, video game systems,

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

and other small electronics. The entire operating system is stored

embedded in the device. The operating system programs are permanently
stored on ROM, or read-only memory, chips.
• Network operating systems (NOS) are used to control and coordinate
computers that are networked or linked together. Many networks are
small and connect only a limited number of microcomputers. Other
networks, like those at colleges and universities, are very large and
complex. These networks may include other smaller networks and
typically connect a variety of different types of computers. Network
operating systems are typically located on one of the connected
computers’ hard disks. Called the network server, this computer
coordinates all communication between the other computers.
Popular network operating systems include NetWare, Windows Server,
and UNIX.
• Stand-alone operating systems, also called desktop operating
systems, control a single desktop or notebook computer. These operating
systems are located on the computer’s hard disk. Often desktop
computers and notebooks are part of a network. In these cases, the
desktop operating system works with the network’s NOS to share and
coordinate resources. In these situations, the desktop operating system is
referred to as the client operating system.
The operating system is often referred to as the software environment or
platform. Almost all application programs are designed to run with a
specific platform. Many applications, however, have different versions,
each designed to operate with a particular platform. For example, one
version of Microsoft Office is designed to operate with Windows.
Another version is designed to operate with Mac OS.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

Every microcomputer has an operating system controlling its operations.

The most widely used operating systems are Windows, Mac OS, Unix,
and Linux.
 Windows
Microsoft’s Windows is by far the most popular microcomputer
operating system today with nearly 90 percent of the market. Because its
market share is so large, more application programs are developed to run
under Windows than any other operating system. Windows comes in a
variety of different versions and is designed to run with Intel and Intel-
compatible microprocessors such as the Core 2 Quad and Atom series.
For a summary of Microsoft’s desktop operating systems. There are many
versions of Windows. The latest, Windows 7, was released in 2009.
Compared to the previous system, Windows Vista, Windows 7 provides
several improvements.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

 Mac OS
Apple introduced its Macintosh microcomputer and operating system in
1984. It provided one of the first GUIs, making it easy even for novice
computer users to move and delete files. Designed to run with Apple
computers, Mac OS is not as widely used as the Windows operating
system. As a result, fewer application programs have been written for it.
Nonetheless, Mac OS is considered to be one of the most innovative
operating systems. It is a powerful, easy-to-use operating system that is
popular with professional graphic designers, desktop publishers, and
many home users.
One of the latest versions of the Macintosh operating system is Mac OS
X. This operating system provides a wide array of powerful features
including Spotlight and Dashboard Widgets. Spotlight is an advanced
search tool that can rapidly locate files, folders, e-mail messages,
addresses, and much more. Dashboard Widgets are a collection of
specialized programs that will constantly update and display information.
Some versions of Mac OS X also include Boot Camp, which allows
Macintosh computers to run both Mac OS and the Windows operating
system.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

 UNIX and Linux

The UNIX operating system was originally designed to run on
minicomputers in network environments. Now, it is also used by
powerful microcomputers and by servers on the Web. There are a large
number of different versions of UNIX. One receiving a great deal of
attention today is Linux. Linux was originally developed by a graduate
student at the University of Helsinki, Linus Torvalds, in 1991. He
allowed free distribution of the operating system code and encouraged
others to modify and further develop the code. Programs released in this
way are called open source. Linux is a popular and powerful alternative
to the Windows operating system. Linux has been the basis of several
other operating systems. For example, Google’s Chrome OS is based on
Linux. This operating system is designed for netbook computers and
focuses on Internet connectivity through cloud computing.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

 Netware
NetWare is a local-area network (LAN) operating system developed by
Novell Corporation. NetWare is a software product that runs on a variety
of different types of LANs, from Ethernets to IBM token-ring networks.
It provides users and programmers with a consistent interface that is
independent of the actual hardware used to transmit messages.
 Mobile Phone Operating Systems
Mobile phone operating systems, also known as mobile OS, are a type of
embedded operating system. Every smart phone has a mobile phone
operating system. Although less complicated and more specialized for
wireless communication, these operating systems control smart phones
just as Windows or Mac OS controls desktop computer operations.
While there are numerous mobile phone operating systems, some of the
best known are Symbian, BlackBerry OS, iPhone OS, Android, and
Windows Phone 7.
• Symbian has its origins in Japan with Nokia, Sony, and others.
Introduced in 2009, it controls more smart phones worldwide than any
other mobile operating system.
• BlackBerry OS, also known as RIM OS, was first introduced in 1999
by a small Canadian firm called Research In Motion. Originally designed
as the platform for the BlackBerry handheld computer, it has evolved into
a powerful mobile phone operating system that is challenging Symbian.
• iPhone OS was originally developed in 2007 by Apple. It is based on
Mac OS and is used as the platform for Apple’s iPhone, iPod Touch, and
iPad. iPhone OS is one of the fastest growing mobile operating systems.
• Android was originally introduced in 2007. It was originally developed
by Android Inc. and later purchased by Google. Like the iPhone OS,
Android is one of the fastest growing mobile operating systems.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

• Windows Phone 7 was introduced in 2010. It followed two other

mobile operating systems from Microsoft: Windows CE and Windows
Mobile. Windows Phone 7 was designed for users actively involved in
social networking and instant messaging. Not all cell phone applications
will run on all cell phones. That is because a cell phone app is designed to
run on a particular platform or operating system. Before downloading an
app, be sure that it is designed to run with the mobile operating system on
your cell phone.

 Utilities
Utility programs are used to help end users with a “tool box” to fine-tune
hardware components or modify system software functions, and they are
normally associated with the operating system. The utility programs for
large computer systems (e.g., mainframe computers and supercomputers)
are designed for professional system programmers to either modify or
repair the system software. However, the utility programs for
microcomputers are very often used by end users. They are user-friendly
and designed for end users to format a diskette, change the monitor’s
background pattern, or install computer hardware. Some vendors provide
utility programs that can enhance the performance of the computer (such
as a RAM disk), install virtual memory, or check for viruses.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

All kinds of things can happen—internal hard disks can crash, computers
can freeze up, operations can slow down, and so on. These events can
make computing very frustrating. That’s where utilities come in. Utilities
are specialized programs designed to make computing easier. There are
hundreds of different utility programs. The most essential are
• Troubleshooting or diagnostic programs that recognize and
correct problems, ideally before they become serious.
• Antivirus programs that guard your computer system against
viruses or other damaging programs that can invade your computer
system.
• Uninstall programs that allow you to safely and completely
remove unneeded programs and related files from your hard disk.
• Backup programs that make copies of files to be used in case the
originals are lost or damaged.
• File compression programs that reduce the size of files so they
require less storage space and can be sent more efficiently over the
Internet. Most operating systems provide some utility programs.
Even more powerful utility programs can be purchased separately
or in utility suites.
• Screen saver a screen saver prevents a monitor’s display screen
from being etched by an unchanging image (burn-in).
• Data recovery a data recovery utility is used to “undelete” a file or
information that has been accidentally deleted. By this function,
users are able to undo the last delete operation that has taken place.
 Device Drivers
Every device, such as a mouse or printer that is connected to a computer
system has a special program associated with it. This program, called a
device driver or simply a driver, works with the operating system to

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

allow communication between the device and the rest of the computer
system. Each time the computer system is started, the operating system
loads all of the device drivers into memory. Whenever a new device is
added to a computer system, a new device driver must be installed before
the device can be used. Windows supplies hundreds of different device
drivers with its system software. For many devices, the appropriate
drivers are automatically selected and installed when the device is first
connected to the computer system. For others, the device driver must be
manually installed. Fortunately, Windows provides wizards to assist in
this process. For example, Windows’ Add a Device Wizard provides
step-by-step guidance for selecting the appropriate hardware driver and
installing that driver. If a particular device driver is not included with the
Windows system software, the product’s manufacturer will supply one.
Many times these drivers are available directly from the manufacturer’s
Web site.
 Programming Language Processors
A program language processor can be either a compiler or an interpreter.
A compiler translates programming codes into machine code all at once
so that an executable file will be created. An interpreter translates a
program line by line for each execution. Interpreters are usually used by
business researchers or software developers who frequently modify their
software and make lots of changes. It is easier to diagnose the
programming errors line by line after the execution. An example is the
BASIC interpreter.
A compiler has the advantage of being able to generate an executable file
for later execution. This file, called the object code, is represented in
binary code (machine code). The original program is called the source
code. Users only need the object code to execute the program. Therefore,
they do not have to compile the program every time they need to run it.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

The drawback is that if there are any programming errors, it is very hard
for the program designers to tell what went wrong. Therefore, compilers
are best used for programs that are fully developed and ready for the user.

Single-User versus Multiuser Systems

Single-user operating systems can allow only one user to work at a time.
This kind of OS has a relatively simple design and usually has fewer
graphic user interfaces. Most microcomputers have a single-user OS.
(DOS and Windows are good examples.) A multiuser OS allows many
users to share the same computer. It is normally a mini or a mainframe
computer. A multiuser OS has a more complicated design, since many
users have to access the same resources at the same time. This could
create tremendous traffic and management problems among different
users. UNIX is a good example of a multiuser system.

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Lecture 4 Computer Principles

Single-Tasking Systems versus Multitasking Systems

Single Tasking
Single tasking implies that only one job or task can be executed at one
time. DOS is a typical example of a single tasking system, since only one
job can be executed. However, a multitasking system allows more than
one job (task) to be executed at the same time. With multitasking, you
can work on your word processing program while your printer manager
software is running the functions that control the printer. This is usually
conducted by opening several windows. Microsoft Windows and
Macintosh OS are good examples.
Multitasking
The multitasking environment allows users to perform several computer
tasks at one time. Each task occupies a window. By swapping between
windows, users are able to use different software packages as they wish.

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

University of Technology
Computer Engineering Department
Computer Principles

Asst.Lect. Zinah Jaafer Mohammed Ameen

Lecture 5
Programming Language

Lecture Layout:

• Programs and programming

• Generations of programming languages

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

 Programs and Programming

A program is a list of instructions for the computer to follow and

accomplish the task of processing data into information. The instructions are
made up of statements used in a programming language, such as BASIC, C,
or Java. Programming, also known as software development, is a six-step
procedure for creating that list of instructions. Only one of those steps
consists of typing (keying) statements into a computer. The six steps are as
follows:

1. Program specification: The program’s objectives, outputs, inputs, and

processing requirements are determined.
2. Program design: A solution is created using programming techniques
such as top-down program design, pseudo code, flowcharts, and logic
structures.
3. Program code: The program is written or coded using a programming
language.
4. Program test: The program is tested or debugged by looking for syntax
and logic errors.
5. Program documentation: Documentation is an ongoing process
throughout the programming process. This phase focuses on formalizing the
written description and processes used in the program.
6. Program maintenance: Completed programs are periodically reviewed
to evaluate their accuracy, efficiency, standardization, and ease of use.
Changes are made to the program’s code as needed.

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

In organizations, computer professionals known as software engineers or

programmers use this six-step procedure. Working closely with systems
analysts in systems development, Phase 4 of the systems life cycle,
programmers create software required for information systems.
Step 1: Program Specification
Program specification is also called program definition or program
analysis. It requires that the programmer—or the end user specify five
items: (1) the program’s objectives, (2) the desired output, (3) the input data
required, (4) the processing requirements, and (5) the documentation.

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

Step 2: Program Design

After program specification, a program design phase is started. Here the
programmer plans a solution, preferably using structured programming
techniques. These techniques consist of flowcharts and logic structures.
Flowcharts
These graphically present the detailed sequence of steps needed to solve a
programming problem. This figure presents several of the standard
flowcharting symbols. Flowchart expresses all the logic for just one module
A computer does more than arithmetic. It also makes comparisons whether
something is greater than or less than, equal to or not equal to.

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

Step 3: Program Code

Writing the program is called coding. Here the software developer uses the
logic he developed in the program design step to actually write the program.
That is, he writes out using pencil and paper or typing on a computer
keyboard the letters, numbers, and symbols that make up the program. This
is the “program code” that instructs the computer what to do.
The Good Program should be reliable work under most conditions and
produce correct output. It should catch obvious and common input errors. It
also should be well documented and understandable by programmers other
than the person who wrote it. After all, someone may need to make changes
in the program in the future.
Coding: After the program logic has been formulated, the next step is to
code or write the program using the appropriate computer language. There
are numerous content-markup and programming languages. A content-
markup language uses symbols, words, and phrases that instruct a
computer how to structure information for display or processing. For
example, HTML is a widely used content-markup language to create Web
pages.

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

A programming language uses a collection of symbols, words, and phrases

that instruct a computer to perform specific operations. While content-
markup languages focus on assigning meaning to different pieces of content,
programming languages focus on processing data and information for a wide
variety of different types of applications such as C++ programming
language. Once the program has been coded, the next step is testing, or
debugging, the program.

Step 4: Program Test

Debugging refers to the process of testing and then eliminating errors It
means running the program on a computer and then fixing the parts that do

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

not work. Programming errors are of two types: syntax errors and logic
errors.

Syntax Errors
A syntax error is a violation of the rules of the programming language. For
example, in C ++, each statement must end with a semicolon (;). If the
semicolon is omitted, the program will not run due to a syntax error.

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

Logic Errors
A logic error occurs when the programmer uses an incorrect calculation or
leaves out a programming procedure. For example an endless loop.
Step 5: Program Documentation
Documentation consists of written descriptions and procedures about a
program and how to use it. It is not something done just at the end of the
programming process. Program documentation is carried on throughout all
the programming steps. This documentation is typically within the program
itself and in printed documents. In this step, all the prior documentation is
reviewed, finalized, and distributed. Documentation is important for people
who may be involved with the program in the future.

• Users: Users need to know how to use the software. Some

organizations may offer training courses to guide users through the
program. However, other organizations may expect users to be able to

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

learn a package just from the written documentation. Two examples

of this sort of documentation are printed manuals and the help option
within most applications.
• Operators: Documentation must be provided for computer operators.
If the program sends them error messages, for instance, they need to
know what to do about them.
• Programmers: As time passes, even the creator of the original
program may not remember much about it. Other programmers
wishing to update and modify it that is, perform program maintenance
may find themselves frustrated without adequate documentation. This
kind of documentation should include text and program flowcharts,
program listings, and sample output. It also might include system
flowcharts to show how the particular program relates to other
programs within an information system.
Step 6: Program Maintenance
T he final step is program maintenance. As much as 75 percent of the total
lifetime cost for an application program is for maintenance. This activity is
so commonplace that a special job title, maintenance programmer, exists.
The purpose of program maintenance is to ensure that current programs are
operating error free, efficiently, and effectively. Activities in this area fall
into two categories: operations and changing needs.
Operations
Operations activities concern locating and correcting operational errors,
making programs easier to use, and standardizing software using structured
programming techniques. For properly designed programs, these activities
should be minimal.

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

Changing Needs
All organizations change over time, and their programs must change with
them. Programs need to be adjusted for a variety of reasons, including new
tax laws, new information needs, and new company policies. Significant
revisions may require that the entire programming process begin again with
program specification.

 Generations of Programming Languages

There are five generations of programming languages: (1) machine
languages, (2) assembly languages, (3) procedural languages, (4) task-
oriented languages, and (5) problem and constraint languages.
Machine Languages: The First Generation
Machine code is represented as binary data. All programming is represented
by 1s and 0s, since inside the computer only 1 or 0 (on or off) had any
meaning within the circuits.

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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

To see how hard this is to understand, imagine having to read this:

00010101001110111100111000001111101000001111
Assembly Languages: The Second Generation
Before a computer can process or run any program, the program must be
converted or translated into machine language. Assembly languages use
abbreviations or mnemonics such as ADD that are automatically converted
to the appropriate sequence of 1s and 0s. Compared to machine languages,
assembly languages are much easier for humans to understand and to use.
ADD 210(8,13),02B(4,7)
This is still pretty obscure, of course, and so assembly language is also
considered low level. Assembly languages also vary from computer to
computer. With the third generation, we advance to high-level languages,
many of which are considered portable languages. That is, they can be run
on more than one kind of computer they are “portable” from one machine to
another.
High-Level Procedural Languages: The Third Generation
People are able to understand languages that are more like their own (e.g.,
English) than machine languages or assembly languages. These more
English like programming languages are called “high-level” languages.
However, most people still require some training to use higher-level
languages. This is particularly true of procedural languages. Procedural
languages, also known as 3GLs (third-generation languages), are
designed to express the logic the procedures that can solve general problems.
Procedural languages, then, are intended to solve general problems. C ++ is
a procedural language widely used by today’s programmers. Consider the
following C ++ statement from a program that assigns letter grades based on
the score of an exam.
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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

if (score > = 90) grade = ‘A’;

Task-Oriented Languages: The Fourth Generation
Third-generation languages are valuable, but they require training in
programming. Task-oriented languages, also known as 4GLs (fourth-
generation languages) and very high level languages, require little special
training on the part of the user. Unlike general-purpose languages, task-
oriented languages are designed to solve specific problems. While 3GLs
focus on procedures and how logic can be combined to solve a variety of
problems, 4GLs are nonprocedural and focus on specifying the specific tasks
the program is to accomplish. 4GLs are more English like, easier to
program, and widely used by nonprogrammers. Some of these fourth-
generation languages are used for very specific applications.
• Query languages: Query languages enable nonprogrammers to use
certain easily understood commands to search and generate reports
from a database. One of the most widely used query languages is SQL
(structured query language). For example, let’s say that Advantage
Advertising has a database containing all customer calls for service
and that their management would like a listing of all clients who
incurred overtime charges. The SQL command to create this list is
SELECT client FROM dailyLog WHERE serviceEnd > 17
SQL statement selects or identifies all clients (a field name from the
dailyLog table) that required service after 17 (military time for 5:00
P.M.)
• Application generators: An application generator or a program
coder is a program that provides modules of prewritten code. When
using an application generator, a programmer can quickly create a
program by referencing the module(s) that performs certain tasks.
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Lecture 5 Computer Principles

This greatly reduces the time to create an application. For example,

Access has a report generation application and a Report wizard for
creating a variety of different types of reports using database
information.
Problem and Constraint Languages: The Fifth Generation
As they have evolved through the generations, computer languages have
become more humanlike. Clearly, the fourth-generation query languages
using commands that include words like SELECT, FROM, and WHERE are
much more humanlike than the 0s and 1s of machine language. However,
4GLs are still a long way from the natural languages such as English and
Spanish that people use. The standard definition of a fifth-generation
language (5GL) is a computer language that incorporates the concepts of
artificial intelligence to allow a person to provide a system with a problem
and some constraints, and then request a solution. Additionally, these
languages would enable a computer to learn and to apply new information
as people do. Rather than coding by keying in specific commands, we would
communicate more directly to a computer using natural languages.
Consider the following natural language statement that might appear in a
5GL program for recommending medical treatment.
Get patientDiagnosis from patientSymptoms “sneezing”, “coughing”,
“aching”

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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

University of Technology
Computer Engineering Department
Computer Principles

Asst.Lect. Zinah Jaafer Mohammed Ameen

Lecture 6
Multimedia

Lecture Layout:

• Introduction to Multimedia
• Hypertext and Hypermedia
• Multimedia Applications
• Multimedia Systems
• Components of Multimedia System
• A brief look at Multimedia Input and Format

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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

 Introduction to Multimedia
Multimedia means that computer information can be represented through
audio, video, and animation in addition to traditional media (i.e., text,
graphics/drawings, and images). Multimedia is the field concerned with
the computer controlled integration of text, graphics, drawings, still and
moving images (Video), animation, audio, and any other media where
every type of information can be represented, stored, transmitted and
processed digitally.
 Hypertext and Hypermedia
Hypertext is a text which contains links to other texts. The term was
invented by Ted Nelson around 1965.

Traversal through pages of hypertext is therefore usually non-linear (as

indicated below).

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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

This has implications in layout and organization of material and depends

a lot on the application at hand.
Hypermedia is not constrained to be text-based. It can include other
media, e.g., graphics, images, and especially the continuous media –
sound and video.

Example Hypermedia Applications:

• The World Wide Web (WWW) is the best example of a
hypermedia application.
• Power point
• Adobe Acrobat

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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

 Multimedia Applications
Examples of Multimedia Applications include:
• World Wide Web
• Interactive TV
• Computer Games
• Digital video editing and production systems
• Multimedia Database systems
• Video conferencing
• Home shopping
 Multimedia Systems
A Multimedia System is a system capable of processing multimedia data
and applications. A Multimedia System is characterized by the
processing, storage, generation, manipulation and rendition of
Multimedia information.
Characteristics of a Multimedia System
A Multimedia system has four basic characteristics:
 Multimedia systems must be computer controlled.
 Multimedia systems are integrated.
 The information they handle must be represented digitally.
 The interface to the final presentation of media is usually
interactive.
Challenges for Multimedia Systems
Supporting multimedia applications over a computer network renders the
application to be distributed. Multimedia systems may have a variety of
media at the same instant unlike the normal applications. There is a
temporal relationship between many forms of media (e.g. Video and
Audio). There are two forms of problems might occur which are:

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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

• Sequencing within the media: playing frames in correct order/time

frame in video.
• Synchronization: inter-media scheduling (e.g. Video and Audio).
Lip synchronization is clearly important for humans to watch
playback of video and audio and even animation and audio.
The key issues multimedia systems need to deal with are:
 How to represent and store temporal information.
 How to strictly maintain the temporal relationships on
playback/retrieval.
 What processes are involved above.
 Data has to be represented digitally: Analog to Digital Conversion
such as Sampling etc.
 Large Data Requires: high bandwidth and high storage, therefore
Data compression is usually mandatory.

For the previous challenges, the following features are desirable for a
Multimedia System:
1- Very High Processing Power: needed to deal with large data
processing and real time delivery of media.

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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

2- Multimedia Capable File System: needed to deliver real-time

media e.g. Video/Audio Streaming.
3- Special Hardware/Software needed: e.g. RAID technology.
4- Data Representations: File Formats that support multimedia
should be easy to handle yet allow for compression/decompression
in real-time.
5- Efficient and High I/O: input and output to the file subsystem
needs to be efficient and fast. Needs to allow for real-time
recording e.g. Direct to Disk recording systems.
6- Special Operating System: to allow access to file system and
process data efficiently and quickly. Needs to support direct
transfers to disk, real-time scheduling, fast interrupt processing, I/O
streaming etc.
7- Storage and Memory: large storage and large memory units
(several GB or more) are needed. Large Caches also required and
high speed buses for efficient management.
8- Network Support: Client-server systems common as distributed
systems common.
9- Software Tools: user friendly tools needed to handle media,
design and develop applications, deliver media.
 Components of a Multimedia System
 Capture devices: Video Camera, Video Recorder, Audio
Microphone, Keyboards, mouse, graphics tablets, and 3D input
devices.
 Storage Devices: Hard disks, CD-ROMs, DVD-ROM, etc.
 Communication Networks: Local Networks, Intranets, Internet,
Multimedia or other special high speed networks.
 Computer Systems: Multimedia Desktop machines, Workstations,
MPEG/VIDEO/DSP Hardware.
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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

 Display Devices: CD-quality speakers, HDTV monitors, Colored

printers etc.
 A Brief Look at Multimedia Data Input and Format
 Text and Static Data
• Source: keyboard, speech input, optical character recognition, data
stored on disk.
• Data is entered character by character and Stored:
– Storage of text is 1 byte per character (text or format character).
– For other forms of data may store format as text (with
formatting) others may use other binary encoding.
• Format: Raw text or formatted text e.g HTML, Word or a program
language source (C, Pascal, etc. HTML format sequence, Sequence
of C program statements.
• Size not significant with respect to other Multimedia data.
 Graphics
• Graphics are usually editable image (unlike Images).
• Input: Graphics are usually generated by a graphics editor program.
• Graphics input devices: keyboard (for text and cursor control),
mouse and graphics tablet.
• Format: constructed by the composition of primitive objects such
as lines, polygons, circles, curves and arcs.
• Do not take up a very high storage
 Images
• Still pictures which (uncompressed) are represented as a bitmap (a
grid of pixels).
• Input: digitally scanned photographs/pictures or direct from a
digital camera. It may also be generated by programs “similar” to
graphics or animation programs.

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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

• Stored at 1 bit per pixel (Black and White), 8 Bits per pixel (Grey
Scale, Color Map) or 24 Bits per pixel (True Color)
• Size: a 512x512 Grey scale image takes up 0.23 Mb, a 512x512 24
bit image takes 0.75 Mb with no compression.
• Compression is commonly applied.
 Audio
• Audio signals are continuous analog signals.
• Input: microphones and then digitized and stored.
• CD Quality Audio requires 16-bit sampling at 44.1 KHz even
higher audiophile rates (e.g. 24-bit, 96 KHz).
• 1 Minute of Stereo CD quality (uncompressed) audio requires 10
Mb.
• Usually compressed (E.g. MP3, AAC, etc).
 Video
• Refers to recording, manipulating, and displaying moving images,
especially in a format that can be presented on a television.
• Input: Analog Video is usually captured by a video camera and
then digitized.
• There are a variety of video (analog and digital) formats
• Raw video can be regarded as being a series of single images.
There are typically 25, 30 or 50 frames per second. A larger frame
size gives better quality and a larger file. To determine how many
pixels each frame is you simply multiply the width in pixels by the
height in pixels to get the total number of pixels. A typical
640x480 TV frame (not HD) is 307200 pixels or about 0.3 MB. If
you would save one such file in an uncompressed image format,
like BMP, you would get a file at least 300kb large. If we want to
show our video in color we need to use three color channels to

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Lecture 6 Computer Principles

represent the one pixel. Today we almost always use one byte per
color channel, and although we use different color spaces we most
often need three color channels. To get the raw uncompressed size
of the video frame you then need to multiply the number of pixels
in the video frame by 3 to get the number of bytes each video
frame will take. You now have the size of the uncompressed video
frame, in our example 0.9 Megabyte.
• The size of one second video footage would then require
25*0.9=22.5 Mb. A normal movie running one and a half hour
would require 90*60*22.5 = 121500 MB = 118 GB or about 26
single layer DVDs. The obvious conclusion is that when you work
with videos you require a lot of free disk space and you need take
make it smaller with compression when you have finished creating
a video.
• A 512 ×512 size of monochrome video images take 25×0.25 =
6.25Mb for a minute to store uncompressed. Typical PAL digital
video (720×576 pixels per color frame) 1.2 ×25 = 30Mb for a
minute to store uncompressed. High Definition DVD (1440×1080
= 1.5 Megapixels per frame) 4.5×25 = 112.5Mb for a minute to
store uncompressed. (There are higher possible frame rates).
• Digital video clearly needs to be compressed for most times. JPEG,
Motion JPEG and MPEG are three well-used acronyms used to
describe different types of image compression format.

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

University of Technology
Computer Engineering Department
Computer Principles

Asst.Lect. Zinah Jaafer Mohammed Ameen

Lecture ۷
Introduction to Computer Graphics
Lecture Layout:

• Introduction to Computer Graphics

• Pixels
• Graphics Areas
• Geometric Model
• Rendering
• Shading and Materials
• Color in Computer Graphics
• Major Applications

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

 Introduction to Computer Graphics

The term computer graphics describes any use of computers to create store
and manipulate images. Computer graphics is one of the most effective and
commonly used ways to communicate the processed information to the user.
It displays the information in the form of graphics objects such as pictures,
charts, graphs and diagrams instead of simple text. Thus we can say that
computer graphics makes it possible to express data in pictorial form. The
picture or graphics object may be an engineering drawing, business graphs,
architectural structures, a single frame from an animated movie or a machine
parts illustrated for a service manual.
The computer graphics allows rotation, translation, scaling and performing
various projections on the picture before displaying it. It also allows adding
effects such as hidden surface removal, shading or transparency to the
picture before final representation. It provides user the control to modify
contents, structure, and appearance of pictures or graphics objects using
input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, or touch-sensitive panel on the
screen. There is a close relationship between the input devices and display
devices. Therefore, graphics devices includes both input devices and display
devices.

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

 Pixels

A computer image is usually represented as a discrete grid of picture

elements which is called pixels. There are special procedures determine
which pixel will provide the best approximation to the desired picture or
graphics object .The process of determining the appropriate pixels for
representing picture or graphics object is known as rasterization, and the
process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as a collection
of discrete pixels is called scan conversion. The number of pixels determines
the resolution of the image. Typical resolution ranges from 320*200 to
2000*1500. For a black and white image, a number describes the intensity of
each pixel. It can be expressed between 0.0 (black) and 1.0 (white).
However, for internal binary representation reasons, it is usually stored as an
integer between 0 (black) and 255 (white).

Left: A low-resolution digital black and white image. Right: Color.

For a color image, each pixel is described by a triple of numbers

representing the intensity of red, green and blue. For example, pure red is
(255, 0, 0) and purple is (255, 0, 255). Because the image is represented by a
discrete array of pixels, aliasing problems may occur. The
term aliasing pertains to the process of sampling something smooth and

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

continuous using a series of discrete measurements. The sampling that

occurs is due to rasterization. The most classical form of aliasing is the
aspect of lines. Anti aliasing techniques are thus required. In the case of the
line, it consists in using intermediate gray levels to “smooth” the appearance
of the line.

A line without and with anti aliasing

 Graphics Areas
Practitioners would agree on the following major areas of computer
graphics:
• Modeling the process of forming a computer model of an object's
shape. For example, a coffee mug might be described as a set of
ordered 3D points along with some interpolation rule to connect the
points and a reflection model that describes how light interacts with
the mug.
• Rendering is a term inherited from art and deals with the creation of
shaded images from 3D computer models.
• Animation is a technique to create an illusion of motion through
sequences of images. Animation uses modeling and rendering but
adds the key issue of movement over time, which is not usually dealt
with in basic modeling and rendering.

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

There are many other areas that involve computer graphics, and whether
they are core graphics areas is a matter of opinion. Such related areas
include the following:
 User interaction deals with the interface between input devices such
as mouse and tablets, the application, feedback to the user in imagery,
and other sensory feedback.
 Virtual reality attempts to immerse the user into a 3D virtual world.
This typically requires at least stereo graphics and response to head
motion. For true virtual reality, sound and force feedback should be
provided as well.
 Image processing deals with the manipulation of 2D images and is
used in both the fields of graphics and vision.
 3D scanning uses range-finding technology to create measured 3D
models. Such models are useful for creating rich visual imagery, and
the processing of such models often requires graphics algorithms.
 Computational photography is the use of computer graphics,
computer vision, and image processing methods to enable new ways
of photographically capturing objects, scenes, and environments.
 Geometric Model
Polygons
Basically, a 3D model is formed from points called vertices (or vertexes) that
define the shape and form polygons. A polygon is an area formed from at
least three vertexes (a triangle). A four-point polygon is a quad, and a
polygon of more than four points is an n-gon. The overall integrity of the
model and its suitability to use in animation depend on the structure of the
polygons. Therefore thee most classical method for modeling 3D geometry
is the use of polygons. An object is approximated by a polygonal mesh, that
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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

is a set of connected polygons. Most of the time, triangles are used for
simplicity and generality.

Left: A cow modeled as a mesh of triangles. Right: This triangle can be

stored using the coordinates of its vertices as [(2,4,2), (3,1,0), (1,1,2)].
Each polygon or triangle can be described by the 3D coordinates of its list of
vertices. The obvious limitation of triangles is that they produce a flat and
geometric appearance.
 Rendering
Projection and Rasterization
The image projection of the 3D objects is computed using linear
perspective. Given the position of the viewpoint and some camera
parameters (e.g. field of view), it is very easy to compute the projection
of a 3D point onto the 2D image. Mathematically, this can be simply
expressed using a 4*4 matrix. In most methods, the geometric entities are
then rasterized. It consists in drawing all the pixels covered by the
entity. In the example below, the projections of the 3 red points have
been computed using linear perspective, and the triangle has then been
rasterized by filling the pixels in black. For richer rendering, the color of

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

each rasterized pixel must take into account the optical properties of the
object.

 Shading and materials

Incresing the scene with light sources allows for better rendering. The
objects can be shaded according to their interaction with light. There are
various shading models. They describe how light is reflected by object,
depending on the relative orientation of the surface, light source and
viewpoint.

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

Light reflection model

This vase has been modeled as a symmetrical pattern of vertically-oriented

surfaces - tiny flat patches which approximate the round shape of the vase.
By introducing a technique called Gouraud shading, we can smooth out the
appearance of the vase and hide the individual surfaces from view. The
shading is varied on each surface in proportion to values calculated at the
edges and from neighboring surfaces.

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

 Color in Computer Graphics

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

Computers typically display color in three components - red, green, and

blue. When combined, these three colors make the full-color image seen in
the upper left of this image.
 Major Applications
• Video games increasingly use sophisticated 3D models and rendering
algorithms.
• Cartoons are often rendered directly from 3D models. Many
traditional 2D cartoons use backgrounds rendered from 3D models,
which allows a continuously moving viewpoint.
• Visual effects use almost all types of computer graphics technology.
Many films also use 3D modeling and animation to create synthetic
environments, objects, and even characters that most viewers will
never suspect are not real.
• Animated films use many of the same techniques that are used for
visual effects, but without necessarily aiming for images that look
real.
• CAD/CAM stands for computer-aided design and computer-aided
manufacturing. These fields use computer technology to design parts
and products on the computer and then, using these virtual designs, to
guide the manufacturing process. For example, many mechanical parts
are designed in a 3D computer modeling package and then
automatically produced on a computer-controlled milling device.
• Simulation can be thought of as accurate video gaming. For example,
a flight simulator uses sophisticated 3D graphics to simulate the
experience of flying an airplane. Such simulations can be extremely
useful for initial training in safety-critical domains such as driving,

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Lecture ۷ Computer Principles

and for scenario training for experienced users such as specific fire-
fighting situations that are too costly or dangerous to create
physically.
• Medical imaging creates meaningful images of scanned patient data.
Computer graphics is used to create shaded images that help doctors
extract the most salient information from such data.

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

University of Technology
Computer Engineering Department
Computer Principles

Asst.Lect. Zinah Jaafer Mohammed Ameen

Lecture 8
Communications and Networks
Lecture Layout:

• Communications
• Communication Systems
• Communication Channels
• Connection Devices
• Connection Service
• Data Transmission
• Networks

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

 Communications
Computer communications is the process of sharing data, programs,
and information between two or more computers. There are numerous
applications that depend on communication systems, including:
• E-mail: provides a fast, efficient alternative to traditional mail
by sending and receiving electronic documents.
• Instant messaging: supports direct, “live” electronic
communication between two or more friends.
• Internet telephone: provides a very low-cost alternative to
long-distance telephone calls using electronic voice and video
delivery.
• Electronic commerce: buying and selling goods electronically.

Connectivity
Connectivity is a concept related to using computer networks to link people
and resources. For example, connectivity means that you can connect your
microcomputer to other computers and information sources almost
anywhere. With this connection, you are linked to the world of larger
computers and the Internet. This includes hundreds of thousands of Web
servers and their extensive information resources. Thus, becoming computer
competent and knowledgeable becomes a matter of knowing not only about
connectivity through networks to microcomputers, but also about larger
computer systems and their information resources.
 Communication Systems
Communication systems are electronic systems that transmit data from one
location to another. Whether wired or wireless, every communication system
has four basic elements:

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

• Sending and receiving devices: These are often a computer or

specialized communication device. They originate (send) as well as
accept (receive) messages in the form of data, information, and/or
instructions.
• Communication channel: This is the actual connecting or
transmission medium that carries the message. This medium can be a
physical wire or cable, or it can be wireless.
• Connection devices: These devices act as an interface between the
sending and receiving devices and the communication channel. They
convert outgoing messages into packets that can travel across the
communication channel. They also reverse the process for incoming
messages.
• Data transmission specifications: These are rules and procedures
that coordinate the sending and receiving devices by precisely
defining how the message will be sent across the communication
channel.

 Communication Channels
Communication channels are an essential element of every communication
system. These channels actually carry the data from one computer to
another. There are two categories of communication channels. One category
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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

connects sending and receiving devices by providing a physical connection,

such as a wire or cable. The other category is wireless.
 Physical Connections
Physical connections use a solid medium to connect sending and receiving
devices. These connections include telephone lines (twisted pair), coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• Twisted-pair cable: consists of pairs of copper wire that are twisted
together. Both standard telephone lines and Ethernet cables use
twisted pair. Ethernet cables are often used in networks and to connect
a variety of components to the system unit.

• Coaxial cable: a high-frequency transmission cable, replaces the

multiple wires of telephone lines with a single solid-copper core. In
terms of the number of telephone connections, a coaxial cable has
over 80 times the transmission capacity of twisted pair. Coaxial cable
is used to deliver television signals as well as to connect computers in
a network.

• Fiber-optic cable: transmits data as pulses of light through tiny tubes

of glass. In terms of the number of telephone connections, fiber-optic
cable has over 26,000 times the transmission capacity of twisted-pair
cable. Compared to coaxial cable, it is lighter, faster, and more

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

reliable at transmitting data. Fiber-optic cable is rapidly replacing

twisted-pair cable telephone lines.

 Wireless Connections
Wireless connections do not use a solid substance to connect sending and
receiving devices. Rather, they move data through the air. Primary
technologies used for wireless connections are radio frequency, microwave,
satellite, and infrared.
• Radio frequency (RF): uses radio signals to communicate between
wireless devices. For example, smart phones and many Internet-
enabled devices use RF to place telephone calls and/or to connect to
the Internet. Most home or business wireless networks are based on a
technology called Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) to communicate over
short distances. A number of standards for Wi-Fi exist, and each can
send and receive data at a different speed. Bluetooth is a short-range
radio communication standard that transmits data over short distances
of up to approximately 33 feet. Bluetooth is widely used for wireless
head sets, printer connections, and handheld devices. The range of
Wi-Fi networks is being extended over greater distances using a new
technology known as WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access). WiMax is commonly used by universities and
others to extend the capability of existing Wi-Fi networks.

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

• Microwave: communication uses high-frequency radio waves. Like

infrared, microwave communication provides line-of-sight
communication because microwaves travel in a straight line. Because
the waves cannot bend with the curvature of the earth, they can be
transmitted only over relatively short distances. Thus, microwave is a
good medium for sending data between buildings in a city or on a
large college campus. For longer distances, the waves must be relayed
by means of microwave stations with microwave dishes or antennas.

• Satellite: communication uses satellites orbiting about 22,000 miles

above the earth as microwave relay stations. Many of these are offered
by Intelsat, the International Telecommunications Satellite
Consortium, which is owned by 114 governments and forms a
worldwide communication system. Satellites rotate at a precise point

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

and speed above the earth. They can amplify and relay microwave
signals from one transmitter on the ground to another. Satellites can
be used to send and receive large volumes of data. Uplink is a term
relating to sending data to a satellite. Downlink refers to receiving
data from a satellite. The major drawback to satellite communication
is that bad weather can sometimes interrupt the flow of data. One of
the most interesting applications of satellite communications is for
global positioning. A network of 24 satellites owned and managed by
the Defense Department continuously sends location information to
earth. Global positioning system (GPS) devices use that information
to uniquely determine the geographical location of the device.
Available in many automobiles to provide navigational support, these
systems are often mounted into the dash with a monitor to display
maps and speakers to provide spoken directions. Many of today’s cell
phones, including the Apple iPhone, use GPS technology for handheld
navigation.

• Infrared: uses infrared light waves to communicate over short

distances. It is sometimes referred to as line-of-sight communication
because the light waves can only travel in a straight line. This requires

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

that sending and receiving devices must be in clear view of one

another without any obstructions blocking that view. One of the most
common applications is to transfer data and information from a
portable device such as a notebook computer or PDA to a desktop
computer.
 Connection Devices
At one time nearly all computer communication used telephone lines.
However, because the telephone was originally designed for voice
transmission, telephones typically send and receive analog signals,
which are continuous electronic waves. Computers, in contrast, send and
receive digital signals. These represent the presence or absence of an
electronic pulse the on/off binary signals. To convert the digital signals to
analog signals and vice versa a modem is used.

Modems
The word modem is short for modulator-demodulator. Modulation is the
name of the process of converting from digital to analog. Demodulation is
the process of converting from analog to digital. The modem enables digital
microcomputers to communicate across different media, including telephone
wires, cable lines, and radio waves. The speed with which modems transmit
data varies. This speed, called transfer rate, is typically measured in
thousands of bits (kilobits) per second (Kbps). The higher the speed, the
faster you can send and receive information. For example, transferring an
image like Figure 9-10 might take 5 seconds with a 500 Kbps modem and

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

less than 3 seconds with an 850 Kbps modem. There are four commonly
used types of modems: telephone, DSL, cable, and wireless.
• A telephone modem is used to connect a computer directly to a
telephone line. These modems can be either internal or external.
Internal modems are on an expansion card that plugs into a slot on the
system board. An external modem is typically connected to the system
unit through a serial or USB port.
• A DSL (digital subscriber line) modem uses standard phone lines to
create a high-speed connection directly to your phone company’s
offices. These devices are usually external and connect to the system
unit using either USB or Ethernet ports.
• A cable modem uses the same coaxial cable as your television. Like a
DSL modem, a cable modem creates high-speed connections using the
system unit’s USB or Ethernet port.
• A wireless modem is also known as a WWAN (wireless wide area
network) modem. It is usually a small plug-in USB or Card device
that provides very portable high-speed connectivity from virtually
anywhere.

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

 Connection Service
For years, large corporations have been leasing special high-speed lines from
telephone companies. Originally, these were copper lines, known as T1
lines, that could be combined to form higher-capacity options known as T3
or DS3 lines. These lines have largely been replaced by optical carrier
(OC) lines, which are substantially much faster. While the special high-
speed lines are too costly for most individuals, Internet service providers do
provide affordable connections. For years, individuals relied on dial-up
services using existing telephones and telephone modems to connect to the
Internet. This type of service has been replaced by higher-speed connection
services including DSL, cable, satellite, and cellular services.
• Digital subscriber line (DSL) service is provided by telephone
companies using existing telephone lines to provide high-speed
connections.
• ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) is one of the most
widely used types of DSL. DSL is much faster than dial-up.
• Cable service is provided by cable television companies using their
existing television cables. These connections are faster than DSL.
• Satellite connection services use satellites to provide wireless
connections. While slower than DSL and cable modem, satellite
connections are available almost anywhere using a satellite-receiving
disk.
• Cellular services use 3G and 4G cellular networks to provide
wireless connectivity to the Internet. Although not as fast as the other
services, cellular services are rapidly growing in popularity for mobile
devices such as cell phones and other portable devices.

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

 Data Transmission
Several factors affect how data is transmitted. These factors include
bandwidth and protocols.
 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is a measurement of the width or capacity of the
communication channel. Effectively, it means how much information can
move across the communication channel in a given amount of time. For
example, to transmit text documents, a slow bandwidth would be
acceptable. However, to effectively transmit video and audio, a wider
bandwidth is required. There are four categories of bandwidth.
• Voice band, also known as low bandwidth, is used for standard
telephone communication. Microcomputers with telephone modems
and dial-up service use this bandwidth. While effective for
transmitting text documents, it is too slow for many types of
transmission, including high-quality audio and video.
• Medium band is used in special leased lines to connect
minicomputers and mainframes as well as to transmit data over long
distances. This bandwidth is capable of very high-speed data transfer.
• Broadband is widely used for DSL, cable, and satellite connections
to the Internet. Several users can simultaneously use a single
broadband connection for high-speed data transfer.

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

• Baseband is widely used to connect individual computers that are

located close to one another. Like broadband, it is able to support
high-speed transmission. Unlike broadband, however, baseband can
only carry a single signal at one time.
 Protocols
For data transmission to be successful, sending and receiving devices
must follow a set of communication rules for the exchange of
information. These rules for exchanging data between computers are
known as protocols. The standard protocol for the Internet is TCP/IP
(transmission control protocol/Internet protocol). The essential
features of this protocol involve (1) identifying sending and receiving
devices and (2) breaking information into small parts for transmission
across the Internet.
• Identification: Every computer on the Internet has a unique numeric
address called an IP address (Internet protocol address). Similar to
the way a postal service uses addresses to deliver mail, the Internet
uses IP addresses to deliver e-mail and to locate Web sites. Because
these numeric addresses are difficult for people to remember and use,
a system was developed to automatically convert text-based addresses
to numeric IP addresses. This system uses a domain name server
(DNS) that converts text-based addresses to IP addresses. For
example, whenever you enter a URL, say www.google.com a DNS
converts this to an IP address before a connection can be made.
• Packetization: Information sent or transmitted across the Internet
usually travels through numerous interconnected networks. Before the
message is sent, it is reformatted or broken down into small parts
called packets. Each packet is then sent separately over the Internet,
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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

possibly traveling different routes to one common destination. At the

receiving end, the packets are reassembled into the correct order.

 Networks
A computer network is a communication system that connects two or more
computers so that they can exchange information and share resources.
Networks can be set up in different arrangements to suit users’ needs.
 Terms
There are a number of specialized terms that describe computer networks.
These terms include
• Node: any device that is connected to a network. It could be a
computer, printer, or data storage device.
• Client: a node that requests and uses resources available from other
nodes. Typically, a client is a user’s microcomputer.
• Server: a node that shares resources with other nodes. Dedicated
servers specialize in performing specific tasks. Depending on the
specific task, they may be called an application server,
communication server, database server, file server, printer server, or
Web server.
• Directory server: a specialized server that manages resources, such
as user accounts, for an entire network.
• Host: any computer system that can be accessed over a network.

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

• Switch: central node that coordinates the flow of data by sending

messages directly between sender and receiver nodes. A hub
previously filled this purpose by sending a received message to all
connected nodes, rather than just the intended node.
• Network interface cards (NIC): as discussed earlier, these are
expansion cards located within the system unit that connect the
computer to a network. Sometimes referred to as a LAN adapter.
• Network operating systems (NOS): control and coordinate the
activities of all computers and other devices on a network. These
activities include electronic communication and the sharing of
information and resources.
• Network administrator: a computer specialist responsible for
efficient network operations and implementation of new networks.

A network may consist only of microcomputers, or it may integrate

microcomputers or other devices with larger computers. Networks can be
controlled by all nodes working together equally or by specialized nodes
coordinating and supplying all resources. Networks may be simple or
complex, self-contained or dispersed over a large geographical area.

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Lecture 8 Computer Principles

15