University: Batna 2

Department: English Course: Research Techniques

Lecture 2: Population and Sampling

Introduction

When engaging in research concerning a specific group of people, it's seldom feasible to

gather information from every individual within that group. Instead, you opt for a sample. This

sample represents the subset of individuals who will actively take part in the research.

To derive reliable conclusions from your findings, it is crucial to thoughtfully determine

the method by which you will choose a sample that accurately reflects the entire group. This

process is known as a sampling method. In your research, there are two main types of sampling

methods that you can employ.

Probability sampling entails random selection, enabling robust statistical inferences about the

entire group.

Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection, often based on convenience or

specific criteria, facilitating the easy collection of data.

 In the methodology section of your paper or thesis, it is essential to clearly articulate how

you chose your sample and outline your strategies for minimizing research bias in your

work.

Population vs. sample

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample, and

identify the target population of your research.

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.

 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

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The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, or many other

characteristics. It can be very broad or quite narrow

 It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose and

practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically dispersed, it might be

difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A lack of a representative sample affects

the validity of your results, and can lead to several research biases, particularly sampling bias.

Sample size

The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various factors,

including the size and variability of the population and your research design. There are

different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you want to achieve

with statistical analysis.

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Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being
selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are
representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being

selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

techniques that are based entirely on chance.

2. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to

conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly

generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10

numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th

person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100

people.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in

important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is

properly represented in the sample. To use this sampling method, you divide the population into

subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range,

income bracket, job role). Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how

many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic

sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example: The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to ensure

that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two

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strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and

20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should

have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each

subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups. If it is practically possible, you might include

every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also

sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is

called multistage sampling.

Example: The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same

number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to

collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and

not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling

bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with

probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability

sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

 Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative

research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad

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 population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched

population.

1. Convenience sampling

A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible

to the researcher.

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 This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the

sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience

samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after

each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a

convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you

at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.

Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer

themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Example: You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students decide

to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who

responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student support

services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling

This type of sampling, also known as judgment sampling, involves the researcher using their

expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research. It is often used

in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific

phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and

specific.

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Example: You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at

your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in

order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.

4. Snowball sampling

If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants

via other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in

contact with more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of

knowing how representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others.

This can lead to sampling bias.

Example: You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of

all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who

agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that

she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling

Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or

proportion of units. This is called a quota. You first divide the population into mutually exclusive

subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units

share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota

sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.

Example: You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery service in Boston,

focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and

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vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all consumers,

you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary preferences are

equally represented in your research, and you can easily compare these groups. You continue

recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each subgroup.

Conclusion

Many criteria must, in fact, be considered in designing a sample. The sampling strategy,

the characteristics of the sample, and the type of the sample itself must be planned and deliberate.

Arbitrariness must be substituted with suitability, and the purposes of the research must go hand

in hand with all the aforementioned choices.