Sampling

• Randomization
• Environmental Sampling
(Quadrats/transects, pitfall traps,
pooters, tree beating,
Ramdomization
Probability sampling
methods
 Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the
population has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in
quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are
representative of the whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.
There are four main types of probability sample.
1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of
the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include
the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use
tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on
chance.
Example: Simple random samplingYou want
to select a simple random sample of 1000
employees of a social media marketing
company. You assign a number to every
employee in the company database from 1 to
1000, and use a random number generator
By using simple random sampling, researchers can draw
conclusions that are more likely to represent the views
and characteristics of the entire population, thus
enhancing the reliability of their findings. This technique
is particularly useful in situations where every
individual's input is crucial, such as in market research,
opinion polling, and quality assurance assessments.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple
random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the
population is listed with a number, but instead
of randomly generating numbers, individuals
are chosen at regular intervals.
Example: Systematic samplingAll employees
of the company are listed in alphabetical
order. From the first 10 numbers, you
randomly select a starting point: number 6.
From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on
the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on),
and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
This method ensures that the sample is spread evenly across the
population, reducing the risk of clustering and providing a more
representative overview of the entire group. Systematic
sampling is particularly useful in situations where the population
is large and obtaining a simple random sample would be time-
consuming or impractical. It is important, however, to ensure
that there is no hidden pattern in the population that could bias
the results. For instance, if every 10th individual on the list
shares a common characteristic, this could skew the findings.
Despite this, systematic sampling remains a popular choice due
to its simplicity and efficiency in various research fields.
 3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the
population into subpopulations that may
differ in important ways. It allows you draw
more precise conclusions by ensuring that
every subgroup is properly represented in
the sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide
the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.,
gender identity, age range, income bracket,
job role).
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many
people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or
systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees
and 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects
the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into
two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each
group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a
representative sample of 100 people.

This technique is particularly useful when you know certain

characteristics of the population that need to be reflected
proportionally in the sample. By dividing the population into strata
based on these characteristics and then applying random sampling
within each stratum, you can achieve a sample that mirrors the
diversity and structure of the original group. This approach improves
the accuracy and reliability of the results, making them more
 Cluster sampling starts by dividing
a population into groups or
clusters. What makes this
different from stratified sampling
is that each cluster must be
representative
50
of the larger
population. Then, you randomly
select entire clusters to sample.
For example, if a school had five different eighth grade
classes, cluster random sampling means any one class
would serve as a sample.
This method is particularly useful when dealing with
large and geographically spread-out populations, as it
can significantly reduce travel and administrative costs
associated with data collection. For instance, if a
researcher wanted to study dietary habits across a
country, they might divide the country into regions
(clusters) and then randomly select a few regions to
conduct detailed surveys. This approach ensures that
the selected clusters collectively mirror the diversity and
characteristics of the entire population.
Non-probability sampling
methods
 Non-probability sampling methods
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-
random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being
included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher
risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about
the population are weaker than with probability samples, and your
conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample,
you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as
possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and
qualitative research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a
hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial
 1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes
the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to
gather initial data, but there is no way to
tell if the sample is representative of the
population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results. Convenience
samples are at risk for both sampling
bias and selection bias.
Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student support services in
your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a
survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students
taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the
students at your university.
 Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement
sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to
the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research, where the
researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a
specific phenomenon rather than make statistical
inferences, or where the population is very small and
specific. An effective purposive sample must have
clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make
sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria
and beware of observer bias affecting your
arguments.
Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with
different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with
student services.
 Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball
sampling can be used to recruit participants
via other participants. The number of people
you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
contact with more people. The downside
here is also representativeness, as you have
no way of knowing how representative your
sample is due to the reliance on participants
recruiting others. This can lead to sampling
bias.

Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of homelessness in

your city. Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability
sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate in the
research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that she knows
 . Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random
selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually
exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then
recruit sample units until you reach your
quota. These units share specific
characteristics, determined by you prior to
forming your strata. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up
Example: Quota samplingYou want to gaugeyour sample.
consumer interest in a new produce delivery service in Boston,
focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans,
drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all consumers, you set a quota of
200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary preferences are equally represented in your
research, and you can easily compare these groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200
participants for each subgroup.
Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly
based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and
directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to
a public online survey).
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some
people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-
selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all students
at your university and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can
certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who responded
are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student
support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of
all students.
____________1. A sample of 2,000 was sought to estimate the average achievement in science
of fifth graders in a city’s public schools. The average fifth grade enrollment in the city’s
elementary schools is 100 students. Thus, 20 schools were randomly selected and within each
of those schools all fifth graders were tested.

____________2. A researcher has a population of 100 third grade children from a local school
district from which a sample of 25 children is to be selected. Each child’s name is put on a list,
and each child is assigned a number from 1 to 100. Then the numbers 1 to 100 are written on
separate pieces of paper and shuffled. Finally, the researcher picks 25 slips of paper and the
numbers on the paper determine the 25 participants.

____________3. Every 100th hamburger manufactured is checked to determine its fat content.

____________4. A sociologist conducts an opinion survey in a major city. Part of the research plan
calls for describing and comparing the opinions of four different ethnic groups: African
Americans, Asian Americans, European Americans, and Native Americans. For a total sample of
300, the researcher selects 75 participants from each of the four predetermined subgroups.
____________5. A researcher is interested in political attitudes of individuals within a particular state. The
researcher uses the following procedure to obtain a sample: (a) a random sample of counties is drawn,
(b) within the counties selected, districts are randomly drawn, (c) within each district, blocks are
randomly sampled, (d) within blocks selected, building are randomly drawn, and (d) all residents within
the buildings selected comprise the sample.

____________6. Instructors teaching research methods are interested in knowing what study techniques
their students are utilizing. Rather than assessing all students, the researchers randomly select 10
students from each of the sections to comprise their sample.

____________7. A researcher is interested in maximum-security inmates. She groups maximum-security

prisons by state, randomly selects 10 states, and, from those 10, selects three prisons. She includes all
the inmates in those three prisons in her sample.
___________8. A quality control worker at a factory selects the first 10 items she sees as her sample for the
day.

____________9. Nursing supervisors are selected using random numbers to determine annual salaries.

____________10. Mail carriers of a large city are divided into four groups according to gender (male or
female) and according to whether they walk or ride on their routes. Then 10 are selected from each group
and interviewed to determine whether they have been bitten by a dog in the last year.