PSYCHOLOGICAL

STATISTICS
 What is
Sampling?
 What is Sampling?
When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s
rarely possible to collect data from every person in that
group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is the
group of individuals who will actually participate in the
research.
To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to
carefully decide how you will select a sample that is
representative of the group as a whole. This is called a
sampling method.
 What is Sampling Frame?
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the
sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire
target population (and nobody who is not part of that
population).
Example:
You are doing research on working conditions at a social
media marketing company. Your population is all 1000
employees of the company. Your sampling frame is the
company’s HR database, which lists the names and contact
details of every employee.
 What is Sample Size?
The number of individuals you should include in your
sample depends on various factors, including the size
and variability of the population and your research
design.

There are different sample size calculators and

formulas depending on what you want to achieve with
statistical analysis.
 What is Sampling Bias?
Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population
are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than
others. It is also called ascertainment bias in medical fields.

Sampling bias limits the generalizability of findings because it

is a threat to external validity, specifically population validity.

In other words, findings from biased samples can only be

generalized to populations that share characteristics with
the sample.
 What is Sampling Error?
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an
analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire
population of data.

As a result, the results found in the sample do not represent

the results that would be obtained from the entire
population.
 What is Sampling?
There are two primary types of sampling methods
that you can use in your research:

Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you

to make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection
based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily
collect data.
 What is Probability sampling?
Probability sampling means that every member of
the population has a chance of being selected. It is
mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to
produce results that are representative of the whole
population, probability sampling techniques are the
most valid choice.
There are four main types of probability sample.
What is Probability sampling?
 Simple Random Sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population
has an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame
should include the whole population.

Example:
You want to select a simple random sample of 1000
employees of a social media marketing company. You assign
a number to every employee in the company database from
1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100
numbers.
 Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but
it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the
population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example:
All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical
order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a
starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every
10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on),
and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
 Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you
draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into

subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic
(e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).
 Stratified Sampling
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how
many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use
random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each
subgroup.

Example:
The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees.
You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of
the company, so you sort the population into two strata based on
gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting
80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of
100 people.
 Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling
individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire
subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual

from each sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large,
you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using
one of the techniques above. This is called multistage
sampling.
 Cluster Sampling
This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations,
but there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be
substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee
that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole
population.

Example:
The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t
have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so
you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your
clusters.
 What is Non-Probability sampling?
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on
non-random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of
being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a

higher risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can
make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a
non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as
representative of the population as possible.
What is Non-Probability sampling?
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in
exploratory and qualitative research.

In these types of research, the aim is not to test a

hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an
initial understanding of a small or under-researched
population.
What is Non-Probability sampling?
 Convenience Sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals
who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial

data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk
for both sampling bias and selection bias.
 Convenience Sampling
Example:
You are researching opinions about student support
services in your university, so after each of your classes,
you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the
topic.
This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only
surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the
same level, the sample is not representative of all the
students at your university.
 Purposive Sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling,
involves the researcher using their expertise to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher

wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific
phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific.
 Purposive Sampling
An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and
rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion
and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your
arguments.

Example:
You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select
a number of students with different support needs in order to
gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student
services.
 Snowball Sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be
used to recruit participants via other participants.

The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get

in contact with more people.

The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no

way of knowing how representative your sample is due to the
reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to
sampling bias.
 Snowball Sampling
Example:
You are researching experiences of homelessness in your
city. Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city,
probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person
who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts
you in contact with other homeless people that she knows
in the area.
 Quota Sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a
quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups

(called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your
quota.

These units share specific characteristics, determined by you

prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to
control what or who makes up your sample.
 Quota Sampling
Example:

You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery

service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the
population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a
sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all
consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group.
In this way, all dietary preferences are equally represented in your
research, and you can easily compare these groups. You continue
recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each
subgroup.
 Voluntary Response Sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample
is mainly based on ease of access.

Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly

contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by
responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat

biased, as some people will inherently be more likely to
volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.
 Voluntary Response Sampling
Example:

You send out the survey to all students at your university

and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can
certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the
people who responded are more likely to be those who
have strong opinions about the student support services,
so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative
of all students.