HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

1. The reproductive system consists of a man's collection of organs and a woman's

network of hormone production that allows her to get pregnant and give birth to a
child. An egg cell from the woman and a sperm cell from the man combine during
conception to form a fertilized egg, or embryo, which implants and develops in the
uterus throughout pregnancy. The purpose of the female reproductive system is to
create ova, or oocytes, which are the single eggs required for reproduction. It also
generates female sex hormones that keep the reproductive cycle going and incubates
and nurtures a fertilized egg until it is fully formed. It consists of the two tiny, oval-
shaped glands called ovaries, which are situated on either side of the uterus. They
generate oestrogen, the female sex hormone, and are the home of the female sex cells
known as eggs. A fertilized egg travels through the tiny fallopian tubes to reach the
uterus. Between the bladder and the rectum in a woman's lower abdomen, the uterus
is a hollow, pear-shaped structure. Known by another name, the "womb," it is where
the foetus is kept during pregnancy. The lower, narrow portion of the uterus that lies
between the bladder and the rectum is called the cervix. It creates a channel that the
vagina opens into. Polyps, which are growths in the cervix, can occasionally interfere
with the process of fertilization or embryo development. The cervix, or bottom section
of the uterus, is joined by the vagina, also referred to as the birth canal. Lastly the
vulva which is the external portion of the female genital organs. The majority of male
reproductive organs are external, in contrast to those found in the female reproductive
system. The main male reproductive organ, the testes are where sperm and
testosterone are produced. Each testicle has a C-shaped tube called the epididymis
resting on its back. Since the sperm that emerge from the testes are immature and
unable to fertilize, it transports, stores, and matures the sperm cells that are created in
the testes. A long, muscular tube called the vas deferens extends from the epididymis
into the pelvic cavity and ends right behind the bladder. To prepare for ejaculation,
mature sperm are transported via the vas deferens to the urethra, the tube that takes
sperm or urine outside of the body. The sac-like organ that hangs below and behind
the penis is called the scrotum. It is home to numerous blood arteries and nerves, as
well as the testicles, also known as the testes. The sac-like organ that hangs below and
behind the penis is called the scrotum. It is home to numerous blood arteries and
 nerves, as well as the testicles, also known as the testes. The prostate gland is
encircled by a smooth muscle layer, an outer fibrous layer, and a glandular material
composed of columnar epithelial cells. It is in the pelvic cavity in front of the rectum.
To supplement the bulk of the semen, it secretes a thin, milky fluid containing
calcium, citrate, and phosphate ions as well as some fibrinogen and prostaglandins.
The columnar epithelium that covers the seminal vesicles, a tiny fibromuscular organ,
is located on either side of the bladder. Each seminal vesicle releases its contents onto
the ejaculatory duct after the sperm are transported there by spermatid cords.
2. Haploid gametes are produced by both oogenesis and spermatogenesis. They both
involve two meiotic cycles. While the beginning of the first round of meiosis and the
finish of the process can occur up to 50 years apart in oogenesis, both rounds of
meiosis occur within a few days of each other in spermatogenesis. In both types of
meiosis, the germline starts to differentiate prior to birth. At meiosis one's prophase,
oogenesis stops for several years. A woman's lifetime supply of eggs is contained in
the cells that have been arrested at this point, and existing technologies are unable to
produce more of them. Conversely, spermatogenesis is an ongoing process whereby
germ cells multiply to continuously regenerate sperm. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis
are the processes of the formation of male and female gametes. Spermatogenesis leads
to the formation of sperms, whereas oogenesis helps in the formation of ova. The
fertilization of sperm and ova leads to the formation of a zygote which further
develops into an embryo.
3. The process by which haploid sperm are produced from "spermatogonium" is known
as spermatogenesis. It takes place in the testes, where all phases are finished. It is a
continuous process that results in motile gametes, which can produce 200–300 million
sperm during a single ejaculation. 60% of the sperm are non-motile, and 40% are
motile. In a male, the usual range for semen should be within 100 million/ml.
Conversely, Oogenesis is the reproductive stage in which "Oogonium" produces a
haploid ovum. Oogenesis takes place inside the ovary, in contrast to spermatogenesis.
The ovary is where the main stage of oogenesis takes place. During oogenesis, a
female fetus's ovary produces 7 million initial oocytes, which eventually reduce to 2-4
million. The last few stages occur in the oviduct. Unlike the spermatogenesis, the
oogenesis produces non-motile gametes and lastly, an unequal cytokinesis occurs
during oogenesis ultimately producing one large ovum and tiny polar bodies.
4.

The pituitary gland in your endocrine system uses gonadotropin-releasing

hormone (GnRH) to stimulate the production of follicle-stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone. These gonadotropins (hormones) make the sex hormones
testosterone, oestrogen, and progesterone. GnRH is vital to your sexual maturity, sex
drive and fertility. Gonadotropin hormone-releasing hormone (GnRH) is the key
regulator of the reproductive axis. Its pulsatile secretion determines the pattern of
secretion of the gonadotropin’s follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone,
which then regulate both the endocrine function and gamete maturation in the
gonads.
Oestrogen contributes to cognitive health, bone health, the function of
the cardiovascular system, and other essential bodily processes. In addition
to regulating the menstrual cycle, oestrogen affects the reproductive tract, the urinary
tract, the heart and blood vessels, bones, breasts, skin, hair, mucous membranes,
pelvic muscles, and the brain. Oestrogen inhibits FSH. When oestrogen rises to a high
enough level it causes a surge in LH from the pituitary which causes ovulation. where
an egg is released from the follicle (Day 14 of the cycle).
Luteinizing hormone is a part of a neurological pathway comprised of the
hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and gonads. In this pathway, LH release is
stimulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and inhibited by oestrogen in
females and testosterone in males. LH contributes to the maturation of primordial
germ cells. In men, LH causes the Leydig cells of the testes to produce testosterone.
In women, LH triggers the creation of steroid hormones from the ovaries.
Additionally, LH helps to regulate the length and order of the menstrual cycle in
females by playing roles in both ovulation and implantation of an egg in the uterus.

5. The first day of your last menstrual period (LMP) marks the beginning of your
pregnancy. This is the foetus’s gestational age. It happens around two weeks before
actual conception. The first day of your last menstruation will be a significant date in
establishing your due date, even though this may seem weird. This date will be a topic
of discussion with your healthcare practitioner, who will use it to determine your
pregnancy's progress. There are three stages of foetal development: germinal,
embryonic, and foetal. The first two weeks after conception are known as the
germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the embryonic period,
and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the foetal period. The
shortest stage of foetal development is called the germinal stage. When a sperm and
an egg unite in your fallopian tube during conception, it starts. The zygote is produced
when the sperm fertilizes the egg. Over the course of around a week, the zygote starts
its descent into your uterus. The zygote divides numerous times during this process,
ultimately producing two distinct structures. Ultimately, one structure develops into
the embryo and, subsequently, the foetus, while the other becomes the placenta. Cell
division is still happening quickly. Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours
after conception. Through the process of mitosis, the zygote first divides into two
cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A significant number of zygotes never
progress past this early part of cell division, with as many as half of all zygotes
surviving less than two weeks. Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells
begin to differentiate and take on certain characteristics that will determine the type of
cells they will eventually become. As the cells multiply, they will also separate into
two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually become the placenta, while the
inner cells form the embryo. Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the
approximately week-long journey from fallopian tube to uterus wall. The cells
develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three layers,
each of which develops into different structures in the body. The zygote eventually
develops into a blastocyst. When the blastocyst reaches your uterus, it attaches itself
in the lining of your uterus. The moment implantation goes well, your body starts
generating the necessary hormones to sustain a pregnancy. Additionally, this ends
your menstrual cycle. Approximately the third week of pregnancy to the eighth week
of pregnancy is when the embryonic stage occurs. The blastocyst starts exhibiting
traits unique to humans. We now refer to it as an embryo. The neural tube, which
gives rise to the brain and spinal cord, as well as the head, eyes, mouth, and limbs, are
among the structures and organs that form. During the sixth week of development, the
heart starts to beat and develop. Around week six, buds that eventually grow into
limbs and legs also begin to appear. Most of the embryo’s systems and organs begin
to take shape by the end of the eighth week. This is often the time of pregnancy when
morning sickness starts for most women. Around the ninth week, the foetal stage of
development starts, and it lasts until birth. At this point, the embryo formally becomes
 a foetus. Though it is not yet visible on an ultrasound, the foetus has its assigned sex
about nine weeks of pregnancy. The main bodily systems and organs of the foetus
keep developing and growing. Hair, lashes, and fingernails are examples of growing
things. You might not feel the foetus moving its limbs until 20 weeks into the
pregnancy, but it can do so. Most of the growth occurs during the foetal stage, both in
terms of weight and length.

6. The placental membrane is where the mother and f0etus exchange gases, nutrients,
etc. The membrane forms by the syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast, embryonic
connective tissue (Wharton's jelly), and the endothelium of foetal blood vessels. The
placenta has several cellular structures to protect the health of the foetus. We can find
substances that are part of the superfamily of ATP binding cassettes (ABC), such as
multidrug resistance protein type 1, breast cancer resistance protein, multidrug
resistance like protein type 2 and 5. The placenta can be considered an immune and
endocrine organ. It produces many hormones and growth factors in autocrine and
paracrine modalities, such as progesterone, corticotropin-releasing hormone, the
human chorionic gonadotropin, the human placental lactogen, fibroblast growth
factor, and many others.

7. During pregnancy, the foetal circulatory system works differently than after birth. The
foetus is connected by the umbilical cord to the placenta. This is the organ that
develops and implants in the mother's uterus during pregnancy. Through the blood
vessels in the umbilical cord, the foetus gets all needed nutrition and oxygen. The
foetus gets life support from the mother through the placenta. Waste products and
carbon dioxide from the foetus are sent back through the umbilical cord and placenta
to the mother's circulation to be removed. The foetal circulatory system uses 3 shunts.
These are small passages that direct blood that needs to be oxygenated. The purpose
of these shunts is to bypass the lungs and liver. That's because these organs will not
work fully until after birth. The shunt that bypasses the lungs is called the foramen
ovule. This shunt moves blood from the right atrium of the heart to the left atrium.
The ductus arteriosus moves blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta. Oxygen
and nutrients from the mother's blood are sent across the placenta to the foetus. The
 enriched blood flows through the umbilical cord to the liver and splits into 3 branches.
The blood then reaches the inferior vena cava. This is a major vein connected to the
heart. Most of this blood is sent through the ductus venosus. This is also a shunt that
lets highly oxygenated blood bypass the liver to the inferior vena cava and then to the
right atrium of the heart. A small amount of this blood goes straight to the liver to
give it the oxygen and nutrients it needs. Waste products from the foetal blood are
transferred back across the placenta to the mother's blood. The closure of the ductus
arteriosus, ductus venosus, and foramen ovale completes the change of fetal
circulation to newborn circulation.

8. When labor commences and reaches its peak cervical dilation of 10 cm, the first stage
of labor has begun. For several reasons related to the mother or the fetus, labor can
either start naturally or be medically induced. The degree of cervical dilatation further
divides the first stage of labor into two parts. The active phase begins at 6 cm and
extends to full cervical dilatation, while the latent phase is generally characterized as
the range between 0 and 6 cm. During the first stage, the exhibiting fetal portion also
initiates the process of engagement into the pelvis. Cervical dilatation and effacement,
as well as the location of the fetus, are all assessed serially during the initial stage of
labor. The cervical length in the anterior-posterior plane is referred to as cervical
effacement. 100% effacement is the term used to describe the situation where the
cervix is entirely thinned out and no length remains. The location of the fetus within
the mother's pelvis defines its station. The fetus in 0 station when the bony fetal
presenting section is in line with the mother's ischial spine. Stations -1 to -5
centimeters and +1 to +5 centimeters are located proximal and distal, respectively, to
the ischial spines. The first stage of labor contains a latent phase and an active phase.
During the latent phase, the cervix dilates slowly to approximately 6 centimeters. The
latent phase is generally considerably longer and less predictable regarding the rate of
cervical change than is observed in the active phase. The cervix changes more rapidly
and predictably in the active phase until it reaches 10 centimeters and cervical
dilation, and effacement are complete. Active labor with more rapid cervical dilation
generally starts around 6 centimeters of dilation. During the active phase, the cervix
typically dilates at a rate of 1.2 to 1.5 centimeters per hour. The second stage of labor
commences with complete cervical dilation to 10 centimeters and ends with the
delivery of the neonate. After cervical dilation is complete, the fetus descends into the
 vaginal canal with or without maternal pushing efforts. The fetus passes through the
birth canal via 7 movements known as the cardinal movements. These include
engagement, descent, flexion, internal rotation, extension, external rotation, and
expulsion. The third stage of labor commences when the fetus is delivered and
concludes with the delivery of the placenta. Separation of the placenta from the
uterine interface is hallmarked by three cardinal signs, including a gush of blood at
the vagina, lengthening of the umbilical cord, and a globular shaped uterine fundus on
palpation. Spontaneous expulsion of the placenta typically takes between 5 to 30
minutes. A delivery time of greater than 30 minutes is associated with a higher risk of
postpartum hemorrhage and may be an indication for manual removal or other
intervention. Management of the third stage of labor involves placing traction on the
umbilical cord with simultaneous fundal pressure to effect faster placental delivery.

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