Reproductive System Parts & Functions pp.

205 - 207

Morphology and Physiology of Male Reproductive System

● Urethra - is the tube that passes the penis to the
outside of the body, which carries urine and sperm.
● Penis - is a soft, tubular organ that hangs in front of
the body and is the external sexual organ of the
male through which sperm is delivered into the
female’s body. It contains erectile tissue that makes
the penis larger and stiffer due to increased flow of
blood during ejaculation.
● Testes - are made up of coiled tubules in which the
sperm are produced. They produce the male sex
hormones called testosterone for the production of
sperm.
● Epididymis - is a coiled J-shaped tube located on the back of each testicle. It stores the sperm
for two - four days after they have been produced.
● Vas Deferens - is the tube that receives sperm from the epididymis of each testicle.
● Scrotum - is a pouch of skin that hangs behind the penis, houses the testes and protects the
sperm by keeping the temperature of the testes slightly lower than the normal body
temperature in order for the sperm to survive.

Morphology and Physiology of Female

Reproductive System
● Fallopian Tube - is a small tube extending from
the ovary into the uterus.
● Uterus - is a pear-shaped organ where a fertilized
egg develops.
● Ovary - is a small almond-shaped organ that
produces egg cells.
● Birth Canal - consists of an elastic wall, which
allows it to expand during childbirth.
● Cervix - is a narrow structure connecting the lower
end of the uterus to the vagina.

The Glands and Ducts of The Male Reproductive Organ

Male Organs That Work Together Specific Function

Vas Deferens The vas deferens is about 18 inches (45 centimeters)

long and loops over the bladder.

Urethra The valve within the urethra prevents the mixing of

urine and sperm.

Seminal Vesicles The two seminal vesicles at the base of the bladder
secrete a thick fluid that nourishes the sperm.
 Ejaculatory Ducts The ejaculatory ducts are the tubes that are lined within
muscles. These muscles contract to force the semen out
of the body during ejaculation.

The Sperm Cell

The sperm cell is produced by the testes. It fertilizes the egg to become a matured ovum. Males
have a pair of testes found inside the scrotum. They produce millions of minute sperm cells, which can
be observed only under the microscope. The sperm cells travel in the epididymis, where they are
temporarily stored until they are released. The sperm cells are released and move along the vas
deferens. Along the way, the sperms are combined with the nutrient secretions from the prostate gland
and seminal vesicles. This mixture is called semen. The semen will be transported into the urethra and
out of the penis.

Parts and Functions of the Female Reproductive System

● Ovaries - are small and almond-shaped organs. They are located on each side of the body, a
few inches below the waist. They secrete hormones called estrogen and progesterone to
produce mature egg cells. The eggs begin to mature when the female reaches puberty. During
puberty, the ovaries usually produce and release one ripened egg every 28 days. This process is
called ovulation.
● Fallopian tubes - are two very fine tubes that extend from each ovary into the uterus. Their
main function is to contain the egg until fertilization takes place and to provide a passageway
leading the sperm to the egg and the fertilized egg to the uterus.
● Uterus or womb - is the hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ located between the two
ovaries. It is here that a fertilized egg develops and grows into a baby. However, if the egg
remains unfertilized, the uterus sheds, then leaves the body as menstrual discharge.
● Cervix - is a narrow structure within an inch-long canal connecting the lower end of the uterus
to the upper portion of the vagina.
● Vagina or birth canal - is the hollow tube leading from the cervix to the outside of the body.
The wall is elastic, which allows it to expand during childbirth and sexual intercourse.
● Vulva - is the external genitalia that includes the following parts:
○ Mons veneris - the hairy skin-covered pad of fat over the pubic bone.
○ Labia minora - the small lips covered with modified skin.
○ Labia majora - the large lips covered with pubic hair.
○ Clitoris - the small almond-shaped erectile tissue located below the junction of two
minora.
○ Vaginal orifice - the opening into the vagina.

Roles of Hormones in the Reproductive System pp. 207 - 208

Role of Hormones in the Reproductive System

Hormones play an important role that regulates the function of a specific organ of the body.
They regulate complex chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands. The reproductive glands
are controlled by the pituitary gland, which is controlled by the hypothalamus. After this age (10 yrs
old), hormone levels begin to increase and physical changes start to develop. The hypothalamus
releases chemical substances that signal the pituitary gland to start producing two hormones
responsible for reproduction—the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

The LH of the male signals in the testes to produce testosterone with FSH to control the
production of sperm and the growth of facial hair.
In females, the pituitary hormones LH and FSH stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen and
progesterone. These hormones are responsible to produce ova or mature egg cells.

Other roles of the reproductive hormone are listed below.

Gland Hormones Function

Testosterone It regulates the development of the male sex organs in

Testes (Male) the embryo. It also controls sex drive and secondary sex
characteristics at puberty.

Estrogen It controls sex drive and regulates the development of

female secondary sex characteristics at puberty.
Ovaries (Female) Progesterone It controls the endometrium (mucus membrane lining the
womb) during the menstrual cycle and maintenance of
the uterus during pregnancy.

Prolactin It stimulates the production of milk in the mammary

glands.

Pituitary Luteinizing In females, it stimulates ovulation, maturing of egg cells,

hormone (LH) and progesterone production; whereas in males, it
stimulates sperm and testosterone production.
Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)

Menstrual Cycle pp. 208 - 209

Menstrual Cycle

Females begin to menstruate between the ages of 11 and

15. Menstruation is the monthly shedding of blood from the
lining of the uterus.

The menstrual cycle begins when an egg matures or

ripens in one of the ovaries. At the same time, the endometrium
starts to thicken for possible pregnancy.

The matured egg is released from the ovary. The lining of

the uterus continuously thickens until ready to fertilize the egg.
The thickened uterus will serve as the home for the developing
embryo.
If pregnancy does not successfully happen, the endometrium breaks down and is discharged from the
body. This discharge of blood and tissue is known as menstruation or menstrual period. The menstrual
cycle lasts 28 days, but there are some female menstrual cycles that are as short as 21 days or as long
as 35 days, which are normal.

Event Highlights of a 28 day

Menstrual Cycle

Phase Events Duration (days)

Follicular Phase During menstruation, the 1-5

endometrium breaks down

Ovulation In the ovary, the follicle 6-13

matures and rebuilds the
endometrium

Secondary oocyte is released 14

from the ovary

Luteal Phase Formation of the corpus 15-28

luteum; endometrium thickens
and develops

The endocrine system plays an important role for the menstrual cycle. During the first half of the cycle
(days 1-14), the pituitary hormone FSH stimulates an egg to mature inside one of the ovaries. When
the egg starts to develop, it secretes estrogen, which causes the endometrium to thicken. In the middle
of the menstrual cycle, which is about day 14, the level of LH (luteinizing hormone) starts to rise, thus
ovulation occurs. The ovary releases the egg and the egg travels into the fallopian tube. It takes seven
days for the egg to travel into the fallopian tube going to the uterus. As the progesterone increases, it
maintains the growth of the endometrium. If the egg has not been fertilized, progesterone and estrogen
levels drop. The endometrium breaks down and the unfertilized egg passes out of the body through the
vagina.

Fertilization, stages & development of human embryo pp. 210 - 213

The Development of the Life Stages of Early Embryonic Animal Development

1. Gametogenesis - is the formation of the gamete (sperm and egg). This is the first stage of
animal development in which the sperm and egg form and develop inside the reproductive
systems under the control of parental genes.
2. Fertilization - is the next stage when the sperm penetrates an egg, then fusion of their nucleus
takes place.
3. Cleavage - is the third stage when the fertilized egg undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions
and later becomes the early embryo.
 4. Gastrulation - is the next stage to organize cell migration patterns in the embryo to form two
two or more primary germ layers (region layers of cells forming all organs of the animal body).
5. Organogenesis - is a process of cell differentiation and formation of all major organs once the
germ layers have formed.
6. Growth and Tissue Specialization - is the last stage when the organs acquire their unique
structures and chemical properties.

The Process of Fertilization and the Development of the Human Embryo

1. First Week of Development - The union of a sperm cell from a male and an egg cell from a
female is called fertilization. After fertilization of the egg cell, the zygote travels in the oviduct
to get nutrients from maternal secretions, then it will undergo the process of first mitotic cell
divisions. When it reaches the uterus, cleavages will transform into a solid group of cells called
morula and later on will develop into a blastocyst. There is an inner cell mass of the blastocyst
with a surface cell layer called the trophoblast.

Once the blastocyst is formed, it begins to adhere itself to the uterine lining. This process of
attachment is also known as implantation. After the blastocyst has been implanted, it is now
called an embryo.

2. The Embryo - The embryo is the initial development stage of humans after fertilization. The
bond that holds the embryo to the wall of the uterus is called the placenta. Approximately 25
days after fertilization, the umbilical cord or the embryo’s lifeline forms between the embryo
and the placenta. The embryo gets its oxygen and food from the mother through the placenta.

The developing embryo is enclosed in a sac of thin sheet of tissue called the amniotic sac.
Within this sac is the amniotic fluid where the embryo floats. This fluid serves as a shock
absorber and helps the embryo to maintain its temperature.

3. The Fetus - After two months, the embryo is about 1.2 inches (3 centimeters) long and has a
recognizable human form and is now called a fetus. The fetus grows with the help of the
placenta. All the organs are well developed in the ninth month, and the baby is ready to be
born.

Diseases of the Reproductive System

(Both Male and Female)

● Chlamydia - is a bacterial infection. The bacteria are usually spread through sex or contact
with infected genital fluids (semen or vaginal fluid).
● Genital Herpes - The herpes simplex virus (HSV) causes genital herpes. (more common in
women than men)
● Gonorrhea - is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by infection with the Neisseria
gonorrhoeae bacterium.
● Syphilis - is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that can cause serious health problems
without treatment.
(Male)
● Epididymitis - The inflammation of the epididymis
● Prostate Cancer - A disease which cancer cells grow in the prostate
● Male Infertility - A man is considered infertile if he produces a low amount of sperm cells.
● Cervical Cancer - The cancer cells grow in the cervix.

(Female)
● Dysmenorrhea - characterized by severe pain during menstruation
● Amenorrhea - abnormal absence of menstruation
● Oligomenorrhea - abnormal and infrequent menstrual period
● Sterility - Unable to reproduce offspring. In females, the fallopian tubes are blocked, which
can cause the failure of the ovaries to produce eggs.
● Vaginitis - A vaginal infection or irritation. One of the symptoms is burning sensation during
urination.

Endocrine System and the Nervous System pp. 218 - 226

The endocrine system is made up of a group of organs called endocrine glands. A gland is the
smallest living unit in the body that produces and releases a chemical substance called hormones.

The Overall Role of the Endocrine System

1. The endocrine system consists of many glands, which secrete hormones directly into the
bloodstream to regulate the daily activities of the body and control its overall development.
2. It is also known as the “system of checks and balances” that works to keep the body system
healthy.
3. It is similar to a thermostat (temperature regulator). It may turn on when the temperature is
below normal and may turn off when the temperature is above normal.
4. When the endocrine system is not properly doing its job, the overall health of the body may be
affected, such as energy level, physical appearance, and the ability to produce offspring.

Gland Hormones Function

Hypothalamus Releasing factors It is connected to the pituitary

gland by blood vessels to
Oxytocin regulate body temperature,
blood pressure, and the use of
Antidiuretic-hormone (ADH) water. The (ADH) increases
water uptake in the kidney. The
oxytocin released from the
hypothalamus is to control
muscle contractions of the
uterus and milk.

Pituitary Adrenocorticotropic- hormone It stimulates adrenal glands to

(ACTH) release specific hormones.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone It stimulates the thyroid gland

 (TSH) to release specific hormones.

Growth hormone prolactin It stimulates the growth of the

skeletal system.

It stimulates milk production in

the mammary glands.

Adrenal Adrenaline (epinephrine) It controls the “flight or fight”

Aldosterone response. The adrenaline
hormone is released into the
bloodstream when a person is
frightened.

Thyroid Thyroxine Calcitonin It is located in front of the

pituitary gland. It regulates the
rate of metabolism.This gland
secretes thyroxine, which
controls the calcium levels in
the bloodstream.

Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone These are four tiny glands

connected to the back of the
thyroid gland. The parathyroid
hormone regulates the minerals
in the body—calcium and
phosphorus in the bloodstream.

Pancreas Insulin Glucagon It is located beneath the

stomach. The insulin controls
the level of sugar in the blood.
The glucagon stimulates the
liver to convert glycogen to
glucose.

Thymus Thymosin The thymus gland is located

behind the sternum and
between the lungs. Thymosin
plays an important role in
developing some of the body's
defenses against infections.

Ovaries and Testes Estrogen These two reproductive glands

Progesterone play an important role in
Testosterone reproduction.

Diseases of the Endocrine Glands

1. Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland cannot produce the normal amount
of thyroid hormone.
Symptoms: Fatigue, weight gain, sluggishness, decreased memory, dry skin, heavy period, and
always feeling cold.They could have an enlarged thyroid.
 Treatment: Hormone replacement

2. Cushing's syndrome is a tumor in the pituitary gland. The tumor will cause the adrenal glands
to produce too much of the stress-related hormone called cortisol.
Symptoms: Fatigue, weight gain, trouble sleeping, irregular periods, extra hair growth, and
depression
Treatment: Surgery to remove the tumor

3. Metabolic syndrome is also known as insulin resistance.The patient has elevated insulin
levels and abdominal obesity.
Symptoms: High blood pressure, weight gain; men may have gout or undergo balding, women
may have extra hair growth and irregular periods.
Treatment: Low-carbohydrate diet and improved insulin action like glucophage and glucose
level

4. Estrogen deficiency is a disease that occurs mostly in females due to a drop in estrogen levels.
Symptoms: Developed fatigue around the time of menopause
Treatment: Hormone-replacement therapy

5. Testosterone deficiency is caused by a low level of testosterone due to a pituitary, adrenal, or

ovary/testis problem.
Symptoms: Both men and women feel fatigued and have low libido
Treatment: Testosterone replacement

6. Gigantism or acromegaly is a disease in the pituitary gland that produces too many growth
hormones. It is also a condition that causes abnormal growth in children. Abnormal growth is
due to the overproduction of growth hormones.
Symptoms: Very large hands and feet, thickening of toes and fingers, prominent jaw and
forehead, and coarse facial features, flat nose and large head, lips, or tongue
Symptoms: Overproduction of sweat, delayed puberty, weakness, and deafness
Treatment: Removing the tumor

Keeping the Endocrine System Healthy

1. Know your family history.

2. Eat a healthy diet.
3. Minimize stress in your life.
4. Stay in touch with your doctor.

The Nervous System

The Nervous System together with the Endocrine System, work

together to control and coordinate the workings of the components of
the body. All actions and thoughts are coordinated by a complex group
of organs and nerves that enable man to receive stimuli.
 The Nervous System is like a communication network that transmits information by electrical
signals called nerve cells or neurons.

The Nerve and Nerve Cell

● The basic cell of the nervous system is the neuron. It

carries nerve impulses, or action potential, from one part
of the body to another.
● A typical neuron has three parts:
○ A cell body - controls the growth of the nerve
cell.
○ Dendrites - are short-branched fibers that carry impulses or messages towards the cell
body.
○ Axon - typically long, thin fibers that carries messages away from the cell body.
(also known as nerve fibers) (the fibers are made up of connective tissue bundles)

Parts and Functions of the Nervous System

A. The Central Nervous System

The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is
where the interneurons receive and pass on messages. The brain is the control center of the
CNS while the spinal cord relays sensory and motor information to and from the brain and
other parts of the body.

1. The Brain:

● It is a moist and spongy organ with an average of 3 pounds of weight. It consists of 10 billion
neurons that control everything a person does. The brain produces waves of electrical impulses
that differ in length and frequency, depending upon the type of activity performed by the body.
● The skull protects the brain. Beneath the skull are three distinct layers of membranes that
cover the entire brain. The entirety of these membranes is called meninges. The cerebrospinal
fluid substance is located between the middle and inner meninges and in some spaces within
the brain. This fluid helps cushion and protect the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is
divided into three parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and the brain stem.
○ BRAIN STEM - located below the
cerebellum at the base of the skull,
which serves as the body’s life
support system. It controls the
heartbeat, breathing, and blood
pressure.
○ CEREBELLUM - located beneath
the back part of the cerebrum. It
coordinates muscle movement. The
 cerebellum produces signals that stimulate reactions in other parts of the nervous
system.
○ CEREBRUM - the large upper region of the brain. It consists of deep folds, which are
divided into many ridges and depressions just like the surface of a walnut. The
cerebrum has two sides: the right and left brain hemispheres. The outer part of the
hemisphere is covered with a thin tissue called gray matter. The rest of the cerebrum is
made of white matter.
○ CORPUS CALLOSUM - a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of
the brain.
○ HIPPOCAMPUS - a small organ located within the brain's medial temporal lobe, wish
is associated mainly with memory, in particular long-term memory.
○ HYPOTHALAMUS - regulates the body's temperature, use of water, blood pressure,
and release of regulatory chemicals.
○ MEDULLA - controls breathing, heart rate, and swallowing.
○ MIDBRAIN - also linked to vision and controls the movement of the eye and
constriction and dilation of the pupil.
○ PITUITARY GLAND - a pea-sized structure located at the base of the brain. It is part
of the endocrine system that produces critical hormones that control various body
functions.
○ PONS - regulates breathing and helps control eye movement.
○ THALAMUS - one of the smaller parts of the brain, which serves a relay station for
senses. It is responsible for processing the information from the sense organs.

2. Spinal Cord:
● The Spinal Cord is a rod of brain tissue that extends about two thirds of the way down the
back, just below the ribs. It is covered with three meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal
cord is protected by a spinal column, which allows the trunk to bend.

B. The Peripheral Nervous System

● The Peripheral Nervous System (PS) is made up of cranial and spinal nerves. There are 12
pairs of cranial nerves in the body that emerge from the brain that connect with the eyes, ears,
and nose. The cranial nerves contain mostly sensory nerve fibers. The PNS is divided into two:
1. The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is responsible for actions that a person can
control such as skeletal muscles and sensory neurons of the skin. This is under
conscious voluntary control.
2. The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) controls autonomic functions that do not
require a person to think. For example, involuntary muscles help digest food, heartbeat,
and breathing.
a. There are two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system–the sympathetic
nervous system that prepares the body for action and stress, and the
parasympathetic nervous system that helps the body to conserve energy.

Common Diseases of the Nervous System

1. Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges of the brain or spinal cord caused by bacterial
infection or a virus.
 Symptoms: Stiff and painful neck, fever, headache, vomiting, seizures, trouble breathing, and
slight headache
Treatment: Treated with antibiotics

2. Cerebral Palsy is a disorder resulting in a lack of full control of physical movement and
muscle tightness that affect almost all parts of the body. Some people have little or no control
over their arms and legs or other parts of their body.
Symptoms: Seizures, intellectual disability, slight limp, and difficulty in walking
Treatment: Surgery

3. Parkinson's disease is a disorder of the nervous system that affects the movement of a person.
It develops gradually and tremors start in the hands.
Symptoms: Tremors, slow movement, impaired posture and balance, penmanship changes,
speech changes, emotional changes and depression, difficulty swallowing, sleep disorder,
blood pressure changes, inability to smell, and constipation
Treatment: Cannot be cured, but symptoms can be improved through surgery to regulate the
region of the brain

4. Brain Tumor - An adult brain tumor is called a meningeal tumor. The tumor is formed in the
meninges that cover the brain and the spinal cord. Another type is the metastatic brain tumor.
The process where the cells rapidly spread to the brain from another tumor is called metastasis.
Cancer refers to any disease that is characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of
useless abnormal cells. On the other hand, a benign tumor is a mass of tissue formed from non-
cancerous cells. It is enclosed within a sheath so that it does not spread to nearby tissues.
Symptoms: Trouble walking and change of mental status
Treatment: Surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy

5. Epilepsy is a brain disorder in which clusters of nerve cells or neurons act abnormally. The
action potential activity becomes disturbed causing strange sensations and emotions,
convulsions, and muscle spasms.
Symptoms: Loss of muscle tone, jerking movements, brief loss of consciousness, muscle
stiffness
Treatment: Epileptic seizures are controlled through drug therapy and anticonvulsant drugs.

Keeping the Nervous System Healthy:

1. Ensure adequate intake of healthy fats such as fish oil and vegetable oil.
2. Exercise the nervous system on a daily basis by stretching the arms and reading in order for the
motor and sensory pathways to be used.
3. Spend a minimum of 15 minutes per day writing on paper as legibly as you can.
4. Engage yourself in social activities to keep your brain active.

Feedback Mechanisms Coordinated by the Nervous and Endocrine System

Positive and Negative Feedback Coordinated by the Different Systems of the Human
Body
 Homeostasis is responsible in the regulation and maintenance of the internal environment of
the body. It regulates body temperature, fluids, salts, acids, gases, and nutrients that help support
human life. Internal control system of the body responds immediately to changes from the different
conditions or internal environment.

● Sensors
Sensors are receptors that are responsible in gathering information about the conditions inside
and outside of the body. The skin is made up of many internal sensors that detect changes in
the environment. The human body is made up of sensory neurons that carry impulses to the
brain or spinal cord.
● Control center
The control center of the body is the brain, which is a part of the nervous system. The brain
receives information from the sensors. It then examines the information to the ideal values (set
point) in which the body functions well. If the set point is below the control center, it quickly
responds by sending messages through the communicating systems-the nervous system and the
endocrine system.
● Communicating systems
The nervous system and the endocrine system are the communicating systems of the body.
They carry information to all parts of the body. The human body is made up of electrical
signals or neurons that receive input, process the input, and produce a response.

Parts of the neuron:

a. Dendrites are branched cell components that receive stimulus from other neurons or sensory
receptors.
b. The cell body contains a nucleus, which will process the stimulus.
c. The axon will transmit stimulus to a gland, muscle, organ, or other neuron.

Target Cell Response to Hormones

Different types of hormones are secreted by endocrine glands and are directly diffused into the
bloodstream. The hormones will travel to the different parts of the body. Only the target cells have
receptors to which the specific type of hormone can bind. The response occurs when the hormones.
lock, and key binding triggers the target tissue.

Feedback Mechanisms Involved in Regulating Processes in the Female Reproductive

System

The body maintains its state of balance or homeostasis through a control system activated by
many feedback systems. To maintain normal cell functions of the body, intracellular and extracellular
substances in the environments. In addition, the body must cope with pollution, infection, stress, and
other conditions.
The nerve cells are able to perceive changes once hormones are released in the body from the
endocrine system in which the brain responds quickly. The hormones and nerve cells regulate the
movement during labor contractions.
Feedback regulation can be either positive or negative.
How the Nervous System Coordinates and Regulates Feedback Mechanism to Maintain
Homeostasis

Homeostasis and Internal Environment

The complex tissues, organs, and organ systems in our body must respond to the different conditions
and situations in the environment.

1. Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is a control system to reduce or minimize any changes or conditions
of the body, which helps the whole body system to be stable. It is also a mechanism that
regulates homeostasis. The term negative is a deviation from the set point which refers to the
normal value and ideal requirement of the body to maintain homeostasis.

The secretions of hormones from the endocrine glands are under the control of the
hypothalamus, which is also controlled by negative feedback. Increased breathing is a good
example of how a negative feedback loop works. Negative feedback loops maintain the state of
balance by reversing the changes to return its normal condition of the body.

Another example of a negative feedback mechanism is when the levels of glucose

(sugar) in the blood are regulated by the hormone insulin. When blood sugar increases in the
body, the receptors in the body detect a change. Due to this condition, the pancreas releases
insulin into the blood effectively to lower the sugar level. The pancreas stops releasing insulin
once the blood glucose level reaches homeostasis.

Components of Negative Feedback

• The control center of the body is the brain, which establishes the set point.
• The receptor detects changes within the body. The receptor monitors the environment and responds
to change (stimuli).
• The effector is responsible for the response to changes.
• The stimulus produces a change to a variable (the factor being regulated).

2. Positive Feedback
Positive feedback is a control system that uses information from sensors to increase the
rated processes. This type of feedback is important whenever a rapid change is necessary. It
deviates from a set point, therefore it becomes greater, which makes a bad situation worse.
For instance, if you cut your finger, a positive feedback mechanism is used in the
production of nerve impulses and increases the rate of change in blood clotting until the wound
is sealed.
Another example of a positive feedback system is during childbirth. During labor, the
oxytocin release in the uterus intensifies and speeds up contractions. The release of oxytocin
stops when the baby is born. The birth ends the release of oxytocin and ends the positive
feedback mechanism.

DNA molecule and replication pp. 238 - 244

(DNA Molecule)
Structure of the DNA
 The cells of the human body contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. These chromosomes are made
up of a chemical substance known as deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. Each chromosome in the body is
made up of different genes that determine a single trait.

The DNA is located inside the nucleus of the cell as shown in

figure 7.1. It is a tightly coiled molecule that contains genes. The
molecule is a very large chain of repeating units called polymers,
which are large, carbon-based molecules formed by monomers. The
DNA consists of an equal amount of the four nucleotides that are
important to the operation and cell reproduction. Each nucleotide
contains three different components:
1. one phosphorus with four oxygen (a phosphate group);
2. a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose); and
3. a nitrogen-containing base (either a single-ringed pyrimidine or a double-ringed purine).

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

A nucleic acid that contains the genetic One of the three major macromolecules (along
instructions used in the development and with DNA and proteins) that is essential for all
functioning of all known living organisms (with known forms of life.
the exception of RNA viruses).

Nucleic acid is a large molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. The building blocks of nucleic
acids are nucleotides-the DNA and RNA. The nucleotide consists of a
phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen base. The DNA has two
strands of nucleotides joined together to form a twisted ladder called a
double helix.

Chargaff's Rule of DNA

In the 1950s, Erwin Chargaff made a contribution in studying and
analyzing the DNA of many different living things. He found out that
the DNA of all organisms had the same bases, but the proportion of the four bases differs from one
organism to another organism. It was proved that each organism's DNA has an equal amount of
adenine approximately equal to the amount of thymine. Similarly, it also has the same amount of
cytosine that roughly equals the amount of guanine. The relationship of A = T and C = G became
known as the Chargaff's Rule.
• Adenine must pair with thymine.
• Guanine must pair with cytosine.
The bases form weak hydrogen bonds.

Patterns of Base Pairing

American geneticist James Watson and British geneticist Francis Crick deduced the structure of DNA
from Franklin and Chargaff's data. The diameter of the DNA is uniform based on Franklin's data and
Chargaff's
data that "A = T and G = C." Based on these data, Watson and Crick explained that double-ringed A
and G molecules can be paired with the single-ringed T and C molecules along the whole length of
DNA. Watson and Crick kept on reshuffling colored paper strips of the nucleotides. In the end, both of
them realized that A and T could become joined by three. A scale model of DNA was made of how
the ladder looked and therefore the only DNA model that fit all available data had pairs of A-T and G-
C. According to Starr and Staggart (1997), "Those pairs formed the proper hydrogen bonds only when
the two DNA strands ran in opposing directions and twisted together. The A and T are always present
in equal proportions, and the same is true of G and C. Yet the amount of A-T can vary relative to the
amount of G-C in the DNA of different species because any pair can follow any other in sequence."

The Genetic Code

The genetic code is shared by all organisms. For instance, you
want to determine which amino acid is encoded by CAU
codon. First, find the first base C in the left column of the
genetic code then find the second base A in the above row.
Find the third base U in the right column; therefore, CAU codes
for histidine.

(DNA Replication)
Some cells of the body are dying, but they are replaced many times. Your cells divide and reproduce
new cells every time. The DNA must be copied in an amazing process of unzipping and zipping by
enzymes and some proteins in the body.

Replication Copies of Genetic Information

One of the accepted features of the Watson and Crick model is that the DNA could be copied.
According to Watson and Crick, a single DNA strand can serve as a template for a new strand. When
the DNA is copied during the cell cycle, the process is called replication.

Nowicki stated, "A new strand of DNA can be synthesized when the other strand is a template
to guide the process. Every time the order of the bases is preserved, DNA can be accurately replicated
over and over again."

Erwin Chargaff showed that the amounts of the four bases on DNA (A, T, C, G) in a body or
somatic cell are A = 30.3%, T = 30.3%, G = 19.5% and C = 19.9%.

DNA Polymerase
Enzymes and other proteins are responsible for the process of replication. An enzyme begins
the process by unzipping the double helix to separate the strands of DNA. Some proteins hold the
strands apart, which serve as templates. The floating free nucleotides in the nucleus will be paired with
the nucleotides of the existing DNA strand. The DNA polymerase (group of enzymes) is responsible
for bonding the new nucleotide together. When the complete process is done, it forms two complete
molecules of DNA, each exactly the same as the original double strand.

The Replication Process

Before the cell of an organism can reproduce, it must first replicate or make a copy of their
DNA. Replication of the DNA happens whether the cell is a prokaryote or a eukaryote. The following
steps describe the replication of DNA in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells:

1. DNA replication takes place in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and in the nucleus of eukaryotes.
The enzymes start to unzip the double helix as the nucleotide base pairs separate. Each side of the
double helix runs in opposite directions. At the same time, replication begins on both strands of the
molecules.
2. Free nucleotides pair with the base exposed as the template strand continuously unzips. An enzyme
complex-DNA polymerase attaches the nucleotides together to form new strands similar to each
template.
3. A sub-unit of the DNA polymerase proofreads the new DNA and the DNA ligase (enzyme) seals up
the fragments into one long strand.
4. Two similar double-stranded molecules of DNA result from replication. The new copies
automatically wind up again. According to Nowick, "DNA replication is semi-conservative because
one old strand is conserved and used and a new strand is made."

How protein is made from DNA pp. 245 - 247

Different types of proteins exist in every living organism. Protein is the most structurally
varied molecule in which the human body contains at least 10,000 different kinds of proteins. Since
the human body is made up of cells, their unique characteristics are determined by the type of proteins
they possess.

For example, the red blood cells are able to carry oxygen throughout the body because they
contain a protein that is not found in other cells. Another example is that muscle cells are made up of
fibrous protein, which allows the movement of the muscle to contract and relax. Body coverings such
as the skin, nails, and hair contain a kind of protein that act as a barrier against infectious diseases.
The proteins that occur in the body are large, complex molecules composed mainly of oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. Proteins are essential parts in the structure of cells. It acts as an
enzyme or catalyst for chemical reactions in cells.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, which are made up of long chains of chemical
units. There are 20 different amino acids. Our body system can synthesize non-essential amino acids
through a metabolic process from simple organic molecules, and the nine essential amino acids must
be obtained from our intake of dietary food.

The Three Kinds of RNA in Protein Synthesis

There are three kinds of RNAs in which cells build proteins. This process is called protein synthesis.
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of molecule of RNA that travels from the nucleus to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where the information in the copy is used for a protein product.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome and a cell's protein factories in all
living cells. It provides a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acids and interacts with tRNA.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 73 to 93 nucleotides in
length that brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to a ribosome to help in making the growing
protein.

Processes of Producing Protein from DNA

1. Transcription
The DNA is found inside the nucleus of the cells, which are embedded in the
chromosomes. The genetic information within the DNA must be transported to the ribosome in
the cytoplasm where protein synthesis takes place. The genetic information or code is copied
into the mRNA through the process of transcription. The transcription process occurs when the
nucleotide sequence along the DNA is copied into a strand of mRNA. The DNA strand will be
exposed once the DNA molecule uncoils. The RNA polymerase is responsible for the
alignment and binding together of the ribonucleotides that will create the single strand of RNA
molecule. The mRNA molecule as the complementary ribonucleotides attach to the exposed
bases of the DNA strand.

2. Translation
Translation is the final synthesis of a small protein through the help of the mRNA. The
transfer of code from the mRNA to a small protein begins when the mRNA molecule attaches
to the ribosome, which forms the mRNA ribosome complex. The different amino acids found
in the cytoplasm must first be transferred in the mRNA-ribosome complex by another RNA.
An amino acid is then attached to a specific tRNA. There are as plenty tRNAs as there are
amino acids because it is intended that each tRNA is coded to a specific kind of amino acid.
Translation is the conversion of information from the RNA into a protein. Each tRNA with its
attached specific amino acid moves to the mRNA-ribosome complex.
The ribosome changes its position by three nucleotides. The tRNA, without the amino
acid, is detached from the ribosome. The ribosome now shifts to the next codon, ready to bind
another tRNA with its specific amino acid. The mRNA codon recognizes which tRNA is next,
specifying which amino acid will be next in the polypeptide (addition of amino acids to the
protein) chain. The process is repeated as the ribosome goes along the mRNA chain. A codon
in the mRNA stops when the ribosome encounters the addition of amino acids to the protein.

Mutations that occur in sex cells as being heritable pp. 248 - 254

Biologically, mutation is the change in genetic material. It can be a source of beneficial genetic
variation or can have dangerous effects.

Mutations can result from DNA copying mistakes made during cell division and exposure to ionizing
radiation like gamma rays from radioactive elements such as uranium and plutonium. Another cause
of DNA copying mistakes is direct to chemicals through infection by bacteria or viruses.

Mutagen - Anything that causes a mutation (a change in the DNA of a cell). DNA changes caused by
mutagens may harm cells and cause certain diseases, such as cancer.
Mutations that occur in sex cells can be passed from parents to their children. Since the chromosomes
carry information about the characteristics inherited from parents, it is better to have a clear
understanding on the structure of a chromosome.

A chromosome is made up of a chemical substance called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.

Genes are the basic units of heredity. Once the egg is fertilized, it now contains two genes for each
trait--one from the father and one from the mother. This is how hereditary information is passed from
one generation to the next.

Somatic and Germinal Mutation

Eukaryotic organisms such as mammals, amphibians, avians, and all vascular plants and man have two
primary cell types: the germ and the somatic. Mutations can occur in either of the two cell types.

Mutation in somatic cells is called somatic mutation. It occurs in non-reproductive cells and
offspring. They do not occur in cells that give rise to sex cells. Therefore, mutation will not pass along
to the next offspring by sexual means.

Germinal mutations can be caused by radiation or chemical mutagens and may affect a single gene
or an entire chromosome.
Germline mutations are changes to your DNA that you inherit from the egg and sperm cells during
conception. Somatic mutations are changes to your DNA that happen after conception to cells other
than the egg and sperm. Mutations can lead to genetic conditions that affect your health.

Insertion: an insertion is the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence.
Translocation: Translocation happens when part of a chromosome breaks off and is combined to
another chromosome. This type of disorder is due to chromosomal-level mutation.
Deletion: happens when there is a loss of part of a chromosome.
Duplication: happens if there are extra copies of a part of a chromosome.
Invasion: happens when the direction of a part of a chromosome is reversed.

Genetic Disorders

1. Recessive Disorders
 Recessive disorders happen when a child receives two defective genes from a parent. The
carrier does not express the disorder because it is not detectable by the dominant normal gene;
therefore, it can pass the defective gene to their children.
A. Sickle Cell Anemia - genetic blood disorder, abnormally shaped red blood cells and
may die at an early age
B. Tay-Sachs is characterized by the lack of an important chemical in the brain. Infants
who have this kind of disease die within their first five years.
C. Phenylketonuria(PKU) - rare genetic disorder that causes serious mental retardation
in infants. This kind of disease can be treated through special diet
D. Cystic Fibrosis - disease in which some glands produce too much mucus that it clogs
and damages the lungs. This disease is fatal among children because it causes difficulty
in breathing.
2. Sex-linked Disorders
are more common in men because they only have one X-Chromosome, so all defective
genes on the chromosome will be expressed. In women, a recessive defective gene on one X
chromosome can be covered by a normal gene on the other X chromosome. A woman who has
this disease can pass it on to her children.
The most common sex-linked disorder is color blindness and hemophilia
3. Human Genetic Syndromes - genetic disorders caused by having few or too many
chromosomes. A person who survived during chromosomal mutations is categorized by a
distinctive set of mental or physical abnormalities.
A. Cri du chat Syndrome - caused by deletion of part of the short arm of Chromosome 5.
Wide-set Eyes and small head and jaw
B. William Syndrome - result from the loss of a segment in Chromosome 7. Large ears
and facial features that make them look like elves.
C. Down Syndrome/Mongolism (Trisomy 21) - A child receives an extra chromosome
(Chromosome 21) and has a distinctive physical appearance. It is the most common
cause of mental retardation. It can be a mild or severe retardation.
D. Edward Syndrome (Trisomy 18) - happens when there is an extra number 18
Chromosome. Shows mental retardation and physical abnormalities to the child and can
live beyond one year.
E. Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13) - caused by an extra copy of number 13 Chromosome.
Based on study, 90% of babies with this syndrome do not survive in infancy. Severe
mental retardation occurred to those who survived.
F. Klinefelter Syndrom (XXY) - A male who has this syndrome has two or more X-
Chromosomes in addition to their Y-Chromosomes. They lack facial hair and their
testes including prostate gland are underdeveloped.
G. Turner Syndrome - characterized by having 45 Chromosomes. About 96-98% do not
survive birth, have no menstruation, have narrow hips, have underdeveloped breasts
and have a broad shoulders and neck.

Impact of Mutation on Phenotype

● Mutation of the chromosomes directly affect the genes ,which can cause human genetic
disorders. The gene can no longer do its tasks normally once it breaks up due to mutation.
Gene mutation has a great impact on the organism. If substitution happens, the enzymes are not
 able to bind to their substrate, the mutation directly affects protein folding, thus damaging the
protein’s function. There is also a premature stop codon.
● Gene mutations sometimes do not affect an organism’s phenotype due to many codon codes
for the same amino acid. A mutation that has no effect on the protein is called silent mutation.
Most of the amino acids of silent mutation are encoded by many different codons.
● Basically, Phenotypic mutations are errors that occur during protein synthesis. These errors
lead to amino acid substitutions that give rise to abnormal proteins.

Impact of Mutation on Offsprings

- Mutations in body cells damage only the organisms in which they occur, while in germ cells,
mutation may be passed on to the offspring. In some cases, mutation results in a more
beneficial phenotype due to being favored by natural selection and an increase in population.
Sometimes mutations may not affect phenotypes.

Causes of Mutations
1. Smoking - can cause germ cell mutagens that can destroy genes and cause cancer and other
diseases. If diseases occur, it will be passed down to the children and may lead to genetic
alterations.
2. Effect of old age - Conception at an old age has an effect on the offspring’s intelligence and
personality. Healthy and normal produced by female will decline as she gets older.
3. Chemotherapy - these drugs can cause DNA mutations to the offspring. The genome affected
by the chemotherapy drug will not stabilize, resulting to new mutations.
4. External Influencer - Too much exposure to hazardous chemicals and radiations such as X-
Rays and Gamma rays can cause mutations. The DNA will break down, through the cell
repairs the DNA, it can no longer return the original structure, resulting into mutations.Chk

Amino Acids & their DNA codons p. 253

Amino Acid DNA Codons
Isoleucine GCA, GCC, GCG, GCU
Leucine CTT, CTC, CTA, CTG, TTA, TTG
Valine GTT, GTC, GTA, GTG
Phenylalanine TIT, TTC
Methionine ATG
Cysteine TGT, TGC
Alanine GCT, GCC, GCG, GCA
Glycine GCT, GCC, GCA, GCG
Proline CCT, CCC, CCA, CCG
Threonine ACT, ACC, ACA, ACG
 Serine TCT. TCC, TCA, TCG, AGT, AGC
Tyrosine TAT, TAC
Tryptophan TGG
Glutamine CAA, CAG
Asparagine AAT, AAC
Histidine CAT, CAC
Glutamic acid GAA, GAG
Aspartic acid GAT, GAC
Lysine AAA, AAG
Arginine CGT, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG
Stop cordons TAA, TAG, TGA

Unit Test (Answers)

Page 233 - 234

Which of these does not correctly contrast sperm with eggs?

- C. Moves along the vas deferens ; interstitial cells

The uterus ____________.

- D. All of these are correct

Pregnancy begins ____________.

- C. Upon successful implantation

The anterior pituitary stimulates what gland in the human body?

- C. Adrenal medulla

Which male organ produces millions of tiny sperm cells

- A. Testes

When muscle of the uterus pushes the baby through the cervix and out of the vagina, this process is
called ________.
- A. Birth

Which of the following looks like a sac or pouch which encloses the testes
- A. Scrotum

The vas deferens _______.

 - B. Carries sperm

Goiter is caused by
- B. Too much iodine in the diet

Which of the following statements is the best example of a positive feedback mechanism?
- A. You cannot hold your breath for a long time

Page 233 - 234

All of the following are true of RNA except: ________.

- A. RNA can leave the nucleus

If the sequence of bases along one side of a DNA molecule is AAGCT, the complementary sequence
of bases on the other side of the DNA molecule is ______.
- A. TTCGA

What do you call the three nitrogenous bases on a strand of tRNA

- B. Anticodon

mRNA is formed from DNA. This process is called ________.

- B. Transcription

Which one of these is not a valid comparison between DNA and RNA
- D. Thymine ; uracil

If a cell has 18 chromosomes, how many chromosomes would each daughter cell have after mitosis
- C. 18

Which of the following genetic syndrome is known as mongolism

- C. Down syndrome

When a particular individual has three chromosomes of a particular type, this chromosomal aberration
is called _________.
- C. Trisomy

When a particular individual loses some part of his/her chromosome, this chromosomal aberration is
called _________.
- A. Deletion

Why do you call the syndrome when a male’s chromosome carries two or more X and Y-
chromosomes in his genes?
- C. Klinefelter syndrome
How is protein made?
- To build proteins, cells use a complex assembly of molecules called a ribosome. The ribosome
assembles amino acids into the proper order and links them together via peptide bonds.

What is DNA?
- Deoxyribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around
each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the
development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses.

Why do you think that 100 million sperm cells are released during ejaculation if only one sperm
is needed to fertilize an egg?
- The reason for this predicament boils down to two words: sperm competition. Since the dawn
of the sexes, males have vied with each other to get as many of their own sperm near a fertile
egg as possible. Because sperm must swim through the human female reproductive structure in
order to contact the ovum in the fallopian tube, the sperm must include a large number of
sperm.

How are hormone levels regulated?

- The endocrine system is a tightly regulated system that keeps the hormones and their effects at
just the right level. One way this is achieved is through 'feedback loops'. The release of
hormones is regulated by other hormones, proteins or neuronal signals. The released hormone
then has its effect on other organs.

How do the reproductive system, endocrine system, and nervous system work together to
maintain a healthy body?
- The endocrine system secretes hormones into blood and other body fluids. These chemicals are
important for metabolism, growth, water and mineral balance, and the response to stress.
Hormones provide feedback to the brain to affect neural processing. Reproductive hormones
affect the development of the nervous system.

If you are in a cold area and you start running, how would the control mechanisms in your body
respond as you run?
- Since cold temperatures increase blood pressure, this shunts warm blood away from the
surface of the body to reduce the amount of heat lost from the skin. The narrowing of blood
vessels under the skin causes an increase in pressure in the blood vessels. This makes the heart
work harder.

Why is it necessary to synthesize the proteins in our body?

- Protein synthesis is a vital process because we need our bodies to be able to build the proteins
that we need to perform important functions. Without protein synthesis, our bodies will not be
able to make components like hormones, enzymes, and even new muscle.

How does the DNA polymerase and DNA ligase function in DNA replication
- Primase synthesizes RNA primers complementary to the DNA strand. DNA polymerase III
extends the primers, adding on to the 3' end, to make the bulk of the new DNA. RNA primers
 are removed and replaced with DNA by DNA polymerase I. The gaps between DNA
fragments are sealed by DNA ligase.

What do you think are the probable effects if duplication occurs in a chromosome?
- Since a very small piece of a chromosome can contain many different genes, the extra genes
present in a duplication may cause those genes to not function correctly. These extra directions
can lead to errors in the development of a baby.

Explain the causes of genetic disorders.

- Genetic diseases can be due to an alteration in one gene, several genes in combination with
environmental factors or due to imbalance of many genes.
- Genetic disorders can be caused by a mutation in one gene (monogenic disorder), by mutations
in multiple genes (multifactorial inheritance disorder), by a combination of gene mutations and
environmental factors, or by damage to chromosomes (changes in the number or structure of
entire chromosomes, the structures that carry genes).

Are there any beneficial effects of mutations? Explain

- Some mutations have a positive effect on the organism in which they occur. They are called
beneficial mutations. They lead to new versions of proteins that help organisms adapt to
changes in their environment. Beneficial mutations are essential for evolution to occur.

How will you apply genetic engineering in your daily life?

- In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce insulin, human growth
hormones, follistim (for treating infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies,
antihemophilic factors, vaccines, and many other drugs. Moreover, some possible benefits of
genetic engineering include: More nutritious food, tastier food, disease-, and drought-resistant
plants that require fewer environmental resources (such as water and fertilizer).