Male Reproductive System

It consists of testis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and penis.
Testis:
 These are two oval shaped bodies situated on one of each side of scrotal bag.
 Help testis to Ascend or descend into or out of body.
 This movement helps in maintaining fixed temperature around the testis.
 The partitioned into various lobes each filled with convoluted seminiferous tubules
and is about 15 m in length radiating peripherally.
 There is spermatids, primary and secondary spermatocytes and spermatogonium.
 Sertoli cells are present which nourishes the sperms.
Functions of Testis are they produce spermatozoa and secrete testosterone hormone.
Vas deferens:
All the convoluted seminiferous tubules unite to form was Vasa differentia and later form
epididymis which further has tube like structure called vas deferens. This later enters pelvic
part of abdomen which enters into prosthetic part of urethra.
Seminal vesicles:
 These are accessory ducts which for most of the seminal secretion.
 Consists of prostaglandin, clotting proteins, Fructose. Main protein is that causes
coagulation of semen after ejaculation.
 Prostaglandins which cause contraction of uterus.
Prostate gland:
 It is a gland with laws which gives nutritive equation for spermatozoa.
 Situated at the opening of bladder into the urethra.
 Milky acidic fluid secreted from prostate gland contain iodine and citric acid which is
caused by spermatozoa for ATP production.
 It also contains photolytic enzymes like prostate specific antigen, pepsinogen, and
lysozyme amylase.
 It is the biomarker for prostate gland of prostate cancer
Bulbourethral gland and Cowper gland:
It is inferior to prostate gland which often open into urethra. During sexual intercourse they
gave way for arrival of sperms.
Penis:
 It is a male copulatory organ structure which consists of three cylindrical bodies of
erectile tissue.
 Two of these are corpora cavernosa which are arranged side by side in dorsal half of
the organ.
 Third and the long body of tissue is Corpus cavernosum, urethra which secretes
during its body is covered by tunica albuginea spongiosm.
 All these are bound by elastic areolar tissue called fossae penis.
 Semen:
 Secretion of male reproductive tract which is quite viscous.
 Ejaculation is about 3 to 4 cc with 200 to 300 million of sperms of which 70% to 80%
or alive only for first half an hour.
 Hyluridinase is an enzyme which is responsible for ensuring rupturing for conception.
 Fertility usually depends on number and motility of sperm, sperm count less than 20
million per ml is considered as infertile.
Testosterone:
Derived and secreted from testis.
Functions of testosterone:
 Our growth of sex organ in male, development of prostate gland and seminal vesicles.
 The life and fertility of spermatozoa is maintained.
 It is responsible for secondary sexual characters such as appearance of hair on face
pubic area, armpits.
 There is presence of voice which consists of Adam's apple voice metabolism.
 It is stimulated by anabolic function of testosterone.
 Blood volume, RBC, water content are more in males than females this is due to
testosterone secretion.
Functions of male reproductive system:
 Testis produces sperm and male sex hormone testosterone.
 Ducts transport, store and assist in maturation of sperms.
 Accessory ducts secrete most of the liquid portion of semen.
 Penis contain urethra passage way for ejaculation of semen and urine.
 Female Reproductive System
It consists of vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
Vagina:
Internal mouth of cervix open into vaginal Canal which is pointing backward upward during
standing position. It is usually closed but it increases during coitus. it secretes lubricant fluid.
Uterus:
It is pear shaped organ which is muscular and hollow. it is joined by sides with fallopian tubes
and opened in vagina. Lower part of uterus is cervix and its orifices open into the uterus while
external orifices open in vagina. It is highly muscular organ which can enlarged to fill whole
abdomen during pregnancy to accommodate foetus. Inner epithelial lining is called
endometrium and it sheds during menstruation.
Fallopian tubes:
It is present on each side of uterus. The fallopian tubes are having connection with
Infundibulum and ends at fimbriae.
Ovary:
Two pear shaped bodies live at the end of fallopian tube. They become active from menarche
until Menopause. It is covered by germinal epithelium and covered by tunica albuginea. The
graffian follicles are found in various stages of development which later there the central cell
form is ovum. it ruptures every month to liberate Ovum.
Functions of ovary:
 Formation maturation and Liberation of ovum from ovary every month.
 Secretion of ovary hormones during different phases of menstruation.
 Ovarian hormones play important role in development of organs sex organs,
menstruation changes, puberty changes, pregnancy with gestation and foetal growth
Oestrogen:
 Responsible for secondary sexual characters.
 Development and growth of reproductive organs like uterus, fallopian tube, ovaries.
 Development of endometrium of uterus.
 Growth of uterus during pregnancy.
 Along with progesterone, it has synergistic action during menstruation and pregnancy.
 Stimulate fat metabolism.
 Skeletal growth is also stimulated by oestrogen.
Progesterone:
 Menstruation occurs when progesterone level fall.
 It is inhibited during pregnancy by progesterone.
 It is sustained by progesterone secretion where uterine contraction.
 It stimulates breast development. Birth passage is relaxed by progesterone.
Functions of female reproductive system:
 Ovaries produced secondary oocyte and oestrogen, progesterone inhibin, relaxin.
 Uterine tube transport secondary oocyte to uterus.
 Uterus is side for implantation of fertilized ovum development of foetus.
 Mammary gland synthesise and secrete and eject milk for new-born.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 Cyclic phase of flow of blood and its endometrium lining being shed from uterus during
monthly intervals is called as menstrual cycle.
 It occurs on an average of 28 days intervals and last for about 4 to 5 days.
 Starts from the stage of puberty and the cycle continuous delay Menopause.
 It however ceases during pregnancy and after child birth.
 Consist of blood, mucus, RBC, endometrium lining and unfertilized ovum.
 Divided into three phases: menstrual phase, proliferative phase, secretive phase.
Menstrual phase:
Endometrium sheds blood, mucus, which passes through vagina it usually lasts for 4 to 5
days, hormones like oestrogen, progesterone, FSH and LH are found in minimal quantity.
The decline of these hormones can lead to menstrual phase.
Proliferative phase:
 Proliferation of endometrium takes place where oestrogen levels are raised and
reaches highest at the end of the phase.
 FSH and LH levels are increased where they undergo this influence of these
hormones there is development and maturation of Graafian follicle that starts and
hence they are also called as follicular phase, it lasts for about 10 to 14 days before
14th day of start of menstruation.
 There is a sudden rise in FSH and LH level graph and follicle of one ovary ruptures to
liberate and ovum and hence is called as ovulation.
Secretive phase:
 This is last phase where endometrium becomes more secretive under the influence of
progesterone hence the name Secretive phase.
 Both oestrogen and progesterone levels are high and hence Corpus luteum is formed
from ruptured Graafian follicle.
 It lasts for about 14 days where Corpus luteum degenerates if no fertilization occurs.
 Corpus luteum can be defined as hormone secreted structure the developed in an
ovary after oven has been discharged by degenerate after few days unless pregnancy
has begun.
 Fertilization can be defined as fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote.
 Sperm enter ovum by penetrating multiple layer of multiple granulosa cells it is
facilitated by Hyluridinase and proteolytic enzymes.

OOGENESIS
 Formation of gametes in ovaries is termed as oogenesis.
 It begins in female before their birth.
 During the early foetal development, primordial germ cells migrate from yoke cells to
the ovaries.
 These germ cells differentiate within the ovaries into oogonia they are diploid (2n)
that divide mitotically into millions of germ cells.
 Few develop into primary besides that enter prophase of meiosis-1. During foetal
development, but do not complete until puberty.
 Each primordial follicles start to grow and develop into primary follicles.
 Each primary follicles consists of primary oocyte, with continuation of maturation,
primary oocyte, granuloma cells begin to secrete follicular fluid.
 Secondary follicle eventually become larger turning into Graafian follicle.
 Graafian follicle and there is formation of ovulation diploid primary oocytes complete
meiosis-1 produce two haploid cell.
 Oogenesis

 Small cell produce by meiosis -1 is called first polar body and largest cell are called
secondary oocyte.
 Once secondary oocyte is formed there is beginning of meiosis-2 but stop during
metaphase Graffian follicles rupture and release secondary oocyte hence it is called
ovulation.
 Secondary oocyte are split into two haploid cells which are unequal where larger cells
are ovum and smaller cells are second polar body.
 SPERMATOGENESIS
 Formulation of sperms in testis is called spermatogenesis.
 It starts with spermatogonia which contains diploid (2n). When they undergo mitosis
some spermatogonia remains near basement membrane of seminiferous tubule to
serve as reservoir of cells for further cell division.
 Rest of the spermatogonia loose contact with basement membrane and undergo
development changes, differentiation into primary spermatocytes that are diploid (2n)
in nature.
 Each spermatocytes replicate its DNA which leads to me as in meiosis-1 homologous
pair of chromosomes lineup at metaphase plate and mitotic spindle full one
chromosome of each pair to an opposite pole of dividing cell.

 The two cells formed by meiosis-1 is called secondary sperm as each secondary
spermatocyte have 23 chromosomes hence no application of sperm as DNA.
  In meiosis-2 chromosomes line in single file along the metaphase plate hence for
haploid (n) cells of spermatids are formed.
 The final stage of sperm at oogenesis is development of haploid (n) spermatids to
sperms called as spermatogenesis

PREGNANCY
When ovum is fertilized pregnancy occurs it proceed until 280 days or nine months to terminate
parturition.
Physiological changes:
 During pregnancy series of changes takes place such as uterus, Placenta, ovaries and
breast enlarges.
 Vagina enlarges and pelvic ligament relaxes.
 Blood volume increases and accordingly plasma iron decreases, hence cardiac output
increases and BP also increases.
 Morning sickness, constipation occurs.
 Respiration increases which leads to vital capacity increase.
 Endocrine glands such as hormones of thyroid gland parathyroid gland and adrenal
cortex also increases.
 Carbohydrates, proteins and fats metabolism is stimulated which leads to glycosuria.
 Oestrogen, progesterone, gonadotropin hormone are also excreted in urine.
Structural changes:
 Ovaries:
Follicular changes do not appear in ovary and ovulation does not occur due to
secretion of FSH and LH inhibition.
 Uterus:
Volume of uterus increases gradually due to foetal growth it reaches 5-7 litres at the
end of pregnancy due to hyperplasia and hypertrophy
 Vagina:
There is an increase in the size of vagina and colour also changes into violet due to
increase blood supply.
 Cervix:
There is increase in blood supply and mucus due to fallopian tube blood supply.
 Mammary glands:
 There is increase of mammary glands increased in secretion of T4 and increase of basal
metabolic rate in later stage of pregnancy takes place blood glucose level increases
which leads to Diabetes mellitus and increase in ketosis and cholesterol also takes place.
Parturition:
 Expansion or delivery of feet is from mother's body is called as parturition, it occurs
at the end of pregnancy.
 The process by which delivery of foetus occur is called labour. It involves three
stages.
 Stage-1: There is strong uterine contraction which arises from fundus of uterus and
move downwards so that had a foetus is pushed against cervix.
 Stage-2: Foetus is delivered out through service and vaginal canal and lasts for about
an hour.
 Stage-3: During this placenta is detached from decidua and expelled out from uterus
which occurs after 10 to 15 minutes of childbirth slow and we contraction of uterus
commences about a month before parturition
 It is controlled by positive feedback mechanism hormones involved in parturation is
oxytocin, catecholamine’s, relaxin, oestrogen, progesterone, cortisol.
DISORDERS
Polycystic ovarian disease:
 Hormonal disorder that is common among women of reproductive age.
 PCOD women may have infrequent or prolonged menstrual period or excess male
hormone and that is androgen levels.
 Ovaries develop many small collection of fluid and fail to release ovum.
 Exact cause of this disease is unknown but expected as may be enlarged ovaries and
they contain follicles that are surrounded by the ovum.
 Elevated levels of male hormones may result in physical signs such as hair on body and
face along with acne and male pattern baldness.
Infertility:
 Inability of a couple to conceive and reproduce.
 It could be defined as failure of conceive after one year of regular intercourse without
contraception, it can be effected to a male or female.
 Factors affecting infertility are, Previous and current alcohol consumption, Drug abuse,
history of STD's such as AIDS, Syphilis, , Genetic inherited disorder, Smoking.
 CHROMOSOMES
Chromosome is present in the nucleus of each cell, and it is packaged into thread-like
structures. Structurally, each chromosome is composed of DNA that is tightly coiled around
special proteins called histones. Typically, chromosomes are not visible under the microscope.
The only time they are visible is during the process of cell division.
All living organisms have chromosomes; humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. 22 pairs of
these chromosomes are called autosomes – these are identical in males and females. The 23rd
pair of chromosomes are called allosomes and they differ between the sexes. Males have one
“X” and “Y” chromosome, while females have two copies of the “X” chromosome.
Genes
Genes are functional units of heredity as they are made of DNA. The chromosome is made of
DNA containing many genes. Every gene comprises of the particular set of instructions for a
particular function or protein-coding. Speaking in usual terms, genes are responsible for
heredity.

DNA
The DNA structure defines the basic genetic makeup of our body. In fact, it defines the genetic
makeup of nearly all life on earth.
“DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for carrying and transmitting the hereditary
materials or the genetic instructions from parents to off springs.”
DNA was first recognized and identified by the Swiss biologist Johannes Friedrich Miescher
in 1869 during his research on white blood cells.

The double helix structure of a DNA molecule was later discovered through the experimental
data by James Watson and Francis Crick. Finally, it was proved that DNA is responsible for
storing genetic information in living organisms.
DNA structure can be thought of as a twisted ladder. This structure is described as a double-
helix, as illustrated in the figure above. It is a nucleic acid, and all nucleic acids are made up
of nucleotides. The DNA molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, and each nucleotide
is composed of three different components such as sugar, phosphate groups and nitrogen bases.

The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar group, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. The sugar and phosphate groups link the nucleotides
together to form each strand of DNA. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine
(C) are four types of nitrogen bases.

These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in the following way: A with T, and C with G. These
base pairs are essential for the DNA’s double helix structure, which resembles a twisted ladder.

GENETIC PATTERN OF INHERITANCE:

It is important to understand the basic laws of inheritance to appreciate how conditions are
passed on in a family.

An accurate family health history is a valuable tool to illustrate how conditions are passed
down through generations.

A person has two copies of almost every gene, one copy from mother and one copy from
father.

Scientists have studied human genes to learn how they normally work and how changes in
genes can change how they work.

Some changes are very minor and do not affect the way a gene works. These changes are
often called single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or gene variants.

Other changes, called mutations, affect how a gene works and can lead to disease.

Diseases caused by mutations in a single gene are usually inherited in a simple pattern,
depending on the location of the gene. This is often referred to as Mendelian inheritance
because Gregor Mendel first observed these patterns in garden pea plants.

Several basic modes of inheritance exist for single-gene disorders: autosomal dominant,
autosomal recessive, X-linked dominant, and X-linked recessive.
 Inheritance Characteristics Disease Examples
Pattern

Each affected person usually has an Huntington’s disease,

Autosomal affected parent; familial hypercholesterolemia
Dominant occurs in every generation

Sickle cell anemia,

Autosomal Both parents of an affected person are cystic fibrosis,
Recessive carriers; not typically seen in every phenylketonuria (PKU)
generation.

X-linked Dominant Females are more frequently affected Hypophatemic rickets (vitamin D
Can have affected males and females in resistant rickets), ornithine
same generation if the mother is affected transcarbamylase deficiency.

Males are more frequently affected.

X-linked Recessive Affected males often present in each Hemophilia A

generation

Mitochondrial Can affect both males and females Leber’s hereditary optic
neuropathy,