See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/232742708

Physiological Effects of Yogic Practices and Transcendental Meditation in

Health and Disease

Article in North American Journal of Medical Sciences · October 2012

DOI: 10.4103/1947-2714.101980 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS

136 6,746

3 authors:

Pishey Ashwathnarayan Rao Balaji Smitha R Varne

Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka
30 PUBLICATIONS 296 CITATIONS 16 PUBLICATIONS 258 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Syed sadat ali

Shridevi Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Hospital
37 PUBLICATIONS 365 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Syed sadat ali on 28 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 ISSN 1947-2714

North American
Journal of Medical Sciences

www.najms.org

Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2012

 Review Article

Physiological Effects of Yogic Practices and

Transcendental Meditation in Health and Disease
P A Balaji, Smitha R Varne1, Syed Sadat Ali

Department of Physiology, Dr. B R Ambedkar Medical College, 1Yoga Therapist/Instructor at Healing Touch Yoga Centre,
and Nutrition Consultant at Heart Centre and Nagal Diagnostics, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Abstract
Yoga is an ancient Indian way of life, which includes changes in mental attitude, diet, and the practice of specific techniques such as yoga
asanas (postures), breathing practices (pranayamas), and meditation to attain the highest level of consciousness. Since a decade, there has
been a surge in the research on yoga, but we do find very few reviews regarding yogic practices and transcendental meditation (TM) in health
and disease. Keeping this in view, a Medline search was done to review relevant articles in English literature on evaluation of physiological
effects of yogic practices and TM. Data were constructed; issues were reviewed and found that there were considerable health benefits,
including improved cognition, respiration, reduced cardiovascular risk, body mass index, blood pressure, and diabetes. Yoga also influenced
immunity and ameliorated joint disorders.

Keywords: Health, Obesity, Pranayama, Transcendental Meditation, Yoga

Address for correspondence: Dr. Syed Sadat Ali, Department of Physiology, Dr. B R Ambedkar Medical College, Kadugondana Halli, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India. E-mail: drsadatali@gmail.com

Introduction obstacles within self, that is, trouncing laziness, anger,

delusion, and desire for being different or better than
Yoga is a psycho-somatic-spiritual discipline for achieving others), there are several changes in physiology.[2] In
union and harmony between our mind, body, and soul order to provide a general overview and understanding,
and the ultimate union of our individual consciousness we performed a Medline search to review relevant
with the universal consciousness.[1] Pranayama is derived articles in English literature on physiological effects of
from two Sanskrit words, namely, prana, which means yogic practices including pranayama and TM. Data were
vital force or life energy, ayama means to prolong.[2] constructed and issues were reviewed from there.

Transcendental meditation (TM) is one of the techniques

of meditation, which involves allowing the mind to Schools of Yoga
dwell on a series of words (called a mantra) given by the
Yoga is not only popular in India but also in Western
meditation teacher, with no effort. If the attention wanders
countries. Example: Hatha yoga has become popular
it is allowed to wander till it returns to the mantra.[2]
in North America in recent years.[3] In India, the widely
practiced ones are hatha yoga, raja yoga, jnana yoga,
When a person practices yoga, with yogic attitude
integral yoga, karma yoga, bhakti yoga, mantra yoga,
(attitude of patience, persistent practice, overcoming
kundalini yoga, sahaja yoga, laya yoga, and many more.
Hatha yoga includes practice of asanas, pranayamas,
Access this article online and kriyas (purification techniques including breathing
cleansing techniques and shatkarmas—six groups of
Quick Response Code:
Website: purification practices). Around 900 BC, the ancient sage
www.najms.org
Patanjali evolved the eight stages of yoga which is called
as ashtanga yoga. As such, integral yoga incorporates
DOI: hatha yoga, meditation, and pranayama. In the Indian
10.4103/1947-2714.101980 subcontinent, integral yoga is also known as yoga of
transformation.[2]

442 North American Journal of Medical Sciences | October 2012 | Volume 4 | Issue 10 |
 Balaji et al.: Physiological effects of yoga and meditation

Physiological Basis Underlying the Effects Effects of Transcendental Meditation

of Yogasanas, Pranayamas, and TM In a study conducted to know the anatomical correlates
of long-term meditation, researchers found significantly
(a) Rejuvenation/regeneration of cells of pancreas due
larger gray matter volumes in meditators in the right
to abdominal stretching during yoga exercise, which
orbito-frontal cortex, right thalamus and left inferior
may increase utilization and metabolism of glucose in
temporal gyrus.[16]
peripheral tissues, liver, and adipose tissues through
enzymatic process.[4,5] (b) More active practices followed
In a comparative study, the effects of sahaja yoga
by relaxing ones lead to deeper relaxation than relaxing
meditation on Electroencephalogram (EEG) in patients
practices alone, documented by research from Swami
of major depression and healthy subjects found an
Vivekananda yoga research foundation near Bangalore
increase in alpha activity in both the groups after 2
city and possibility of neuroplasticity bringing about
months practice of Sahaja yoga meditation.[17] In another
changes in the hypo-pituitary–pancreatic axis. [6]
study cyclic meditation enhanced cognitive processing
(c) Muscular relaxation, development and improved
underlying generation of the P300.[18]
blood supply to muscles might enhance insulin receptor
expression on muscles causing increased glucose uptake
A study involving Western meditators with 9.1 ± 7.1
by muscles and thus reducing blood sugar.[7] (d) The years of meditation experience and practiced 6.2 ±
improvement in the lipid levels after yoga could be due to 4.0 h per week demonstrated with structural changes
increased hepatic lipase and lipoprotein lipase at cellular using Kolmogorov–Smirnoff statistics (one-tailed,
level, which affects the metabolism of lipoprotein and α-level P = 0.05), indicated significant differences in the
thus increase uptake of triglycerides by adipose tissues.[8,9] ‘distribution’ of thickness between groups across both
hemispheres in areas of the brain that are important for
Yoga postures can lead to improvement in the sensitivity sensory, cognitive, and emotional processing.[19]
of the b-Cells of the pancreas to the glucose signal and
also the improvement in insulin sensitivity in turn A study conducted in Denmark observed higher gray
can be due to the cumulative effect of performing the matter density in lower brain stem regions of experienced
postures.[10] meditators compared with age-matched nonmeditators
and showed that long-term practitioners of meditation
Direct stimulation of the pancreas by the postures can had structural differences in brainstem regions concerned
rejuvenate its capacity to produce insulin.[11] Regeneration with cardiorespiratory control.[20]
of pancreatic beta cells could occur by yoga exercises that
promote blood circulation in the region of the pancreas Another study conducted in Germany involving eight
and yoga asanas that stimulate the meridian of pancreas Buddhist monks and nuns with 5 years (SD 2 years)
also could assist in some diabetic patients.[12] training in meditation practices demonstrated that
practicing meditation enhanced the speed with which
Pranayama practices, stretches the lung tissue producing attention can be allocated and relocated thus, increased
inhibitory signals from action of slowly adapting the depth of information processing and reducing
receptors and hyperpolarising currents. These inhibitory response latency.[21]
signals coming from cardiorespiratory region involving
vagi are believed to synchronize neural elements in A cross-sectional survey involving 347 responses
the brain leading to changes in the autonomic nervous demonstrated long-term Sahaja Yoga meditation
system; and a resultant condition characterized by practitioners experienced better quality of life (QOL) and
reduced metabolism and parasympathetic dominance.[13] functional health than the general population.[22]

Pranayama modified various inflatory and deflatory lung Studies at Harvard medical school found a decrease
reflexes and interact with central neural element to bring in oxygen consumption (on an average decrease of
new homeostasis in the body.[2] 17%) from a mean of 251.2 ml/min before meditation
to 211.4 ml/min during meditation. Minute ventilation
TM seems to influence through modifying activity of decreased by about 1 L/min and respiratory rate
ascending reticular activating system and thereby also decreased by about 3 breaths/min during meditation,
interact with autonomic centers in the brainstem thus though neither were statistically significant.[14] The average
affecting cardiorespiratory and metabolic parameters. [14] heart rate decreased during meditation by 3 beats/min.
Higher melatonin levels could be one mechanism The skin resistance increased markedly at the onset of
through which the claimed health promoting effects of meditation and decreased after meditation but maintained
meditation occur.[15] higher than before meditation.[14] The most notable change

North American Journal of Medical Sciences | October 2012 | Volume 4 | Issue 10 | 443
 Balaji et al.: Physiological effects of yoga and meditation

in EEG pattern during TM was an increase in the alpha A study with a quest whether yoga could reduce the basic
amplitude and regularity, with occasional slow alpha and problem in asthma (i.e., airway hyper responsiveness),
low voltage theta. Alpha blocking to sound and light was showed improvement on subjective measures as well
present, and did not show habituation. Based on the EEG as airway hyper responsiveness to methacholine after
findings along with above variables, TM could also be sahaja yoga meditation.[29]
described as a wakeful hypo-metabolic state.[14]
In a setup of randomized, double-blind, crossover trial
design there was a significant increase in the dose of
Effects of Yoga histamine needed to provoke a 20% reduction in FEV1
Nervous system during yoga breath, but not with the control.[30] Yoga
group, compared with control group, showed greater
In a study to assess the immediate effect of three improvement in scores for drug treatment, peak flow rate,
yoga breathing techniques on performance of a letter- and decreased weekly attacks of asthma, following 2 weeks
cancellation task, the authors reported that there were of yoga practice.[31] Yogic exercise group showed maximum
improved scores and fewer errors on letter cancellation improvement in respiratory function when compared with
task and suggested that yoga practice could bring that improved by national defense training.[32]
improvement in the task which requires selective
attention, concentration, visual scanning abilities, and a In a RCT conducted at All India Institute of Medical
repetitive motor response.[23] A study on performance of Sciences, Delhi, India, showed that adding a comprehensive
participants on mirror-tracing task found that yoga group yoga-based mind-body intervention to the conventional
had improved reversal ability, eye-hand co- ordination, treatment improved several measures of pulmonary
speed and accuracy which were necessary for mirror star function in subjects having mild to moderate bronchial
tracing.[24] In another study conducted to assess changes asthma, a decrease in exercise-induced bronchoconstriction
in p300 following two yoga-based relaxation techniques in the yoga group, particularly in the exercise-sensitive
reported a reduction in the peak latencies of P300 after subjects. Yoga improved the QOL and reduced rescue
yoga based relaxation technique and indicated that yogic medication use in bronchial asthma, and achieved the
meditation enhances cognitive processes underlying the reduction earlier than conventional treatment alone.[28]
generation of P300.[18]
Yoga training produced statistically significant (P < 0.05)
Left-sided unilateral forced nostril breathing led to increase in FEV, FEV1, peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR)
right-hemisphere dominance and improved spatial also increased significantly (P < 0.01) after the yoga
skills while maneuver on opposite side showed left training. In contrast, the increase in these parameters in
hemisphere dominance with improved verbal skills.[25] the control group were statistically not significant and
Practicing asanas, pranayama, meditation, and tratakas demonstrated that yoga training for 6 months improved
(concentrated gazing practices), and attending devotional lung function, strength of inspiratory and expiratory
sessions for 10 days led to a significant improvement in muscles among school children aged 12–15 years. It is
fine coordinated movements.[26] Yoga practices for a suggested that yoga be introduced at school level in order
month not only led to a reduced degree of optical illusion to improve physiological functions, overall health, and
created by muller-lyer lines and raised the critical fusion performance of students.[33]
frequency but also improved neural performance, higher
In a study conducted in United States of America
critical fusion frequency indicating reduced fatigue and
involving 22 patients suffering from chronic obstructive
stress level.[27]
pulmonary disease (COPD) subjected to selected yoga
exercises including breathing exercises, meditation, and
Respiratory system yoga postures for 1 h, thrice a week for 6 weeks showed
In a randomized controlled trial (RCT) conducted on 57 statistically significant improvements (P < 0.05) for the
adult subjects with mild or moderate bronchial asthma, St. George Respiratory questionnaire [95% confidence
there was a steady and progressive improvement in interval (CI) 43.13–58.47], vital capacity (95% CI 2.53–7.65),
pulmonary functions, the change being statistically maximal inspiratory pressure (95% CI 6.62–23.64), and
significant in case of forced expiratory volume in first maximal expiratory pressure (95% CI 1.63–13.81) thereby
second (FEV1) volume at 8 week, and peak expiratory improved QOL and lung function on a short-term basis.[34]
flow rate at 2, 4, and 8 weeks as compared with the
corresponding baseline value and also a significant In another RCT conducted at Brazil, the elderly
reduction in exercise induced bronchoconstriction as healthy population had improved respiratory function
well as in Asthma Quality of Life (AQOL) scores in the and sympathovagal balance after yoga respiratory
yoga group compared with control group.[28] exercises.[35]

444 North American Journal of Medical Sciences | October 2012 | Volume 4 | Issue 10 |
 Balaji et al.: Physiological effects of yoga and meditation

Cardiovascular system Diabetes

In a prospective cohort study involving thirty three In an interventional research involving 98 subjects found
subjects with (30%) and without (70%) established fasting blood sugar (FBS), serum total cholesterol, low
coronary artery disease (CAD) subjected to a course density lipoproteins (LDL), very low density lipoproteins
in yoga and meditation showed significant reductions (VLDL), the ratio of total cholesterol to HDL-C, and
in blood pressure, heart rate, and body mass index total triglycerides were significantly lower, and HDL-C
(BMI).[36] significantly higher, on the last day of the course
compared with the first day of the 8-days course.[43]
Another prospective, controlled, open trial including
angiographically proved coronary artery disease patients A comparison of yoga practice with physical training
showed yoga-based lifestyle modifications helped showed that yoga practice for 6 months reduced fasting
in regression of coronary lesions and in improving blood glucose, lipid levels, markers of oxidative stress,
myocardial perfusion which was translated into clinical while physical training also decreased fasting blood
benefits and symptomatic improvement.[37] glucose but had few of the other beneficial effects.[44]

Six healthy Asian Indian men and women (18–22 years) In a study, 44 type 2 diabetic patients were taught yoga
(n = 22) and pranayama for three continuous months, 1 h
who were trained in Surya namaskar (sun salutation)
every day in the morning by yoga expert had significant
for over 2 years participated in the study showed that
decrease in FBS, Postprandial blood sugar (PPBS),
regular practice of Surya namaskar might maintain or
glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), triglycerides and
improve cardiorespiratory fitness, as well as promote
LDL of test group with P < 0.001, compared with control
weight management.[38]
group (n = 22). The requirement of insulin in the yoga
group was also significantly reduced.[45]
An interventional study showed beneficial effects of
short term (15 days) regular pranayama and meditation In a study involving 20 patients with type
practice on cardiovascular functions (reduction in 2 diabetes mellitus were subjected to 40 days yoga
resting pulse rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic routine by an expert yoga teacher. The postures
blood pressure, and mean arterial blood pressure) performed were: Surya namaskar (sun salutation),
irrespective of age, gender, and BMI in normal healthy Trikonasana (triangle pose), Tadasana (mountain
individuals.[39] pose), Padmasana (lotus pose), Bhastrika Pranayama
(breathing exercise), Pashimottanasana (posterior
A study involving 50 healthy male subjects of 18–25 years stretch), Ardhmatsyendrasana (half spinal twist),
age group, subjected to Mukh Bhastrika (yogic bellows), Pawanmuktasana (joint freeing series), Bhujangasana
a type of pranayama breathing training for 12 weeks (cobra pose), Vajrasana (thunderbolt pose), Dhanurasana
showed an increase in parasympathetic activity, that is, (bow pose), and Shavasana (corpse pose). At the end of 40
reduced basal heart rate, increase in valsalva ratio and days of performing the asanas, the study participants had
deep breathing difference in heart rate; and reduction in a significant decrease in fasting glucose levels, waist–hip
sympathetic activity, that is, reduction in fall of systolic ratio and beneficial changes in insulin levels.[46]
blood pressure on posture variation.[40]
Obesity
A study conducted in northern Mexico involving An observational study involving long-term yoga
four middle-aged and nine older conventional hatha practitioners showed that a consistent, long-term Hatha
yoga (CHY) practicing females subjected to 11-week yoga practice in a nonprobability sample of women over
intensive hatha yoga (IHY) program consisting of 45 years was linearly associated with declines in BMI
5 sessions/week for 90 min (55 sessions) demonstrated even after correcting for nonyogic exercise hours and
improved cardiovascular risk factors (namely maximal processed food consumption.[47] In a study involving
O2 consumption -VO2max and high density lipoprotein 16 postmenopausal women with more than 36% body
cholesterol [HDL-C]) in middle-aged and older fat divided into yoga exercise group and control group,
women.[41] yoga group showed improved adiponectin level, serum
lipids, and metabolic syndrome risk factors in obese
In a parallel-arm RCT involving 67 sedentary office postmenopausal women.[48]
workers subjected to a 10-week, worksite-based yoga
program delivered during lunch hour demonstrated A retrospective study involving 15,550 adults aged
improved resting heart rate variability (HRV) and related 53–57 years, found that regular yoga practice for 4
physical and psychological parameters.[42] years or more was associated with attenuated weight

North American Journal of Medical Sciences | October 2012 | Volume 4 | Issue 10 | 445
 Balaji et al.: Physiological effects of yoga and meditation

gain, especially among people who were overweight.[49] also a decrease in fatigue.[59] Yoga also helped patients
A week of intensive yoga course reduced the BMI as with cancer to deal with distressful symptoms and
well as waist and hip circumference, decreased total treatment related toxicity of chemotherapy.[60] Yoga
cholesterol, improved posture, and stability.[50] could influence immune system, especially increasing
the natural killer cells.[61] Radiation causes DNA damage
In a RCT involving 23 adults, the yoga group subjected to and yoga practice could reduce the damage.[62] Increased
a 3-month yoga intervention of twice weekly yoga sessions survival time were obtained by the association between
and the education group received health information neuroimmunotherapy with melatonin plus IL-2 and
every 2 weeks. At the end of the study, the yoga group kriya yoga program (2 years), which was significantly
showed improvements in weight, blood pressure and longer with respect to that achieved by supportive care
insulin, when compared with the education group.[51] alone, Yoga alone, or IL-2 plus melatonin alone (1 year).[63]

In another RCT using a two-group, parallel design Immunity

in individuals with coronary heart disease and the
A study carried out on 60 first-year MBBS students
metabolic syndrome demonstrated significant difference
randomly assigned to yoga group and control group
in adjusted systolic blood pressure at the end of the study
(30 each). The yoga group underwent integrated yoga
in the TM group versus the health education group
practices for 35 min daily in the presence of trained yoga
(P = 0.04) and improved plasma glucose and insulin
teacher for 12 weeks. Control group did not undergo
levels in the TM group versus the health education group
any kind of yoga practice or stress management. It
at the conclusion of the study period (P = 0.01).[52]
was observed that the serum IFN-γ levels decreased
with examination stress. Decreased serum IFN-γ levels
Arthritis indicate decline in cellular immunity. The decrease in
A randomized controlled study to evaluate the efficacy serum IFN-γ in yoga group was less significant compared
of integrating hatha yoga therapy with therapeutic with that in the control group which indicated a decline
exercises for osteoarthritis (OA) showed that there were in cellular immunity with examination stress more
significant differences within (Wilcoxon’s, P < 0.001) and among the control group than the yoga group students.[64]
between the yoga and control groups (Mann–Whitney
U, P < 0.001) on all the studied variables, with better In another study, Yoga practice in patients suffering from
improvements in the yoga than the control groups.[53] pulmonary tuberculosis potentiated the body immunity
and action of antitubercular drugs thereby improving
In a pilot study involving 27 women with musculoskeletal sputum culture, radiography, Forced Vital Capacity
problems such as OA subjected to undergo 8 sessions (FVC), weight gain and symptoms.[65] Yoga postures
(twice weekly for 4 weeks) of a yoga program indicated that twist and compress organs, help massage and
that poststudy values of patients’ gait parameters were rejuvenate immune organs. Kurmasana (tortoise pose)
found to be statistically higher than their pre- study values which supports the thymus gland could create specific
(P < 0.05).[54] There was a decrease in the rheumatoid benefits to improve immune function.[66]
factor levels along with less pain and better function
following a week of yoga. [55] Another pilot study
involving 12 sessions of yoga for rheumatoid arthritis Conclusion
(RA) demonstrated statistically significant improvements The various avenues of study of yoga practices reviewed
in RA.[56] Sixteen postmenopausal women with RA in the present article indicated considerable health
subjected to three 75- min yoga classes a week over a benefits, including improved cognition, respiration,
10-week period showed a significant decrease in Health
reduced cardiovascular risk, BMI, blood pressure, and
assessment Questionnaire disability index, perception of
diabetes mellitus. It also influenced immunity and
pain and depression, and improved balance.[57]
ameliorated joint disorders.

Cancer Despite extensive searches, recent research articles in

A new term, restorative yoga (This is a gentle, therapeutic sighting the Physiological basis underlying the effects of
style of Yoga that uses props to support the body to yogasanas, pranayamas and TM were limited. Further
deepen the benefits of the poses. It is a soothing and researches exploring the effects of yoga on different
nurturing practice that promotes the effects of conscious organ systems would be invaluable.
relaxation)[58] has been used to describe a gentle form
of yoga which help females with ovarian or breast
cancer to reduce depression as well as anxiety state,
References
and better mental health and overall QOL. There was 1. Madanmohan, Mahadevan SK, Balakrishnan S,

446 North American Journal of Medical Sciences | October 2012 | Volume 4 | Issue 10 |
 Balaji et al.: Physiological effects of yoga and meditation

Gopalakrishnan M, Prakash ES. Effect of 6 wks yoga training 20. Vestergaard-Poulsen P, van-Beek M, Skewes J, Bjarkam
on weight loss following step test, respiratory pressures, CR, Subberup M, Bertelsen J, et al. Long-term meditation is
handgrip strength and handgrip endurance in young healthy associated with increased gray matter density in the brain
subjects. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2008;52:164-70. stem. Neuroreport 2009;20:170-4.
2. Tandon OP. Yoga and its applications. In: Tandon OP, 21. van Leeuwen S, Singer W, Melloni L. Meditation Increases the
Tripathi Y, editors. Best and Taylor’s Physiological Basis of Depth of Information Processing and Improves the Allocation
Medical Practice. 13th ed. Gurgaon: Wolters Kluwer health/ of Attention in Space. Front Hum Neurosci 2012;6:133.
Lippincott Williams and Wilkins publishers; 2012. p. 1217-30. 22. Manocha R, Black D, Wilson L. Quality of life and
3. Junkin SE. Yoga and self-esteem: Exploring change functional health status of long-term meditators. Evid Based
in middle- aged women. (Accessed August 1, 2012, at Complement Alternat Med 2012;2012:350674.
http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/25216420/ 23. Sarang SP, Telles S. Immediate effect of two yoga-based
yoga- self- esteem-exploring-change-middle-aged-women). relaxation techniques on performance in a letter cancellation
4. Dang KK and Sahay BK, Yoga and Meditation, Medicine task. Percept Mot Skills 2007;105:379-85.
update, volume 9, part 1, chapters 57 and 58(1999), p502- 512. 24. Telles S, Praghuraj P, Ghosh A, Nagendra HR. Effect of a one-
The Association of Physicians of India ed MM.Singh. month yoga training program on performance in a mirror-
APICON, The Association of Physicians of India conference, tracing task. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2006;50:187-90.
New Delhi. 25. Jella SA, Shannahoff-Khalsa DS. The effects of unilateral
5. Sahay BK and Murthy KJR, Long term follow up studies on forced nostril breathing on cognitive performance. Int J
effect of yoga in diabetes, Diab Res Clin Pract, 5(suppl.1)(1988) Neurosci 1993;73:61-8.
S655 26. Tells S, Hanumanthaiah BH, Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR.
6. McCall T. The Scientific Basis of Yoga Therapy. (Accessed Jun 16, Plasticity of motor control systems demonstrated by yoga
2012, at http://www.yogajournal.com/for_teachers/2016). training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1994;38:143-4.
7. Chandratreya S. Diabetes & Yoga. (Accessed Jun 16, 2012, at 27. Telles S, Nagarathna R, Vani PR, Nagendra HR. A combination
http://www.yogapoint.com/therapy/diabetes_yoga.htm. of focusing and defocusing through yoga reduces optical
8. Delmonte MM. Biochemical indices associated with illusion more than focusing alone. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol
meditation practice: A literature review. Neurosci Biobehav 1997;41:179-82.
Rev 1985;9:557-61. 28. Vempati R,Bijlani RL, Deepak KK. The efficacy of a
9. Tulpule TH, Shah HM, Shah SJ, Haveliwala HK. Yogic comprehensive lifestyle modification programme based on
exercises in the management of ischaemic heart disease. yoga in the management of bronchial asthma: A randomized
Indian Heart J 1971;23:259-64. controlled trial. BMC Pulm Med 2009;9:37.
10. Manjunatha S, Vempati RP, Ghosh D, Bijlani RL, An 29. Manocha R, Marks GB, Kenchinton P, Peters D, Salomezzz CM.
investigation into the acute and long-term effects of selected Sahaja yoga in the management of moderate to severe asthma:
yogic postures on fasting and postprandial glycemia and A randomized controlled trial. Thorax 2002;57:110-15.
insulinemia in healthy young subjects. Indian J Physiol 30. Singh V, Wisniewski A, Briton J, Tattersfield A. Effects of
Pharmacol 2005;49:319-24. yoga breathing exercises on airway reactivity in subjects with
11. Ramaiah SA. Yoga Therapy for Diabetes: Washington, D.C. asthma. Lancet 1990;335:1381-3.
Study, International Conference on Traditional Medicine, 31. Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR. Yoga for bronchial asthma: A
1986, Madras. Published by Siddha Medical Board, Govt. of controlled study. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;291:1077-9.
Tamil Nadu, Madras, India. 32. Nayar HS, Mathur RM, Kumar SR. Effects of yogic exercises
12. Yogalink. A community service donated by samyama yoga. on human efficiency. Indian J Med Res 1975;63:1369-76.
(Accessed Jul 9, 2012, at http://www.yogalink.com.au). 33. Reddy TP. Effect of yoga training on handgrip, respiratory
13. Jerath RJ, Edry VA, Barnes VA, Jerath V. Physiology of long pressures and pulmonary function. Br J Sports Med
pranayamic breathing: Neural respiratory elements may 2010;44:i68.
provide a mechanism that explains how slow breathing shifts 34. Fulambarker A, Farooki B, Kheir F, Copur AS, Srinivasan L,
the autonomic nervous system. Med Hypotheses 2006;67:566-71. Schultz S. Effect of yoga in chronic obstructive pulmonary
14. Wallace RK, Benson H, Wilson AF. A wakeful hypo-metabolic disease. Am J Ther 2012;19:96-100.
physiological state. Am J Physiol 1971;221:795-9. 35. Santaella DF, Devesa CR, Rojo MR, Amato MB, Drager LF,
15. Tooley GA, Armstrong SM, Norman TR, Sali A. Acute increase Casali KR, et al. Yoga respiratory training improves
in night time plasma melatonin levels following a period of respiratory function and cardiac sympathovagal balance in
meditation. Biol Psychol 2000;53:69-78. elderly subjects: A randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open
16. Luders E, Toga AW, Lepore N, Gaser C. The underlying 2011;1:e000085.
anatomical correlates of long-term meditation: Larger 36. Sivasankaran S, Pollard-Quintner S, Sachdeva R, Pugeda J,
hippocampal and frontal volumes of gray matter. Neuroimage Hoq SM, Zarich SW. The effect of a six-week program of yoga
2009;45:672-8. and meditation on brachial artery reactivity: Do psychosocial
17. Sharma VK, Das S, Mondal S, Goswami U, Gandhi A. interventions affect vascular tone? Clin Cardiol 2006;29:393-8.
Comparative effect of sahaj yoga on EEG in patients of 37. Yogendra J, Yogendra HJ, Ambardekar S, Lele RD,
major depression and healthy subjects. Biomedicine Journal Shetty S, Dave M, et al. Beneficial effects of yoga lifestyle on
2007;27:95-9. reversibility of ischaemic heart disease: Caring heart project
18. Sarang SP, Telles S. Changes in p300 following two yoga- of International Board of Yoga. J Assoc Physicians India
based relaxation techniques. Int J Neurosci 2006;116:1419-30. 2004;52:283-9.
19. Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Wasserman RH, Gray JR, Greve DN, 38. Mody BS. Acute effects of Surya Namaskar on the
Treadway MT, et al. Meditation experience is associated with cardiovascular & metabolic system. J Bodyw Mov Ther
increased cortical thickness. Neuroreport 2005;16:1893-7. 2011;15:343-7.

North American Journal of Medical Sciences | October 2012 | Volume 4 | Issue 10 | 447
 Balaji et al.: Physiological effects of yoga and meditation

39. Ankad RB, Herur A, Patil S, Shashikala GV, Chinagudi S. Effect an integrated approach of hatha yoga therapy on functional
of Short-Term Pranayama and Meditation on Cardiovascular disability, pain, and flexibility in osteoarthritis of the knee
Functions in Healthy Individuals. Heart Views 2011;12:58-62. joint: A randomized controlled study. J Altern Complement
40. Veerabhadrappa SG, Baljoshi VS, Khanapure S, Herur A, Med 2012;18:463-72.
Patil S, Ankad RB et al. Effect of yogic bellows on cardiovascular 54. Ulger O, Yağlı NV. Effects of yoga on balance and gait
autonomic reactivity. J Cardiovasc Dis Res 2011;2:223-7 properties in women with musculoskeletal problems: A pilot
41. Ramos-Jimenez A, Hernandez-Torres RP, Wall-Medrano A, study. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2011;17:13-5.
Munoz-Daw MD, Torres-Duran PV, Juarez-Oropeza MA. 55. Telles S, Naveen KV, Gaur V, Balakrishna A. Effect of one
Cardiovascular and metabolic effects of intensive Hatha Yoga week of yoga on function and severity in rheumatoid arthritis.
training in middle-aged and older women from northern BMC Res Notes 2011;4:118.
Mexico. Int J Yoga 2009;2:49-54. 56. Badsha H, Chhabra V, Leibman C, Mofti A, Kong KO.
42. Cheema1 BS, Marshall PW, Chang D, Colagiuri B, Machliss B. The benefits of yoga for rheumatoid arthritis: Results of a
Effect of an office worksite-based yoga program on heart rate preliminary, structured 8-week program. Rheumatol Int
variability: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health 2009;29:1417-21.
2011;11:578. 57. Bosch PR, Traustadóttir T, Howard P, Matt KS. Functional
43. Bijlani RL, Vempati RP, Yadav RK, Ray RB, Gupta V, Physiological effects of yoga in women with rheumatoid
Sharma R, et al. A brief but comprehensive lifestyle education arthritis: A pilot study. Altern Ther Health Med 2009;15:24-31.
program based on yoga reduces risk factors for cardiovascular 58. Restorative Yoga. (Accessed Jul 7, 2012, at http://www.
disease and diabetes mellitus. J Altern Complement Med santosha.com/restorative-yoga.html).
2005;11:267-74.
59. Danhauer S, Tooze JA, Farmer DE, Campbell CR,
44. Gordon LA, Morrison EY, McGrowder DA, Young R, McQuellon RP, Barrett R, et al. Restorative yoga for women
Fraser YT, Zamora EM, et al. Effect of exercise therapy on lipid with ovarian or breast cancer: Findings from a pilot study. J
profile an oxidative stress indicators in patients with type 2 Soc Integr Oncol 2008;6:47-58.
diabetes. BMC Complement Altern Med 2008;8:21.
60. Raghavendra RM, Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR, Gopinath KS,
45. Balaji PA, Varne SR, Sadat-ali S. Effects of yoga - pranayama Srinath BS, Ravi BD, et al. Effects of an integrated yoga
practices on metabolic parameters and anthropometry in type programme on chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis in
2 diabetes. International Multidisciplinary Research Journal breast cancer patients. Eur J Cancer Care (Engl) 2007;16:462-74.
2011;1:1-4.
61. Kochupillai V, Kumar P, Singh D, Aggarwal D, Bhardwaj N,
46. Malhotra V, Singh S, Tandon OP, Sharma SB, The beneficial Bhutani M, et al. Effect of rhythmic breathing (Sudarshan
effect of yoga in diabetes. Nepal Med Coll J 2005;7:145-7.
Kriya and Pranayama) on immune functions and tobacco
47. Moliver N, Mika EM, Chartrand MS, Burrus S, Haussmann RE, addiction. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2005;1056:242-52.
Khalsa S. Increased Hatha yoga experience predicts lower
62. Banerjee B, Vadiraj HS, Ram A, Rao R, Jayapal M, Gopinath KS,
body mass index and reduced medication use in women over
et al. Effects of an integrated yoga program in modulating
45 years. Int J Yoga 2011;49:77-86.
psychological stress and radiation-induced Genotoxic stress
48. Lee JA, Kim JW, Kim DY. Effects of yoga exercise on serum in breast cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy. Integr
adiponectin and metabolic syndrome factors in obese Cancer Ther 2007;6:242-50.
postmenopausal women. Menopause 2012;19:296-301.
63. Messina G, Anania S, Bonomo C, Veneroni L, Andreoli A,
49. Kristal AR, Littman AJ, Benitez D, White E. Yoga practice Mameli F. The importance of spirituality in supportive care.
is associated with attenuated weight gain in healthy, Int J Yoga 2011;4:33-8.
middle- aged men and women. Altern Ther Health Med
64. Gopal A, Mondal S, Gandhi A, Arora S, Bhattacharjee J. Effect of
2005;11:28-33.
integrated yoga practices on immune responses in examination
50. Telles S, Naveen KV, Balakrishna A, Kumar S. Short term stress - A preliminary study. Int J Yoga 2011;4:26-32.
health impact of a yoga and diet change program on obesity.
65. Visweswaraiah NK, Telles S. Randomized trial of yoga
Med Sci Monit 2010;16:35-40.
as a complementary therapy for pulmonary tuberculosis.
51. Yang K, Bernardo LM, Sereika SM, Conroy MB, Balk J, Respirology 2004;9:96-101.
Burke LE, et al. Utilization of 3-Month Yoga Program for
66. Arora S, Bhattacharjee J. Modulation of immune responses
Adults at High Risk for Type 2 Diabetes: A pilot study. Evid
in stress by Yoga. Int J Yoga 2008;1:45-55.
Based Complement Alternat Med 2011;2011:257891.
52. Paul-Labrador M, Polk D, Dwyer JH, Velasquez I, Nidich S,
Rainforth M, et al. Effects of a randomized controlled trial of
transcendental meditation on components of the metabolic How to cite this article: Balaji PA, Varne SR, Ali SS. Physiological effects
of yogic practices and transcendental meditation in health and disease.
syndrome in subjects with coronary heart disease. Arch Intern North Am J Med Sci 2012;4:442-8.
Med 2006;166:1218-24.
53. Ebnezar J, Nagarathna R, Yogitha B, Nagendra HR. Effects of Source of Support: Nil. Conflict of Interest: None declared.

448 North American Journal of Medical Sciences | October 2012 | Volume 4 | Issue 10 |

View publication stats