There are two types of VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) navigation beacons; the conventional VOR

(CVOR) and the Doppler VOR (DVOR).

What are the differences between them? Specifically I would like to know:
 Do they generate the same navigation signal?
 Can they be used by the same receiver, or do VOR receivers need to be specially adapted to
DVORs?
 Is one more accurate than the other?
 Is one more susceptible to interference than the other?
Short answer:
There are several types of conventional VORs using either rotating or static antennas. What they have in
common is:
 They are relatively compact.
 Bearing is determined from a HF signal rotating 30 rounds per second.
 They are very sensitive to multipath interference created by reflection on nearby obstacles, and
must be located at isolated places. They are often used for airway beaconing.
There are also several types of Doppler VORs, single or double sideband:
 They requires a large 14 m diameter circular array of antennas.
 Bearing is determined from the Doppler effect created by scanning the array at 1,300 m/s.
 They are less efficient, inactive antennas from the array absorb a significant part of the signal
emitted from the active antennas, reducing the effective range.
 They are less sensitive to multipath, and are easier to install at airfields. They are commonly used
for runway approach.
Bearing is more accurate with a Doppler VOR unless the conventional VOR site neighborhood is exempt
of obstructions.
That said both types have the same tolerances from an ICAO standpoint:
 The transmitting elements must be accurate to 2°. Most stations are able transmit a signal with an
accuracy better than 0.5°. A perfectly sited VOR could deliver this precision to the receivers.
 However errors are mostly created by the environment, by reflection and other phenomena
changing the signal phase, similarly to a mirror inverting left and right on its reflected image.
When direct and reflected waves interfere, an error can be introduced. ICAO limits this error to
6.5° in the volume of service. In practical most VOR stations are well below this limit, possibly
using Doppler VORs in most cluttered sites.
A word about these multipath errors: The direct wave propagates along the line of sight (LoS), but the
transmitting antenna radiates in other directions. The corresponding rays can be reflected, diffracted and
refracted by obstacles and reach the receiver antenna as indirect waves. This can be beneficial, e.g. it
extends considerably the range beyond LoS. But waves travel different distances before reaching the
receiver:

This means their phase is different on the receiver antenna. Interferences occur, and they change the
signal amplitude.
In a volume called the first Fresnel ellipsoid (FE1), centered on the LoS, where the length difference
cannot exceed λ/2λ/2, λλ being the VOR carrier wavelength, interferences are constructive, amplitude is
increased.

In the second Fresnel ellipsoid where the difference is between λ/2λ/2 and λλ, interferences are
destructive, amplitude is decreased, and this continues with other multiples of λ/2λ/2. However 80% of
energy is in FE1, and the rest is mostly in FE2. Therefore when planning a radio link, only FE1 is taken
into account. The ratio between the obstructed areas in FE1 and FE2 determines the ratio of energy with
constructive interferences, thus when siting radio stations, at least 60% of FE1 is kept clear of obstacles.
This can be a challenge. For an aircraft at a distance of 20 NM from a VOR located on the airfield, flying
at 1000 ft QFE, the radius of FE1 at the middle point of the link is 500 ft. The ellipsoid is already tangent
to the ground in the best case, and therefore the ellipsoid between the VOR and this middle point is
slightly obstructed.
Limiting VOR errors consist first in removing obstacles from FE1. However as multipath first impacts
amplitude, it hits conventional VOR harder, as this type of VOR depends more on a amplitude accuracy.

VOR principles
A VOR receiver, regardless of the technology behind, receives two sine signals repeating 30 times per
second: Reference and variable signals, and determines the bearing by solely measuring the difference
between their phases.
From a carrier standpoint, only amplitude modulation is used, but to minimize a possible influence of one
signal onto the other, the VOR station uses a subcarrier, which frequency is low (9,960 Hz) but
significantly distant from 30 Hz. One phase value is conveyed by normally modulating the carrier in
amplitude, the other by modulating the subcarrier in frequency. The subcarrier then modulates the carrier
in amplitude.
In addition, two antenna systems are used:
 The carrier and the reference are send on one or more omnidirectional antenna(s) and all receivers
see the same reference phase at the same time.
 The variable signal is sent appart to appear different for receivers at different bearings. The type
of antenna used depends on the type of VOR.
As explained below, the variable signal is not created by actual modulation of the carrier, but by synthetic
sidebands. Modulation and sidebands are anyway equivalent by Fourier transform. Amplitude modulation
changes the amplitude of the carrier over time (time concept), but also creates symmetrical sidebands on
each side of the carrier (spectral concept):

12 kHz carrier with 500 Hz AM. Sidebands are created at a distance of 500 Hz from the carrier

Conversely, creating carrier sidebands by some method is the same as modulating the carrier.
Phases are equal when the receiver is located north of the VOR (360°M), and show a difference
increasing by one degree for each degree of bearing counted clockwise. Therefore the phase difference
directly gives the bearing value.
C-VOR and D-VOR differ by how the variable phase is made different for receivers at different bearings.
The method relies on amplitude for a conventional VOR and on frequency for a Doppler VOR.
Conventional VOR (C-VOR)
Technologies have changed a lot in the first decades. This explains why C-VOR descriptions also vary a
lot, and sometimes contain mixed principles from different generations. Early generations used a rotating
dipole to broadcast the variable signal, but they were soon replaced by static antennas or slots on a
cylinder, making VOR more simple and less demanding on maintenance.
The static system once used two pairs of Alford loop antennas, more commonly two pairs of vertical
antennas. While a vertical antenna radiates equally in all azimuths, a vertical pair tends to increase the
field in directions perpendicular to the pair plane.

Conventional VOR antennas for a Thomson CSF TAH 511. Source:

STNA
In the aerial above, four vertical tubes form two crossed pairs and the rings below and above the pairs are
omnidirectional antennas. A polarizer at the top of the tubes prevents them from radiating in vertical
polarization, to increase accuracy.
Reference signal
The reference information is FM embedded into a 9.96 kHz subcarrier ("10k subcarrier") with a
modulation index (modulation depth in ICAO parlance) of 16, meaning the subcarrier frequency varies by
+/- 480 Hz.
Variable signal
The variable signal is created by artificially creating the sidebands corresponding to the subcarrier. Each
pair of antennas receives a HF signal:
 Which frequency is f-30 Hz or f+30 Hz (sideband frequencies)
 Which phase is proportional to the sine or the cosine of the reference angle. This aspect is
explained shortly.
Pairs are directional, sidebands are sent at right angle (image below, left), creating two individual figure-
of-eight radiation patterns (below center), themselves equivalent to a larger composite figure-of-eight
along the symmetry axis (below right):

Two phenomena occurs:

 Sidebands interfere with the carrier sent on the ring antennas. The result is a cardioid field.
 With phase modulated by sine and cosine of the reference angle, the cardioid rotates at 30 revs
per second, the frequency of the reference. This is equivalent to a rotating antenna broadcasting a
constant signal (the technology used on earlier VORs).
The cardioid EM field which constantly increases and decreases in strength at a given point in space as
the pattern rotates is sensed by the receiver as a constant signal modulated in amplitude at 30 Hz, this
amplitude variation represents the variable signal.
Bearing determination
Carrier, reference and variable signal sidebands create a spectrum the receiver sees as a whole:

This spectrum has all the characteristics of a HF carrier modulated in amplitude by a 30 Hz signal and a
subcarrier at 9960 Hz, itself modulated in frequency by the reference. Phases are finally extracted from
this HF wave and compared:
Doppler VOR (D-VOR)
This VOR consists in an array of about 50 fixed Alford loop antennas located on a 14 m circle. Two
opposite antennas are activated at a time, and are electronically switched so the active antennas seem to
be moving along the circle at 30 rounds per second.

Seen from the receiver one source is moving forward, the other is moving backward, at a linear velocity
between -1,300 m/s and +1,300 m/s (Mach 4).

Principle of the Doppler VOR: The variable signal generation

A 110 MHz source moving between -1,300 and +1,300 m/s creates a Doppler shift between -480 Hz and
+480 Hz. This value, consecutive to the selection of the appropriate array diameter, is the same than the
480 Hz FM swing of the C-VOR, making the D-VOR compatible.
Reference
The 30 Hz reference AM modulates the carrier which is sent in all directions by an antenna at the center
of the circular array.
Variable signal
The actual perceived Doppler shift depends on the direction of the displacement relatively to the receiver,
maximum when "side" antennas are activated, null when "front" and "rear" antennas are activated.
Thus all receivers see a frequency variation repeating 30 times per second, and starting at a time varying
with their own bearing. This shift therefore can be used as the variable signal.
The repeating Doppler shift being undistinguishable from frequency modulation, the variable signal must
be conveyed in FM. However it doesn't FM modulate the carrier, but the subcarrier to be compatible with
the C-VOR. To achieve this:
 Each active antenna of the array transmit a pure frequency corresponding to a sideband of the
subcarrier: f-9.96 kHz and f+9.96 kHz, f being the VOR carrier frequency. When associated with
the carrier sent from the central antenna, these sidebands represent a carrier AM modulated by the
9.96 kHz signal.
 When antennas radiating their pure frequency are given their angular velocity of 30 rps by the
scan, a cyclic Doppler shift between -480 Hz and +480 Hz is automatically added. This shift is
equivalent to a FM modulation of the subcarrier by a 30 Hz signal.
Spectrum created
The composite spectrum is identical to a C-VOR spectrum, the C-VOR receiver is able to continue
working.
D-VOR frequency spectrum

Receiver
A VOR receiver is looking for 30 Hz and 9.96 kHz signals. We deliver both: 30 Hz signal on the central
antenna and 9.96 kHz on the directional scanned array. We had to switch reference and variable signal
functions on the carrier because the variable signal is naturally produced as FM, and the FM signal goes
on the subcarrier in the standard.
Because of this inversion, the phase values are also inverted, and the result is a wrong bearing angle
computation: When the angle is +a, the computation gives -a. The remediation consists in scanning the D-
VOR array in reverse direction (counter-clockwise) and generating an opposite Doppler shift.
Accuracy
Both types of VOR (and their different subtypes) are required by ICAO to produce a bearing with a ±2°
tolerance. The D-VOR is better in this aspect because it’s easier to produce an accurate Doppler shift than
to form a precise pattern with space modulation.
Once the signals are emitted, they are subject to reflection on terrain and obstacles. The final composite
error at the receiver location cannot exceed ±6.5°, as ICAO limits the error according to a bent (slow
variation) tolerance of ±3.5° relative to theoretical course and to a superimposed scalloping (rapid
variation) of ±3°.
On this aspect, the D-VOR is also superior, the variable signal is FM modulated and less subject to
multipath errors. The smaller C-VOR is difficult to run on airfields due to reflections on close obstacles,
the large D-VOR must be used for terminal VOR. The C-VOR is rather used for enroute navigation and
implanted on isolated sites.
Large counterpoises under the antennas limit the reflection problem, and when the site used to built the
VOR is carefully selected, the operational accuracy can be far better than the ICAO requirements in a
large part of the service volume.
Answer to specific questions
Do they generate the same navigation signal?
There are two differences:
 The C-VOR actually sends two modulated signal to generates a cardioid interference pattern
which when steered creates an apparent AM modulation. The D-VOR sends only “moving”
unmodulated sidebands which create by Doppler effect an apparent FM modulation.
 To maintain compatibility with C-VOR, the D-VOR reference signal must be sent in AM, and the
scan done in reverse direction of the cardioid rotation.
Can they be used by the same receiver, or do VOR receivers need to be specially adapted to D-
VORs?
The C-VOR receiver is used for D-VOR. It computes a phase difference which is wrong (opposed
cosine), but because the array is scanned counter-clockwise, the correct bearing is infered.
Is one more accurate than the other?
Wikipedia states, but with no reference, and I’m assuming it’s for a D-VOR: “The predicted accuracy of
the VOR system is ±1.4°. However, test data indicates that 99.94% of the time a VOR system has less
than ±0.35° of error”.
The same article states about ICAO Annex 10 volume 1: “This document sets the worst case bearing
accuracy performance on a Conventional VOR (C-VOR) to be ±4°. A Doppler VOR (D-VOR) is required
to be ±1°”. But I can’t find these figures in the version I have.
Annex 10 and Doc 8071 volume 1 (testing procedures) rather give three tolerances:
 A maximum VOR equipment signal error of ±2°
 A radial bend tolerance of ±3.5° from the perfect course.
 A radial scalloping error of ±3° around the bend.
The two last errors are due to the environment rather than to the instrument. VOR are located at places
where these errors can be minimized.
So the acceptable total deviation of ±6.5°, as attested by Doc 8071 volume 1 §2.3.48, when the radial is
bent by ±3.5° and a scalloping of ±3° is superimposed. However scalloping is a rapid oscillation around
the course, and in most cases is ignored by the pilot who keeps working on a mean deviation value (but
there are limitations of scalloping when the autopilot is used, because the A/P can react to oscillations).
ICAO VOR tolerances on bearing value

The D-VOR was designed to minimize the multipath effect, the variable signal is frequency modulated
for this reason. The size of the counterpoise was increased so that reflection occurs on a controlled
surface, rather than randomly. This way VOR could be located on airfields, allowing better VOR
approaches and easier maintenance.
However D-VOR introduces a new error: The array antennas are close to each other, therefore the
inactive antennas on each side of the active one interact on the signal. First they delay the wave,
introducing an error in the phase before the wave is Doppler-shifted. Second they absorb a large portion
of the energy, reducing the range. As explained, the 14 m diameter can't be changed to space further the
antennas, and they cannot be spaced vertically without impacting the maximum elevation of the signals
and increasing the cone of silence, which is already relatively large (100°).
Another error is the discretization of the bearing information due to a scan over only 46-50 antennas (the
matter is complex), a fix is the so-called power blending: The two or four antennas around the active
antenna are fed with a smaller power HF signal and the transition from one pair to the next is smoothed.
The last error, which has been partially corrected by the DSB D-VOR (the one with two sideband
antennas described here) is related to the portion of counterpoise between the antenna and the receiver
which varies with the antenna location. If a reflection occurs on the ground, and the one from the
reference antenna occurs on the counterpoise, then their path is not equal and the phase difference is
altered (however the modulation wavelength being 10,000 km, a path length error of 1 km is not very
significant).
It's difficult to quantify a mean error, it really depends on the conditions the VOR is used and at which
elevation angle the receiver operates. There are tools for simulation like the Ohio University Navaid
Performance Prediction Model (OUNPPM) you may already know. Here is a study of the C-VOR/D-
VOR accuracy with this tool.
Is one more susceptible to interference than the other?
For interference from signals or from obstacles, the C-VOR is more prone to errors because of the use of
AM for the variable signal. In the D-VOR the reference is AM modulated, but a receiver can maintain a
local reference using a PLL oscillator synchronized with the VOR reference when the signal is good, and
reject transient spurious values (it’s like maintaining a local time reference, synchronized from time to
time with a master clock).
14
 Do they generate the same navigation signal?
The DVOR reverses the useage of the two 30Hz signals. However, by also reversing the direction of it's
rotating variable signal it produces exactly the same result in the receiver. The receiver has no
"knowledge" that it's a DVOR as opposed to CVOR it's receiving and operates as normal.
 Can they be used by the same receiver, or do VOR receivers need to be specially adapted to
DVORs?
Affirm, same receiver.
 Is one more accurate than the other?
DVOR is more accurate, and more expensive.
CVOR is required to be ±4°, however DVOR is required to be ±1°, per Convention on International Civil
Aviation Annex 10, Volume 1.
 Is one more susceptible to interference than the other?
The DVOR is more practical in crowded areas or where there are tall buildings. However, it's a big
structure - around 100ft in diameter.

QUICK LINKS -
FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE
CVOR
DVOR
USE
VOR Infographics
VOR (VHF Omni Directional Radio Range) is a radionavigation device that indicates the azimuth (radial)
of the aircraft to/from the ground transmitter. For ease of understanding we will describe azimuth
measurements using the orienteering compass principle.

Note: While using a classic magnetic compass we get a heading, an indication of the direction we are
heading toward the north, the azimuth can be measured using the ”orienteering” compass. In the
topography we select the landmark to which we want to measure the azimuth and subtract it from the
magnetic north. This is also the case in radionavigation except that instead of the orienteering compass,
we use the VOR receiver onboard plane and the VOR ground transmitter instead of the landmark.

As shown in the picture, the azimuth is the result of the sum of the course and the course from ADF (ADF
gives the course between the aircraft and the radionavigation beacon – the beacon is the "magnetic”
north).

The VOR device allows you to measure the deviation from the specified azimuth, as well as the meaning
of the measurement (whether the aircraft is flying to or from the beacon - TO and FROM)
Division
VOR devices are divided according to principle into:
  CVOR conventional VOR ("classic")
 DVOR doppler VOR ("Doppler")
The difference is in ground equipment (signal generation and antennas), but the resulting signal is the
same for the onboard receiver. FAA further divides VOR according to usage:
 High altitude
 Low altitude
 Terminal

Use
VOR is currently used as the main navigational device for radionavigation. The disadvantage of this use
is that the VOR beacons are located at the points of interest of the flight paths/corridors which must be
crossed first by plane before it can change the direction. This results in a limited number of aircraft in the
corridor. Flight corridor flights should be discontinued with implementation the RNAV concept, for
which the VORs do not achieve the necessary accuracy, so VOR beacons are not counted in the future.

Furthermore VOR is used in VOR/ILS, VORTAC, VOR/DME systems.

Frequency
The VOR beacon operates in the frequency range from 108 to 117.95 MHz. The range from 108 to
111.95 MHz is common to ILS and VOR, and therefore, only the frequencies that have first at number
after dot (tenth of megahertz) even number and at second number after dot (hundredth of megahertz) is 0
or 5. More in ANNEX 10 / Chapter 5, 4.2.1

Function principle
It is best to imagine the VOR as a classic lighthouse that shows to the ships a dangerous coastline. The
lighthouse light rotates at a constant frequency and shines in all directions, but the sailor sees the light
only when it is turned in his direction. Imagine that, in addition to the "classic" light from the lighthouse
that is rotating, another omnidirectional light (for a brief moment) will light up every time when the
rotating light intersects north. If we measure the time between seeing the light from the omnidirectional
light and directional light crossing our position, we can calculate the azimuth. The VOR device works
similar.

CVOR
Instead of rotating light, VOR sends the directional radio signal. It is modulated on carrier frequency with
amplitude modulation and frequency 30Hz. Furthermore, each time the VOR beacon crosses the north, it
also sends an omnidirectional reference signal, also with a frequency of 30Hz. By comparing the
omnidirectional and directional signal reception, the resulting azimuth (see animation) is then evaluated.
However, in order for two 30 Hz signals not to interfere and not to deduct, they are modulated once with
AM and once with FM modulation. Compared to the example of a lighthouse, when we considered the
azimuth evaluation of the time difference between the directional and omnidirectional signals, the
azimuth at VOR is calculated from the phase difference of the signals.
1. The carrier frequency is, as described above, modulated by directional signal with amplitude
modulation of 30 Hz with variable phase (modulation depth 30%). It is then transmitted with a
suppressed carrier. Practically, this signal is created by switching the antenna signal (Alford loop)
at 1800 rpm.

2. To avoid interference, the omnidirectional reference signal is first modulated by an AM signal

with a ±9960 Hz modulation frequency (thus creating a "subcarrier").
3. This subcarrier - auxiliary carrier frequency is then modulated with the FM 30Hz signal with a
480Hz frequency shift.

4. By comparing these two modulated signals we get the resulting azimuth.

5. The 1020 Hz identification signal is also modulated on the omnidirectional signal, and it is also
possible to modulate the voice communication on.
As the sideband (directional characteristic) is transmitted along with the omnidirectional characteristic,
distortion of the symmetrical circular radiating characteristic occurs on the so-called "limacon pattern"

(cardioid), which is the result of the sum of signals and so typical of the VOR.

Antenna unit
The CVOR signal is polarized horizontally and it is also necessary to adapt the antenna unit. The CVOR
antenna is using the Alford loop antenna, which offers the most efficient use. The CVOR antenna is only
one for both signals (directional and omnidirectional). VOR transmitter power circuits make signals that
are transmitted to the antenna. Antenna consists of four elements into which individual signals are
divided. One sideband (directional signal) is transmitted to the "northwest" and "southeast" antenna
elements and the second band to the two remaining ones. Omnidirectional signal (with carrier) then to all
4 elements.

DVOR
At CVOR, the major disadvantage is a high number of inaccuracies when there are obstacles in the
direction of radiation of electromagnetic waves. If the electromagnetic wave strikes an obstacle the phase
of the transmitted signal changes, and the measurement onboard is then inaccurate. For this reason
Doppler VOR - DVOR has been developed, to eliminate this negative attribute.

The DVOR is based on the Doppler principle, when the frequency of the incoming and outgoing waves
appears different (the principle of passing the ambulance car etc.)

In opposite to the classical VOR, DVOR has transmitted signals modulated in reverse. This means that
the omnidirectional-reference signal is transmitted by an omnidirectional antenna with a frequency of
30Hz with amplitude modulation. The directional signal is then transmitted by a rotating, electronically
swept, circular bundle (the antennas are round about the omnidirectional antenna and the transmission is
controlled electronically). If the antenna signal "rotates" at a frequency of 30 Hz, with an auxiliary carrier
offset of ± 9960Hz, the Doppler effect causes the subcarrier to be modulated by FM modulation.
Antenna unit
At CVOR the directional signals (sideband) are transmitted by two opposing elements of the Alford loop
(± 9960Hz), and at DVOR the signal is transmitted from two opposing antennas at the same time,
ensuring transmission of the upper and lower sideband. As can be seen from the picture, the DVOR
antenna consists of several elements beside at CVOR. The center antenna is used to transmit
omnidirectional signals and circular antennas to sweep the directional (sidebands).

The directional signal sweep is controlled by "triggering" pulses from a pair of opposed antennas at the
time the previous pair reaches the maximum amplitude of the pulse.
 Compared to CVOR, the variable signal rotates counterclockwise.
  To keep the frequency shift, the distance "R" between the omnidirectional and directional
antennas must be maintained.

The difference between CVOR and DVOR is not recognized on board, so we do not have to have two
different VOR receivers. The receiver compares the received signals, which are the same. The only
difference is accuracy, because the use of DVOR can increase it.

The problem with DVOR is that the antennas that transmit the signal are very close together. This means
that the transmitted signal from one antenna is up to 55% "absorbed" by the surrounding ones.