Study Skills I

MODULE
Study Skills Module 1
Distance Education
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso n˚ 135
Copyright
This Module cannot be printed for commercial purposes. In case of photocopying, reference should be
made to Universidade Pedagógica and to the Authors of the module.
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso, nº 135

Telefone: 21-320860/2
Telefone: 21 – 306720
Fax: +258 21-322113

Acknowledgements
To COMMONWEALTH of LEARNING (COL) for providing the Template used for the productions
designing the modules
To Instituto Nacional de Educação a Distância (INED) for the support and guidance provided
To Magnificent Rector, Dean of Faculty, Heads of Department for support provided during whole
process.
Technical Assistance
Author: Carlos Baptista Victorino
Instructional Designing: Andrea Folgado Serra
Language Review: James Johnson
Graphic Designing: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan
Edition: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Contents
About this MODULE 1
How this MODULE is structured ..................................................................................... 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to Curso de Formação de Professores em Exercício Study Skills 1 Module ... 3
Curso de Formação de Professores em Exercício Study Skills 1 Module—is this course
for you? ............................................................................................................................. 3
Course outcomes............................................................................................................... 4
Timeframe......................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills........................................................................................................................ 5
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 6
Assignments...................................................................................................................... 7
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 7
Getting around this MODULE 8

Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 8
Unit 1 9
Research Skills.................................................................................................................. 9
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 9
Lesson 1: Using Library ........................................................................................ 10
Lesson 2: Library Services .................................................................................... 18
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 27
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 27
Unit 2 33
Writing Skills.................................................................................................................. 33
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 33
Lesson 1: Essay writing......................................................................................... 35
Lesson 2: Note Taking/Making............................................................................. 45
Lesson 3: Summarising Skills ............................................................................... 56
Lesson 4: Reports; Studies and Research.............................................................. 61
Lesson 5: Referecing in academic writing ............................................................ 68
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 78
Assessment...................................................................................................................... 79
Unit 3 83
Speaking Skills ............................................................................................................... 83
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 83
ii Contents
Lesson 1: Take parte in discussions ...................................................................... 84

Lesson 2: Presenting/Conducting Seminars .......................................................... 93
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 107
Assessment.................................................................................................................... 107
Unit 4 112
Reading Skills ............................................................................................................... 112
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 112
Lesson 1: Reading Efficiency.............................................................................. 113
Lesson 2: Reading habits that should be replaced............................................... 121
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 133
Unit 5 140
Listening Skills ............................................................................................................. 140
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 140
Lesson 1: Some of the problems facing learners of english................................ 141
Lesson 1: Listenig to lectures and note making .................................................. 149
About this MODULE
Study Skills Module 1 1 has been produced by Universidade Pedagógica.
All Modules produced by Universidade Pedagógica are structured in the
same way, as outlined below.
How this MODULE is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
If the course is suitable for you.
What you will already need to know.
What you can expect from the course.
How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
Study skills.
Where to get help.
Course assignments and assessments.
Activity icons.
Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
An introduction to the unit content.
Unit outcomes.
1
About this MODULE
New terminology.
Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
A unit summary.
Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this Study Skills 1; these may
be books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing we would appreciate it if you would take a few
moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your
feedback might include comments on:
Course content and structure.
Course reading materials and resources.
Course assignments.
Course assessments.
Course duration.
Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

course.
2
Course overview
Welcome to Study Skills Module 1

You are a trainee on an English language teaching course and you are
aware that throughout your course you will study subjects like English
Language, Didactics of Languages, General Linguistics, Literature,
Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics and other topics which are very
important for your future career. Study Skills is a course designed to
equip you with the necessary tools to deal with these subjects through the
medium of English. The skills you are going to learn are as follows: How
libraries are organized - something you are going to need when looking
for reference material (e.g. books) for assignments in other subjects. How
to write essays coherently, take and make notes, give oral presentations,
read for gist or general information, listen and make notes and the like.
This subject matter is contained in units, which are divided into skills.
The units are as follows: First we are going to look at research skills,
which are essential to successfully manage your self-study during this
course, then the productive skills of Writing and Speaking. Finally, we
will examine the receptive skills of Reading, and Listening. This course is
intended to encourage you to become increasingly independent in using
the techniques of study.
Study Skills Module 1—is this

course for you?
This course is designed to address the needs of people who are working
in the field of ELT with no prior training and with no possibility of doing
so on a class based course. This means that, wherever necessary,
instructions are given clearly so you know what to do although there is no
teacher to ask. The course gives you an opportunity to practise many of
the skills you will need in order to study a subject in English. It does not
contain traditional language exercises. Make sure you have a good
3
Course overview
dictionary and a good grammar book to refer to when existing knowledge

is not enough.
You should be an upper- intermediate (the level of the Cambridge First

Certificate in English) user of English and need either to learn the skills
of study or to learn how to use familiar skills in the unfamiliar medium of
English to handle the material in this module satisfactorily.
Course outcomes
Upon completion of Study Skills Module you will be able to:
operate in the English Language in all four skills- listening,

speaking, reading and writing.
use all the necessary skills to meet the requirements of an academic

course in the medium of English.
Outcomes
explain and use accurately all the major structures and most common
functions of the English language.
understand and use a wide range of vocabulary and idioms and have
strategies for understanding the meanings of unknown words in
context.
read effectively for gist, specific information, main points and detail
and be able to identify the logic and structure of a text through
identification of discourse markers, references, etc.
take notes from written texts and to understand basic note taking
principles, lay out, numbering systems, abbreviations, etc.
communicate effectively in a variety of oral situations, including

making presentations, taking part in discussions and debates, seeking
clarification and information from your teachers and colleagues,
responding to expected and unexpected questions
Timeframe
Each unit will depend on your own speed and how well you are
organised.
4
How long? You should spend at least 2 hours a day to read each lesson.
You should take at least two hours on self-study.
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
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Course overview
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
Need help?
In case of difficulties, please contact the following:
In Maputo:
Help
Universidade Pedagógica - Centro de Educação Aberta e à Distância
(CEAD)
Faculty of Languages: English Department
Rua: Comandante Augusto Cardoso no. 135 Maputo
Telephone: 21 420860-2 or 21 306720
Monday to Friday: 8:00 to 12:00
Email: f:linguas@yahoo.com.br
In the provinces:
In each province there is a resource centre available and a local Provincial

English Advisor to help you.
For any assistance related to academic issues the Provincial English

Advisor will be able to help you and do not hesitate to contact her or him.
6
Assignments
Throughout each unit, you will have to carry out a number of activities
that will help you consolidate the matters reviewed.
We recommend that you go through all exercises indicated without

Assignments immediately resorting to the key answers/correction guide.
Assessments
In this subject, you will have to write two tests per semester. In order to
complete the module, you will have to write a final exam at the end of the
academic year. Nevertheless, all exercises you will undertake at the end
Assessments
of each lesson and unit will be checked by your tutor for purposes of
formative and continuous assessment.
7
Getting around this MODULE
Getting around this MODULE
Margin icons
While working through this MODULE you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this MODULE.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
8
Unit 1
Research Skills
Introduction
To be able to find the information we want, when we want it, is
increasingly important in a world where knowledge is expanding faster
than ever before. Although computer developments are gradually making
access to complex sets of information more easily available, it remains
true that the ability to use books and other printed material in an
intelligent and efficient way is still the key to education and development.
Taking into account that this is a self-study course, there is a need for a
unit to help you to find your way around books, reference materials and
libraries. This unit is going to help you improve your research skills for
seeking out recorded written material in libraries.
There is often a great difference between the homely school library and
the vast college or university library. The move from set text to reading
list can be worrying. This unit, therefore, attempts to familiarize you with
the procedures involved when undertaking library research i.e. Looking
for information to be used for a certain subject among facilities that might
be available to you. It aims, too, to teach and practise some of the skills,
which will enable you to use those facilities to the full. Many of the
features of academic works/books have been included, such as: footnotes,
quotations, bibliography, index.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
use and explain library layout and organisation;
find out what a book is about;
find information in books;

Outcomes
organise files and other learning materials;
keep book records;
use a card index and a contents page for locating books complete the
sentence;
9
Unit 1 Research Skills
Reference : Each book on a list.
Catalogue: A list of books.
microfilm: A length of film on which pages of a book have

Terminology
been recorded in a very small size so that it can be
easily stored.
microfiche: A piece of microfilm, about the size of an index

card.
Lesson 1: Using Library
By the end of this lesson you will be able to:
search for written materials in libraries or any resource centre.
use a reading list.
use the title catalogue.

Lesson Outcomes
use the author catalogue.
use the subject catalogue.
recognise a periodical reference.
find a periodical.
find a periodical in the catalogue.
find a current periodical.
find a back copy of a periodical.
Time allowed for this lesson: 90 minutes.
How long?
10
You have probably already used a school library for works of fact, fiction
and reference. University and college libraries are usually much bigger
and they are therefore often a little confusing to a student. Many libraries
organise introductory visits, but unless the librarian actually gives you
something to do, for example, asks you to look for a book, you may not
fully benefit from the visit. There are two important ways of beginning
your search for a book: you can start from a list of authors and titles or
you can start from a topic.
1. Using a reading list
Look at the following reading list.
Schooling in Developing Countries
Reading General Reading List
− Bamgbose, A. (ed.) Mother Tongue Education – the West African

experience. London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1976.
− Beeby, C.E. The Quality of Education in Developing Countries.

Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1966.
− Blakemore, K. & Cooksey, B. A Sociology of Education for Africa.

George Allen & Unwin, 1981.
− Castle, E.B. Growing Up in East Africa. London, CUP, 1966.
− Dave, R.H. Lifelong Education and School Curriculum. Hamburg,

UNESCO Institute for Education, 1973.
Now Each book on the list is called a reference. The references on a

reading list are usually arranged in alphabetical order. Each reference
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includes the author’s or editor’s1 name, the title of the book (underlined)2,
the place of publication, the publisher and the date of the edition. (See
Figure 1). NB: Some authors place the date of publication soon after the
author’s or editor’s name.
Now study this example and consider the sequence of information given
below it.
(1)Houghton, H. & Tregear, P., (2)Community Schools in Developing

Countries. (3)Hamburg, (4)UNESCO Institute for Education, (5)1968.
1- Authors, 2- Title, 3- Place of publication, (4) Publisher, 5- Date of

publication
Now you are going to learn another way of finding books in a library.
2. The author catalogue
Imagine that you are looking for the last book on the reading list on the
previous page, the book by Hawes on African Primary Schools. Every
library lists every publication it holds in a catalogue. It is very difficulty
to find a book in a large library without using a catalogue. You will only
waste time if you try to do so. There are several kinds of catalogue, the
main ones being: an author catalogue, a subject catalogue and a title
catalogue. The catalogues may be arranged in drawers containing one
card for each copy of a book, or they may be in large loose-leaf books or
even on microfiches or microfilm. The information given in each case is
the same but if the catalogue is stored on film, you will have to use a
machine to read it. The library staff will show you how to do this.
In the case of the book by HAWES we can use the author (or name)
catalogue. This is the easiest one to use. This will be dealt with next.
1
Author = the writer
editor = the person who prepares the book for printing and sometimes writes
parts of it; often abbreviated to ed. – as in the example in Exercise 1, below.
2
In printed books and journals, titles are in italic print. When typing or writing,
use underlining instead, i.e. draw a line under titles.
12
Now let us consider the TITLE CATALOGUE.
Sometimes you may not know the full information on a book that you
want. Suppose that a friend has recommended a book; he/she could
remember the title but not the author. Some libraries keep a title
catalogue. (This is not usual, however, in university libraries.) You need
to know the exact title of the book in order to use this catalogue
successfully. Titles are filled in alphabetical order using the first letter of
the first message word. That means you do not look at the words ‘A’ and
‘The’: for example, The Language Laboratory and Language Learning
will be found under L (for Language).
3. Periodicals
What is a periodical ?
Sometimes you may be asked to read an article in a periodical. This word

refers to all publications (except newspapers) that are issued regularly. If
the period of time between issues is a week, the periodical is known as a
weekly. Monthlies appear once a month; bi-monthlies, once every two
months; quarterlies, four times a year. Publications issued once a year are
called annuals3. Generally, commercial publications are called magazines
e.g. Time-Life, The Economist etc., while academic publications are more
often called journals, e.g. Journal of Development Economics, Modern
Language Journal, American Economic Review etc.
All such publications are numbered. They have a volume number and an
issue number. A volume often represents twelve months, though the year
may not necessarily begin with January. Each volume is divided into
issues: a quarterly, for example, will have four issues in one volume.
One very important feature of periodicals is that of page numbering.

Normally, from the beginning of each new volume the page numbering is
3
Libraries often use the word serials to describe all these publications. This
word can also include items such as monographs which may be in a series but
published irregularly.
13
continuous throughout all the issues of that volume: thus the last issue of
a volume will have high page numbers.
e.g. English Language Teaching Journal
Vol. 38 No 1 January 1984, contains pages 1-78
Vol. 38 No 2 April 1984, contains pages 79-158
Vol. 38 No 3 July 1984, contains pages 159-232
Vol. 38 No 4 October 1984, contains pages 233-311
Vol. 39 No 1 January 1985, starts the numbering again at page 1.
Recognising a periodical reference
Hall, K. (1965). Behaviour and ecology of the wild Patas monkey,

Erythrocebus patas, in Uganda. Journal of Zoology, 148, 15
The reference above is from a zoology student’s reading list. It differs

from the references of books in several ways.
1. The year is in a different position and in brackets. (Note: this position

is possible for both books and periodicals. It is known as the Harvard
method.)
2. The underlined word is the title of the journal and not the article.
3. The place of publication is not mentioned, nor the name of the

publisher.
4. There are several numbers at the end of the reference. The first one
refers to the volume number of the journal, and the last ones to
precise pages in the journal.4
4
Often the issue number will be given and may be written as follows: Nature,
270:1, 99-100 (sometimes ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’ is put in front of the page numbers). In
this example, 270=volume, 1= issue, 99-100= pages.
14
4. Finding a periodical
Most libraries print a Periodicals List. This is usually kept at the counter
or information desk (see page 49). This tells you whether the library
holds the particular periodical you want. It may also tell you for which
years it has the journal and where it is kept. If it does not give all this
information, you will need to consult the catalogue.
Finding a periodical in the catalogue
Periodicals are usually filed by their titles in the author catalogue.
Finding a current periodical
Libraries usually have a special periodicals room or area for all recent
issues, not very far from the main control area. The periodicals may be
divided very broadly into Science, Arts, and Social Sciences categories or
they may not be divided at all.
The periodicals will be on open display in racks, in alphabetical order.

The issues for the current year and perhaps the previous one will be
stored in piles or boxes.
Finding a back copy of a periodical
1. Consult the author catalogue. (Remember to look for the title of

the journal not the author of an article.)
2. Note the call number.
3. Consult the location guide
4. Go to the area indicated.
You will find the periodicals arranged alphabetically within subjects.
15
After having completed the 1st lesson of unit 1, you are now going to do
some exercises to practice what you have just learned. Please do the
exercises first then refer to the feedback section on the last page of this
Activity 1 unit to check your answers.
Place the following words in the correct spaces below: the editor, the
publisher, the title, place of publication, and date of publication.
(1) Howson, A.G. (ed.), (2) Developing a New Curriculum, (3) London,
(4) Heinemann, (5) 1970.
1. _________2. ____________3. ________4. __________ 5. ________
Note: The date is important because sometimes books are rewritten and
updated and your tutor will probably want you to read the most recent
edition.
2. The title catalogue
Write 1st, 2nd, etc. beside the following titles to show their order in the
catalogue. The first one has been done for you.
Lifelong Education and School Curriculum ____
The Diploma Disease _1st_
The School in question ____
Growing Up in East Africa ____
A New Introduction to Educational Psychology ____
School is Dead ____
3. Periodical Reference
Label the reference below by putting the following words in the correct
spaces: article title, volume number, journal title, page numbers, author.
1. Krebo, J. (1977). (2) Primate social structure and ecology. (3)

Nature, (4) 270, (5) 99-100.
1. ________ 2. _________ 3. __________ 4. _________ 5. ________
16
Now that you have completed this lesson, in which you learned how to
use a reading list, to use different types of catalogues, to recognize a
periodical reference and to find periodicals when searching for written
sources (e.g. books, journals) in libraries or any resource centre that may
be allocated for you, let us turn to the next lesson in this unit with the
following topic.
17
Lesson 2: Library Services
ask for and use library or resource centre services.
use library or resource centre facilities.
develop your own reference scheme.

Lesson Outcomes
How long?
In this section you will find information and advice on some of the other
services a library or a resource centre may provide.
¾ The information service
If you find the library a difficult and confusing place, ask the librarians to
help you. There is usually an information Desk in a big library. If there is
none, however, ask the assistant who works behind the counter to help
you. It is a good idea is to write down the details of the publication you
are looking for so that you can show this to the librarian at the same time
as you ask. Listen carefully to the answers. Ask the librarian to repeat
them if necessary. Take notes if the answer is long and complicated.
¾ Short loan collection or books on reserve
Sometimes a library asks tutors to give a list of the essential books in

their subject, especially for undergraduate students. These are then
reserved in a special place and can only be borrowed for a short space of
18
time, say 24 hours. If students do not return the books on time, they are
fined very heavily. This ensures that all students have an equal chance of
reading the book.
¾ Recall and reservation service
If you have found a book in the catalogue but cannot find it on the shelf,
go to the counter and ask to have it recalled. The library will then contact
the borrower and ask him or her to return the book quickly. It will then
inform you by post when the book is available. (Sometimes,
unfortunately, the book has been lost. The library then knows it should
re-order it.)
¾ Photocopying service
Sometimes you may wish to photocopy a journal article or a part of a

book. There are copyright laws, designed to protect the author’s interests
and for this reason you must use the photocopying service in the library
itself. Take the journal or book to the photocopying room. You will have
to fill in a form and you will have to pay a small fee per page, but this is
often worthwhile.
¾ The inter-library loan service
If your library does not have the book or the journal you want, you may
be able to apply for it through an inter-library loan service. This service
will even order books and theses from abroad if necessary. You may,
however, receive them on microfilm. (see below.)
¾ Microfilm/microfiche readers
These are machines with powerful lenses, which enable you to read the
small print on a microfilm. The print will appear on a screen in front of
you. The machines are easy to operate, but ask the librarian to show you
the controls the first you use it. Always remember to turn off the machine
when you have finished with it.
19
¾ On-line literature search
This may be available in some of the more up-to-date libraries. It

involves using the speed and power of the computer to search through of
references in order to produce an up-to-date bibliography of works in
your field. It is really only useful for students who are doing post-
graduate research work. If you find out that your library has this facility
and you want to use it, a librarian will discuss the matter with you.
Building your own reference system
In this section you are going to learn some more advanced study and
reference skills- the kind that you will need to develop as you do your
self study. It covers three areas :
1. How you record your reading ;
2. How you use your reading to lead you on to further reading –

mainly through the use of references, footnotes and
bibliographies.5
3. How you find your own references on a topic which interests you
or which has been set for you.
1. How to record your reading
You know, of course, that it is a waste of time to read a useful book

without taking notes. This topic is dealt with in this module. As well as
taking notes, however, it is a good idea to keep a record of every source
book or article that you read. You will then be able to give accurate
references in your own work. Records like this are usually kept on index
cards. You can buy these in two sizes: 127 mm x 76mm and 152 mm x
5
A list of references will include only those works used in a particular piece of
writing. A bibliography, on the other hand, may include relevant works that have
been read but have not been directly referred to.
20
102 mm. The larger ones are useful if you wish to write quotations or
notes on them. A collection of index card is then kept in alphabetical
order in a box. You can file them according to author or topic, or both.
The details that you put on the cards are those which will enable you, or
anyone else, to find the source (book or article) easily.
2. Using footnotes and bibliographies to extend your reading
Sometimes, as you read, you notice the name of another writer who has
said or done something interesting concerning your topic. Look at this
text, for example. It is an extract from a book on H.G. Wells by R.
Haynes.
Wells became the most prolific author of any stature in his generation,
and certainly the most widely read of his contemporaries. His influence
on the younger writers of his day was immense, firstly as a model for
emulation in their revolution against the establishment, and subsequently
as a tradition against whom it seemed to them obligatory to react. George
Orwell, who was by no means uncritical of Wells’s philosophy, wrote in
1941 :
Thinking people who were born about the beginning of the century are in
some sense Wells’s own creation. How much an influence any writer has,
and especially a ‘popular’ writer whose work takes effect quickly, is
questionable, but I doubt whether anyone who was writing books between
1900 and 1920, at any rate in the English language, influenced the young
so much. The minds of all of us, and therefore the physical world, would
be perceptively different if Wells had never existed6
The text quoted in the second paragraph was, however, not written by R.
Haynes, the author of the book. It was written by George Orwell, and
Haynes is using it to support her own statement. This is a very common,
6
George Orwell, ‘Wells, Hitler and the World State’ in Collected Essays
(London, 1961), p. 164.
21
and necessary academic habit. The small number7 at the end of the
quotation tells you that there is a note somewhere in the book. Footnotes
are sometimes at the foot/bottom of the page, sometimes at the end of a
chapter and sometimes at the back of the book. In the Haynes book they
are at the back. We would expect the note to give us the source of this
quotation. This is exactly what it does: Now, if you are particularly
interested in this aspect of H.G Wells, you might decide that, as well as
reading the Haynes book, you will read
the Orwell essay too.
3. How to find your own references in the library
Your tutor may ask you to research a topic on your own or you may have
a particular interest you want to follow up. You may not have been given
a reading list, so how do you begin? In the previous unit I briefly
mentioned the subject catalogue. The subjects are arranged according to
the classification system of the library. Our example will use the Dewey
Decimal System. At the beginning of the catalogue you will find an
alphabetical index . This is where you must start. Let us suppose that you
want to find some information on gas supplies in the North Sea. You
want to know where exactly they are situated and when they were first
discovered. You also want to find out how much it has cost to exploit
them and how much benefit the British government has derived from
them. First, you look in the index under N for North Sea. There is no
entry. So you try something more general. You look under S for Sea.
(This move from specific to general may often be necessary when you are
using the subject catalogue) You find this card:
SEA
Discovery 910.4
Geography of Oceans 910.426
Exploitation of ocean resources 333.916
7
George Orwell, ‘Wells, Hitler and the World State’ in Collected Essays
(London, 1961), p. 164.
22
You think that the third subdivision seems promising. However, you
decide to look under Gas as well. You find this card :
GAS
Gas industry 338.2
Since this is more specific than ocean resources, you decide to follow it
first. The number 338.2 tells you that the library is using the Dewey
Decimal system of classification.
After having completed the 2nd lesson of unit 1, you are now going to do
some exercises to practise what you have just learned. Please do the
4. Library services
The information service
Language practice
Here are some situations in which you might find yourself. What would
you say to the librarian? Write your questions on the lines underneath.
The first one has been done for you.
1. You do not know how to find a particular book.
‘Excuse me, could you please help me to find this book?’
2. You do not know how to find a particular journal.
3. You have found the call number of the book you want but do not
know how to find the book.
4. You have traced a book to the shelf but found it was not there.
23
5. Reference System
1- a book 2- a journal article
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
You have now completed this lesson in which you learned: how to ask for
and use library or resource centre services and facilities, and how to
devise your own reference system to extend your reading. Let us now
turn to the feedback section of the learning activities you have done and
after that we will move on to the next unit of this course:
Feedback:
o Answer Key
1. The editor
2. The title
3. Place of Publication
4. The publisher
5. Date of publication
If you got the order wrong do not worry, please refer back to the section
where we talk about using a reading list in which we mention the order
we have given you above.
24
2. The title catalogue
2nd Growing Up in East Africa
3rd Lifelong Education and School Curriculum
4th A New Introduction to Educational Psychology
5th The School in Question
6th School is Dead
Note: In determining the order of 5 and 6, ‘The’ is ignored at the

beginning. The word following ‘School’ then determines the order; ‘in’
(5) comes before ‘is’ (6).
Again if you got the wrong order do not worry, please refer back to the
section where we talk about the title catalogue in which we mention that
titles are filed in alphabetical order using the first message word. That
means you do not look under the words A and The: for example, The
Language Laboratory and Language Learning will be found under L (for
Language).
3. Periodical Reference
1. Author
2. Article Title
3. Journal Title
4. Volume number
5. Page Number
Do not worry if your answers are not correct; refer back to the section
where we talk about how to recognize a periodical reference. The
sequence of information as presented above is explained there in detail.
25
4. Library services
Obviously, there are several possible forms for these questions. Here are
our suggestions:
2. ‘Excuse me, how can I find this journal, please?
‘Excuse me, could you please help me to find this journal?
3. ‘Excuse me, I’ve found this book in the catalogue and I have the
call number, but I can’t find the correct floor/area. Could you
help me please?
‘Excuse me, I’ve found this call number but I don’t know how to
find the book. Could you tell me where to go please?’
4. ‘Excuse me, I’ve been to the shelves for this book but it
isn’t/wasn’t there.
Could you tell me what to do please?’
Could you tell me if it is out on loan, please?
5. Reference System
1- a book 2- a journal article
Title Title
Author Author
Place of publication Title of journal
Publisher Volume number
(edition) Issue number
date of publication Page number
call-number Date
Call-number
26
Unit summary
In this unit you learned how libraries are organized and the procedures
you should take into account when looking for written material in
libraries or resource centres to enhance your studies.
Summary
Assessment
As you have now concluded the first unit of this course, do the following
assessment exercises. Please do the exercises first then refer to the
feedback section to check your answers.
Assessment 1
1. Finding an author in the catalogue
a) Write numbers beside the names below to show their alphabetical

order in the catalogue. The first one has been done for you.
(Remember, the surname is listed before the first name or initials.)
Gibson, W. ________ Rosenberg, Sheldon ________
Halle, Morris ________ Hall, Edward T. ________
Rosenberg, Milson ________ Gibson, J. W. ________
Bateman, Barbara ________ Bateson, Gregory ________
Hall, Robert A. ________ McCarthy, Dorothea ________
Mackay, Howard ________ Hawes, Hugh ________
Howes, Colette ________
27
b) Write numbers beside the following titles to show their order in the
catalogue. The first one has been done for you.
Halliday, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions of Language __1__
Halliday, M.A.K. Learning How to Mean ____
Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. Cohesion in English ____
Halliday, M.A.K. Language and Social Man ____
Halliday, M.A.K. Intonation and Grammar in British English ___
2. Recognizing a periodical reference
Now see if you can recognize periodical references and distinguish them
from book references. In the following zoology reading list put ticks in
the spaces opposite the names of journals.
Zoology – The Group: primate social structure
1. Chalmers, N. (1979). Social Behaviour of Primates. London, Arnold.

__
2. Cheney, D.L. and Seyforth, R.M. (1983). Non-random dispersal in

free-ranging Vervet monkeys: social and genetic consequences. The
American Naturalist, 122, 3, 392-412. ___
3. Clutton-Brock, T. and Harvey, P. (1977). Primate ecology and social

organisation. Journal of Zoology, 183, 1-39. ___
4. Crook, J. and Gartlan, J. (1966). Evolution of primate societies.

Nature, 210, 1200-1203. ____
5. Jolly, A. (1972). Evolution of Primate Behaviour- London,

Macmillan. ___
28
6. Mackinnon, J. (1974). Pongo Pymaeus. Animal Behaviour, 22, 3.
____
7. Murray, R. Daniel and Smith, E.O. (1983). The role of dominance

and intrafamiliar bonding in the avoidance of close inbreeding.
Journal of Human Evolution, 12, 5, 481-486. ____
8. Rowell, T. (1972). Social Behaviour of Monkeys. Harmondsworth,

Penguin. ____
3. Library services
The information service
Here are some situations in which you might find yourself. What would
you say to the librarian? Write your questions on the lines underneath.
1. You have found that a book on your reading list is not in the
catalogue.
___________________________________________________________
2. You do not know where the library keeps current periodicals.
___________________________________________________________
3. You do not know where to find the back numbers of a particular

periodical.
___________________________________________________________
4. How you find your own references in the library.
Write down the five steps you should now follow in order to find a book
in the library :
29
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________
Feedback:
o Answer Key
1. Finding an author in the catalogue
a)
Gibson, W. ____4____ Rosenberg, Sheldon ____13__
Halle, Morris ____7___ Hall, Edward T. ____5___
Rosenberg, Milson ____12__ Gibson, J. W. ____3___
Bateman, Barbara ____1___ Bateson, Gregory ____2___
Hall, Robert A. ____6___ McCarthy, Dorothea ____10__
Mackay, Howard ____11__ Hawes, Hugh ____9___
Howes, Colette ____8___
If you got the order wrong do not worry, please refer back to the section
about the author catalogue where we explain the order we have given
you above.
b)
Halliday, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions of Language __1__
30
Halliday, M.A.K. Learning How to Mean ___4_
Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. Cohesion in English __5__
Halliday, M.A.K. Language and Social Man __3__
Halliday, M.A.K. Intonation and Grammar in British English _2__
In case of difficulties do the same as in a) above.
2. Recognizing a periodical reference
Tick the following numbers: 2, 3, 4, 6, 7
3. Key Library services
Obviously, there are several possible forms for these questions. Here are
our suggestions:
1. ‘Excuse me, I’ve been recommended to read this book but I can’t
find it in the catalogue. What should I do, please?
‘Excuse me; this book on my reading list isn’t in the catalogue.

What shall I do, please?
2. ‘Excuse me, I’ve found this book in the catalogue and I have the
call number, but I can’t find the correct floor/area. Could you
help me please?
‘Excuse me, could you tell me if the library has this book,
please?’
3. ‘Excuse me, where (do you keep/are the) current periodicals,

please?
‘Excuse me, could you tell me where to find the back numbers of
this periodical please?’
31
4. How you find your own references in the library.
1. Note the call number.
2. Look at the Location Guide
3. Look at the plan of the library
4. Go to the correct area of the library and look at the signs above
the shelves.
5. Look along the rows of shelves for the book.
If you got the answers wrong do not worry, please re read the section
about finding your own references; you will find the explanation on how
to proceed.
* Now that you have completed this unit let us turn to the next one with
the following topic:
32
Unit 2
Writing Skills
Introduction
The aim of this unit is to enable you (a non-native speaker of English),
wishing to follow a course in the medium of English at tertiary level, to
express yourself coherently in writing.
To provide samples of academic writing and appropriate practice material

so that you are able to write essays or reports in English at an
intermediate to advanced level.
To act as a revision course for you if you have previously learned English
as a foreign language at school and probably learned English with the
sentence as the grammatical unit. You now need English for academic
purposes.
explain and use accurately all the major structures and most common
functions of the English language.
take notes from written texts and to understand basic note taking
principles (layout, numbering systems, abbreviations, etc.).
Outcomes
have familiarity with a variety of writing styles and be able to use them
appropriately (e.g. formal academic writing, narrative).
have familiarity with a variety of writing styles and be able to use them
appropriately (e.g. formal academic writing, narrative).
write assignments in an academic style including.
present ideas logically and coherently.
refer to Footnotes, Quotations and Bibliographies.
33
Unit 2 Writing Skills
précis : a summary
Terminology
34
Lesson 1: Essay writing
structure an essay appropriately.
write a cohesive essay making use of various types of connectives.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
This unit is concerned with the general organisation of a piece of writing

e.g. a report, an essay, an assignment, a project, its structure and
particularly the way in which the different parts are linked together. The
plan below of a piece of writing, in this case an essay, will help to explain
the overall structure.
35
STAGE 1: Structure
Most pieces of formal writing are organised in a similar way-

introduction; development of main ideas or arguments; conclusions. Each
part of the writing will consist of language functions: particular uses and
structures of the language organised according to the specific purpose
that the writer has in mind in wishing to communicate his ideas etc. to
other people-describing, defining, exemplifying, classifying etc. Each
language function consists of sentences and/or paragraphs that are joined
together or linked by connectives (words or phrases that indicate a logical
relationship). These language functions will be examined in detail in the
following units. In the rest of this unit shall look at the linking of
sentences by means of connectives.
36
STAGE 2: Connectives
A piece of writing or text will often have the following structure:
1. The discussion, argument, or comment in the development of the

topic may be very straightforward, in which case ideas will be added
together one after the other. The basic connective and is used here.
(A number of other connectives have a similar or related meaning to
and.)
2. Sometimes the comments may be expressed in another way, or an

alternative proposal may be made. This is represented by the basic
connective or. (A number of other connectives have a similar
meaning.) After the alternative has been considered, the main
argument will continue.
3. There are also occasions in arguments etc. when the opposite is

considered or referred to. This is represented by the basic connective
but. (There are also a number of other connectives with a similar
meaning.) After the opposite or opposing view has been considered,
the main argument is continued.
After having completed the 1st lesson of unit 2, you are now going to do
some exercises to practice what you have just learned. But please, do the
37
Exercise I
Advice
1. Read carefully the following description of the procedure for writing

an essay. It gives advice in the form of what you should do. (Most of
the verbs are in the passive). When you have finished reading do the
exercise that follows.
The Stages of Writing an Essay
First, the topic, subject or question should be thought about carefully;

what is required in the essay should be understood. Then a note should be
made of ideas, perhaps from knowledge or experience. After this, any
books, journals, etc. should be noted that have been recommended,
perhaps from a reading list or a bibliography. Then to the list should be
added any other books, articles, etc. that are discovered while the
recommended books are being found.
Now is the time for the books, chapters, articles, etc. to be read, with a
purpose, by appropriate questions being asked that are related to the essay
topic or title. Clear notes should be written from the reading. In addition,
a record of the sources should be kept so that a bibliography or list of
references can be compiled at the end of the essay. Any quotations should
be accurately acknowledged: author’s surname and initials, year of
publication, edition, publisher, place of publication, and page numbers of
quotations. When the notes have been finished they should be looked
through in order for an overview of the subject to be obtained. Then the
content of the essay should be decided on and how it is to be organized or
planned. The material should be carefully selected; there may be too
much and some may not be very relevant to the question. The material, or
ideas, should be divided into three main sections for the essay: the
introduction, the main body, and the conclusion. An outline of the essay
should be written, with use being made of headings and sub headings, if
they are appropriate. The first draft should be written in a suitably formal
or academic style. While doing this, the use of colloquial expressions and
personal references should be avoided. When it has been completed, the
38
draft should be read critically, and in particular, the organisation,
cohesion, and language should be checked. Several questions should be
asked about it, for example: Is it clear? Is it concise? Is it comprehensive?
Then the draft should be revised and the final draft written – legibly! It
should be remembered that first impressions are important.
Finally, the bibliography should be compiled, using the conventional

format: the references should be in strict alphabetical order. Then the
bibliography should be added to the end of the essay.
As you have finished reading this piece of advice on how to write an

essay, a dissertation for example, do the following exercise: Remember to
complete it first then check the answers at the en of the unit.
2. All the sentences containing advice (‘should’) are listed below.

Spaces have been left for the verbs. In each space write the
appropriate verb, but write it as a direct instruction (putting the verb
in its imperative form) e.g. should be finished » finish.
A. ___________ carefully about the topic, subject or question.
B. ___________ what is required in the essay.
C. ___________ a note of your ideas, perhaps from your knowledge or

experience.
D. ____________ any books, journals, etc. that have been

recommended, perhaps from a reading list or a bibliography.
E. ____________ to your list any other books, articles, etc. that you
discover while finding the recommended books.
F. ___________ the books, chapters, articles, etc. with a purpose, by

asking yourself appropriate questions that are related to the essay
topic or title.
G. _________ clear notes from your reading.
39
H. _________ a record of your sources so that you can compile your

own bibliography or list of references at the end of your essay.
I. ___________ accurately any quotations; author’s surname and

initials, year of publication, edition, publisher, place of publication,
and page numbers of quotations.
J. ____________ through your notes when you have finished in order

to obtain an overview of the subject.
K. __________ on the content of your essay and how you want to

organise it, in other words, plan it.
L. _________ your material carefully: you may have too much and
some may not be very relevant to the question.
M. __________ your material, or ideas, into three main sections for the
essay: the introduction, the main body, and the conclusion.
N. __________ an outline of the essay, making use of headings or sub-

headings, if they are appropriate.
O. ____________ the first draft, in a suitably formal or academic style.
P. ___________ the use of colloquial expressions and personal

references.
Q. ____________ the draft critically, in particular checking the

organisation, cohesion and language.
R. ___________ yourself several questions about it, for example: Is it

clear? Is it concise? Is it comprehensive?
S. __________ the draft.
T. ___________ the final draft.
U. ____________ sure it is legible!
V. ___________ first impressions are important.
40
W. __________ your bibliography, using the conventional format.
X. ___________ that your references are in strict alphabetical order.
Y. ___________ the bibliography to the end of your essay.
Exercise II
In the following exercises practice is given in some examples of the three

main groups of connectives.
1. ‘And’ type: Connectives of Result
Look at the following example:
He passed his examination (therefore, as a result, accordingly,

consequently, thus, hence) he had some good news to tell his parents.
Note: The connectives (in italics) join a cause (‘He passed his
examinations’) with a result, effect or consequence (‘He had some good
news to tell his parents’).
1.a) To the following sentences add (a) a suitable connective from the
list above, and (b) an appropriate result, effect or consequence from
the list below.
1. Many students find it difficult to read newspapers in

English…____________________________________________
2. Most students living abroad are interested in news of their own

country….____________________________________________
3. When a student goes abroad to study he/she may have to

complete about twelve different forms…____________________
41
Result, Effect or Consequence:
a) British news is found to be of most interest.
b) They usually read the international news first in the newspapers.
c) An average of five books per month are read.
d) Not many read one regularly.
e) It is useful to be able to answer questions briefly.
1.b) Complete the following by adding a suitable ending of your own.
4. The lecture was very difficult to understand. Consequently,

……… _____________________________________________
5. Carlos was only able to read very slowly in English. Therefore,

____________________________________________________
2. ‘Or’ type: Connective of Reformulation
He said that he had kept the library book for several years. (In other
words, to put it more simply, It would be better to say) he had stolen it.
Note: The connectives (italics) introduce a reformulation of what has

come before. The reformulation appears in different words and is used to
make the idea clearer or to explain or modify it.
list above, and (b) an appropriate reformulation from the list below.
1. Maria is rather slow at learning…_________________________
2. Helen finds languages quite easy…________________________
3. Anna speaks English like a native-speaker…________________
42
Reformulation:
a) she speaks it excellently.
b) she speaks slowly.
c) she is taking a long time to improve her English.
d) she has little difficulty in learning English.
e) she speaks it with great difficulty.
4. Margaret is bilingual. In other words, ______________________
5. Some people say that if you are good at music you will also be
good at learning languages. In other words, ____________________
3. ‘But’ type: Connectives of Concession
The time available for discussion was very limited. (However,

Nevertheless, Nonetheless, Yet, In spite of that, All the same,) it was still
possible to produce some interesting arguments.
Note: The connectives (italics) indicate the surprising nature of what

follows in view of what was said before; a kind of contrast is indicated.
list above, and (b) an appropriate concession (or contrast) from the
list below.
1. Some of the examination questions were very difficult…_______
2. There was only limited money available for research…________
3. The project was very complicated…. _____________________
43
Concession:
a) Joao was not able to do it.
b) Jose succeeded in completing it in time.
c) Makwakwa was able to obtain a grant.
d) Oscar was not able to complete them.
e) Ali managed to answer them satisfactorily.
4. It seemed likely that he would fail the test. However,

____________________________________________________
5. There were a number of good reasons why he should not finish

the experiment. Nevertheless, ____________________________
Now that you have completed this lesson in which you learned how
to structure and organize an essay and how to write a piece of
academic work coherently using several types of connectives, let us
turn to the next lesson in this unit with the following topic.
44
Lesson 2: Note Taking/Making
use appropriate techniques and procedures when taking/ making

notes from a reading text or from spoken language and use them to
perform a range of tasks;
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
To study effectively you must be able to make effective notes. One of the
aims of this course is to make you an effective note maker. You should
study this unit frequently as you work through the course. Good notes
require speed, accuracy, and clarity. Note making is a two-stage process,
1. the notes are taken from: a) a piece of writing, b) what someone says or
they are written as a plan of c) what you want to write, d) what you are
going to say. There are three elements in good note making. What you
do (activity) 1. reading/listening and planning, 2. note making and 3. note
reading and development as writing or speaking, which is correlated with
how you do it (skill) 1. accurate analysis of text and planning, 2. rapid
note writing, 3. accurate and easy read back. One of the techniques we
use when note making are abbreviations, which are used in order to make
notes more quickly. Any word (except a) may be abbreviated. You must
decide: a) which words to abbreviate- obviously the most common in a
text, or the language of your study, or of English in general, b) how to
abbreviate them- you should use the shortest abbreviations which will be
meaningful when you read back. An abbreviation is useless if you do not
45
understand it immediately when you are reading your notes. There are
four (4) main types of abbreviations in general use. Type A- abbreviation
of English or Latin phrases, in which the first letters or sometimes
syllables, of the words are given, as in p.a.(of the Latin phrase per
annum) meaning yearly. Type B- abbreviation of one-syllable words,
consisting of the first letter of the only, as in b. meaning born, or the first
and last letters of the word, as in yr meaning year. Type C- abbreviations
of polysyllabic (more than one syllable) words, in which the first letters
of certain syllables are used, as in cg meaning centigramme, or the first
and last letters of certain syllables, as in bldg meaning building. This type
of abbreviation of often used with the vocabulary of science. Type D-
(the most common) abbreviations of polysyllabic words, consisting of the
shortest possible abbreviations, which are easily recognisable, as in doz.
meaning dozen, geog. Meaning geography and geol. meaning geology.
The other technique is symbols, which are used for a) for speed, and b)
to show the relationships between words and within the text. E.g. a
sentence such as this:
The earth’s circuit round the sun takes just over 365 days, may be noted
like this: Earth’s circ. rd sun => 365 dys
As regards to their type, most symbols are taken from mathematics.

Some of the most useful are given in the list below. Note the variety of
meanings that one symbol can convey, and that those expressing a verb or
verb tense phrase do not show tense.
+ - and, plus
- - less, minus
= - is, equals, consists of, is the same as, there is
≠ - is not, does not equal, does not consist of, is different from
≡ - is equivalent to
> - is greater than, is more than, is over
< - is less than
46
→ - gives, produces, leads to, provides, results in, is re-written as
← - is given by, is produced by, results from, comes from
↑ - rises, increases by, grows to/by
↓ - falls, decreases by, declines
∴ - therefore, so
@ - at
: - indicates example(s) following
( ) - used around explanation of a point
° - degrees
’ - minutes, feet
” - inches or ditto marks – i.e. repeat the word above
BUT - but, however, although
Now you are going to look at these discussion questions:
a) Why do we take/make notes?/Reasons for taking notes.
b) What is the importance of good note taking?
c) How can we take/make notes effectively?
d) How can we keep notes/Where do we keep them?
e) What is the structure/form of notes?
f) Think about your experience in taking notes from lectures and

from written sources/books. What was easier? Why?
g) Are you allowed to use abbreviations and symbols in your

personal notes? Why? What are the advantages/disadvantages?
47
h) How do you distinguish relevant information from irrelevant

information during a lecture?
Answers:
1. Almost everyone who studies has to take notes sometime. But have
ever asked yourself the reason for taking notes?
There are usually three main reasons:
a) To have a record of the speaker’s7writer’s main ideas.
b) To help one’s memory when revising, e.g. before an examination.
c) To make what the speaker/writer says part of your own

knowledge.
2. The ability to take good notes is an important skill that you will need
in all aspects of your studies-lectures, tutorials, seminars, projects or
the study of textbooks. Taking good notes is an essential part of
studying because it requires the student to concentrate well and
actively involves the student in the learning process. It also provides
the student with an invaluable written record of the main ideas and
important details of previous studies that may be used for revision
and preparation for examinations.
3. Effective note-making involves the ability to:
− recognise main, relevant ideas in a text/lecture
− extract these ideas and reduce them to note form
− rewrite your notes in a coherent manner in your own words.
The best arrangement for keeping notes is an individual matter.

Generally, however, the most practical method is the use of a large
loose-leaf notebook. This permits you to keep all the notes for each
course together, separated by a divider, to insert new notes, and to
rearrange their order if necessary. Now the disadvantage of having
small, separate, band notebooks for each course or subject is that they
48
do not permit the insertion of new or revised notes; they seem also to
be more easily forgotten or misplaced. It is best to make notes in ink
(i.e. with a pen) because pencil tends to smudge in time and to
become illegible. It also helps to title each page with the course and
date so that you can arrange them in proper order quickly and easily.
4. Some students leave a wide margin on the left or right side of the
page. During review, this space can be used for brief summaries,
reminders, and references to related ideas elsewhere in your notes.
5. The form in which you make notes depends upon the subject of the
course and whether they are from a book or a lecture. The most
common form is an outline indicating logical divisions and
developments of important points.
6. There are in general two ways to take notes from texts: One is by a)
writing in the text itself, making comments in the margins and
underlining or circling important words + phrases; b) the second is by
taking notes in a notebook. Taking notes from lectures is a very
complex task. It involves not only aural comprehension but also
written summarization. First of all, one listens to what the instructor
is saying, analyses and grasps the overall structure of the lecture, and
selects the main ideas, distinguishing the important details. When
making notes from lectures the following points should be kept in
mind.
b) The type of lecture
Not all lectures have the same aim. Some are intended to transmit
facts; others, to present ideas in the form of a reasoned
argument; + and/others, to offer various pieces of conflicting
evidence and then draw a final conclusion. The student should
decide from the outset which type of lecture they are listening to.
c) How much to write
There are no rules about this. However, it is not advisable for you
to attempt to copy almost every word the lecture says; it is highly
49
desirable for you not to try to record the exact words but rather
the ideas being expressed.
d) Your notes are for yourself
Remember that for your notes to be useful they have to reflect

your understanding of the lecture’s ideas. This means that when
you are in doubt about the lecturer’s ideas you would do well to
check by asking questions. Your notes are not meant to be an
essay. You should, therefore, write the minimum necessary to
remind yourself afterwards of the content of the lecture
7. a) Abbreviation
Do no attempt to write complete sentences, and use abbreviations or

symbols wherever possible. By such means you will have a much better
chance of keeping up with the speed of the lecture. The use of
abbreviations is especially helpful in note taking. Since it can save
considerable time, which is particularly valuable for note taking at
lectures. In using abbreviations, the student should be as consistent as
possible; apart from only using the existing ones, he should devise a
system of symbols and abbreviations and stick to them.
b) Word Omissions
Words can be divided into two broad classes! Content words + form
words content words are generally nouns, adjectives, verbs + (most)
adverbs; form words are the words which are used to provide the pattern
or framework of the sentence. It is often possible to omit form words in
notes (e.g. auxiliaries, determiners, pronouns). Dashes (-) are frequently
used to denote missing form words.
c) Synonyms, word compression + omission of examples
Note taking skills can be further developed by practice in the following

methods of reducing and summarising the original material.
1. The use of synonyms for long words,
50
Instead of using long words/phrases in your in your outline notes
much shorter synonyms can often be used:
e.g. usually for almost invariably
can for are quite capable of
2. Word Compression
There are many ways of compressing word groups:
e.g. the speed of reading = reading speed
the same form of script = some script (form)
3. Omission of examples, repetition, etc
When taking notes, you should avoid writing information which is being
repeated, even if in a slightly ≠ way.
There are words or expressions used by lecturers to signal the relative

importance of something to be said.
a) To introduce an idea:
i. What I would like to now is
ii. I want to start by trying to …
iii. The subject/topic/idea/point I intend to discuss…
b) Dealing with the main point or highlighting a point
− The question I want to ask is
− The point I am making
− This is important/significant because …
51
After having completed the 2nd lesson of unit 2, you are now going to do
some exercises to practice what you have just learned. But please, do the
Exercise I
Read this passage:
Musical instruments can be divided into two basic groups: those, which
are played with the hands alone, and those for which both hands and
mouth are needed. The former group includes the keyboard, stringed and
percussion instruments, and the latter the brass and woodwind.
Now think about the passage. Decide what its subject is, and what title to
give the notes. Decide which parts should be omitted, which should be
changed, which may be abbreviated, and which can be expressed by
symbols. Look at the analysed passage. The markings show how the text
is to be translated into note form. The markings conform to the system
below:
Mark: = omission
(missing illustrations) = alteration
______ = abbreviation
= symbol
Exercise II
Reading and Note Taking/Making
52
Read the text that comes next and do the tasks that follow. Remember, do
the exercises first and then check your answers in the last section of this
unit.
The Whale
Whales are sea-living mammals8. They therefore breathe air but cannot
survive on land. Some species are very large indeed and the blue whale,
which can exceed 30 m in length, is the largest animal to have lived on
earth. Superficially, the whale looks rather like a fish, but there are
important differences in its external structure: its tail consists of a pair of
broad, flat horizontal paddles (the tail of a fish is vertical) and it has a
single nostril on the top of its large, broad head. The skin is smooth and
shiny and beneath it lies a layer of fat (the blubber). This is up to 30 cm
in thickness and serves to conserve heat and body fluids.
There are two main groups of whale – toothed and toothless. The former
includes the dolphin, the porpoise and the killer and sperm whales; the
latter the grey, humpback, right and blue whales. Some toothed species,
like the killer, feed on other large mammals such as the porpoise, while
others – e.g. the sperm whale – eat smaller forms of marine life. The
mouth of the toothless whale is adapted to form a kind of sieve in which
tiny marine animals are caught by a filtering process.
Most whales move about in schools. While swimming they take in air
and dive vertically, sometimes to great depths. Large whales can stay
under water for up to 20 minutes. They then surface and expel air from
their lungs, making the characteristic spout, which is audible from some
distance and can be seen largely because of the concentration of
condensing water vapour in the expelled gases.
Different species of whale are distributed widely throughout the world,

from the North Atlantic to the Antarctic, and they have been hunted by
man for many centuries. The oil has been much prized for use in
8
Def. Mammals are air-breathing, warm-blooded animals which nourish their
young with milk. With one or two exceptions – not including the whale – the
young are born live rather than in egg form.
53
cosmetics, the manufacture of margarine, as a lubricant for delicate

mechanisms and the softening of leather. The meat is used for both
human and animal consumption. Indeed, in Japan it has been a staple
protein source for many centuries. Whale bone, in processed form, has
commercial uses but its use as such to strengthen corsets has disappeared
along with corsets as fashions have changed. There is one other curious
product of the whale, ambergris. This is a wax like secretion of the
intestine, produced to deal with irritants, such as bones, which a toothed
whale may swallow. It is sometimes found floating on the sea or lying on
beaches in greyish or blackish lumps. It is used, in tiny quantities, in the
manufacture of perfume, where it serves to fix and enhance the various
scents employed.
The commercial value of the whale has led to drastic depletions of whale
stocks and pressures of many kinds are making it very hard to achieve
adequate protection for certain species. In the talk, you will hear
something of the history of whaling and of the present critical situation of
this magnificent animal. (In Text to Note, 1989,26)
TASK 1: Guided note-making
When you are satisfied that you understand the passage, complete the
following notes:
Whales
1. Family:
2. Visible characts:
a)
b)
c)
d)
54
3. Main divs:
a)
b)
4. Food:
a)
b)
5. Behav.:
6. Distrib.:
7. Parts used by man:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Now that you have completed this lesson in which you learned the
techniques and skills involved in note making or taking, let us
move to the coming lesson.
55
Lesson 3: Summarising Skills
Use summarise texts effectively using the note taking/making

tecnique and other skills.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Summarisation
Application
Knowledge becomes a part of oneself only when one is able to

express it in one’s own words. Summarising is a skill that the
student needs in order to confirm that the information which he has
gathered from books, lectures, seminars, laboratories, etc, is part of
his own knowledge. Summarising requires the student to
understand what he has read or heard and to express the thoughts,
concepts, and ideas to which he has been exposed, clearly and
concisely in his own words. Not until the student is able to
assimilate what he has learned through his reading or from lectures,
seminars, etc., will he be able to apply his knowledge or
communicate it to others effectively. Yet another aim, which is
closely related to summarising, is the successful communication of
ideas to others and, via notes, to oneself at a later time. Such a skill
is useful, for example, in preparing and taking examinations,
56
participating in discussions and seminars, giving reports, and taking
notes in lectures. The act of summarising also forces the student to
become actively involved in the learning process.
Definition
A summary also called a précis, is a concise, clear, logical and

readable representation of a longer passage. It requires the use of
the minimum number of words to convey a maximum amount of
thought. Sometimes its exact length is set but when it is not, the
summary should be no more than one fourth or one third of the
length of the original passage. Brevity is a necessary quality of a
summary but clarity is yet more important. Whenever there is a
conflict between brevity and clarity, the latter should take
precedence. However, a summary should reflect accurately only the
original author’s ideas, their order of presentation and the points of
emphasis. Under no condition should the opinions and feelings of
the writer of the summary intrude.
Method
There are several ways of writing summaries and each student must
develop the technique that best suits him. There is no precise
formula for writing summaries and the steps below are merely
suggestions for helping the student get started.
Procedure
1. Read the passage, several times if necessary, until you

completely understand it. Understanding the passage means that
you not only comprehend the facts and data presented but that
you understand the way in which the data is organised, the
sequence of thought that is developed, and the relationship of
one idea to another. You should also be able to distinguish the
main ideas and important details from the unimportant ones. In
reading to understand it is suggested that the student:
57
a) observe the clues, visual and verbal, which indicate the

organization of thought, the main ideas and important
details;
b) underline key words and concepts;
c) note the data in the passage which may be omitted as either

irrelevant or repetitive;
d) note the data in the passage which may be generalised.
2. Write out the main idea or ideas. There are several alternatives
at this point:
a) Outline the material.
b) Assume that each paragraph contains a main idea

and write a summary sentence for each paragraph.
c) Make rough notes of the main ideas of the passage.
3. Using your notes or outline, ask yourself ‘what does this

passage say? Repeat to yourself the contents of the article. This
will help you to discover if you really have understood the
passage.
4. Write out a rough draft using your notes, but do not refer back
to the original or you may be tempted to copy phrases and
words from the passage, rather than expressing the ideas in
your own words. Criticise the first draft by asking yourself:
a) Does the summary emphasise the same points that

are emphasised in the original?
b) Does it read smoothly? Is it written in good

grammatical English?
c) Is it clear?
58
d) Is it as brief as possible? Are there any irrelevant
details or repetitions in the outline?
e) Does it include any details that can be generalised?
5. Write out the final copy.
TYPES OF SUMMARY
There are various types of summary you may need to make during
your course. Three main types can be distinguished:
a) It may be satisfactory for your needs to summarise a

text in only one or two sentences. A short summary
like this may be needed, for example, for the
abstract of a short essay or article you have written.
b) A more detailed summary may be necessary. For

example, you may need to summarise the entire
content of an article you are reading. This is called
global summarising.
c) You may need to summarise only some of the

information in a text. Such a selective summary may
involve the extraction of relevant material from a
large body of prose.
After having completed this lesson of unit 2, you are now going to do
some exercises to practise what you have just learned. Please do the
exercises first, then refer to the feedback section on the last page of this
59
Exercise I
Read through ‘The Stages of Writing an Essay’ again, in the

previous lesson. Decide what you consider to be the most important
stages or advice. In very brief note form, summarise the stages by
filling in the spaces in the diagram. The first one has been done for
you (you may change it if you do not agree with it).
Summary of ‘The Stages of Writing an Essay’
1) Topic- 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
think.
Reading
list
Now that you have completed this lesson, in which you learned the
techniques and skills involved when summarising and the reasons for
doing so, let us move on to the next lesson topic.
60
Lesson 4: Reports; Studies and Research
Write a report on your studies and research, using the appropriate

structure and vocabulary.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
You may sometimes need to write reports on your studies or research,

often for your tutors or sponsors who may need to know what progress
you are making. In this lesson you are going to learn how to write a short,
straightforward report.
Definition : According to Heaton,(1975), the term report can be used to

refer to a memorandum, or article for inclusion in a specialist journal, a
paper prepared for submission at a conference, a dissertation, or a thesis.
Purpose : Generally, a report provides information concerning a piece of

a research, the development of a project, or the result of an experiment or
survey. Although it is generally written to present information in an
objective manner, the report can sometimes be written for the purpose of
persuading or convincing its readers.
Report Structures
Look at the following structure of a research report. The structure of a

dissertation or thesis would be very similar.
Basic framework for a research report
61
¾ Preliminaries
1. The title
2. Acknowledgements
3. List of contents
4. List of figures/tables
¾ Introduction
1. The abstract
2. Statement of the problem
¾ Main body
1. Review of the literature
2. Design of the investigation
3. Measurement techniques used
4. Results
¾ Conclusion
1. Discussion and conclusion
2. Summary of conclusions
¾ Extras
1. Bibliography
2. Appendices
3. Structure and Vocabulary Aid
62
Report on your studies/research this term.
1. Organise the report so that it is in three paragraphs.
a) Introduction : outline of studies; the beginning
b) Development : description/explanation; now
c) Conclusion : difficulties or sucess; the future
2. Choose carefully the verb tenses that you will use. Some commonly
used verb tenses in reports are :
− present continuous (e.g. I am studying)
− present perfect (e.g. I have experimented)
− past simple (e.g. I started)
After having completed the 4th lesson of unit 2, you are now going to do
some exercises to practice what you have just learned. Please do the
exercises first, then refer to the feedback section on the last page of this
Exercise I
The fourteen sections of the research report framework are listed again
below. Beneath them are expalnations of the fourteen sections, lettered a
to n – listed in the wrong order.
Basic framework for a research report
1. The title
2. Acknowledgements
3. List of contents
63
4. List of figures/tables
5. The abstract
6. Statement of the problem
7. Review of the literature
8. Design of the investigation
9. Measurement techniques used
10. Results
11. Discussion and conclusion
12. Summary of conclusions
13. Bibliography
14. Appendices
Read the explanations carefully and try to decide which explanation is

appropriate for each section. Write the letters a to n to the numbered
sections.
a) the presentation in a logical order of information and data upon

which a decision can be made to accept or reject the hypotheses.
b) A compilation of important data and explanatory and illustrative

material, placed outside the main body of the text.
c) The sections, in sequence, included in the report.
d) A survey of selective, relevant and appropriate reading, both of

primary and secondary source materials. Evidence of original and
critical thought applied to books and journals.
e) The presentation of principles, relationships, correlations and

generalisations shown by the results. The interpretation of the
results and their relationship to the research problem and
64
hypothesis. The making of deductions and inferences, and he
implications of the research. The making of recommendations.
f) An accurate listing in strict alphabetical order of all the sources

cited in the text.
g) An extremely concise summary of the contents of the report,

including the conclusions. It provides an overview of the whole
report for the reader.
h) Thanking colleagues, supervisors, sponsors, etc. for their

assistance.
i) Detailed description and discussion of testing devices used.

Presentation of data supporting validity and reliability. A
discussion of the analysis to be applied to the results to test the
hypotheses.
j) A concise account of the main findings, and the inferences drawn

from them.
k) A statement and discussion of the hypotheses, and the theoretical

structure in which they will be tested and examined, together
with the methods used.
l) The sequence of charts or diagrams that appear in the text.
m) The fewest words possible that adequately describe the paper.
n) A brief discussion of the nature of the research and the reasons

for undertaking it. Aclear declaration of proposals and
hypotheses.
Exercise II
Read the following report. Notice, in particular, the verb forms that
are used. The report was written in December, at the end of the first
term.
65
A report on my studies this term
I am studying for the Diploma in Economic Development in the

Department of Economics. It is a one-year course that consists of
lectures, seminars, the writing of essays, and an examination at the
end. I started the course at the beginning of October this year; it will
finish, in June next year. So far, I have enjoyed the course. However,
I have had two kinds of difficulties: one is following some of the
lectures - they speak quickly and not very clearly; the other difficulty
is caused by the use of mathematics in Economics. I have difficulty
in understanding and using some of the equations. This term I have
finished two essays: they were quite long, and required a lot of
reading in the library. Although I found it rather difficult to write the
essays, I learned a lot, and received good marks for them. Next term I
will have to write another two essays.
Now read through the following report. It is similar to the one you
have just read, but some changes have been made. Complete the
report by writing one or two words in each space.
A report on my studies
I am (1) __________ for an M.A. in (2) ____________ in the

Department of (3) __________ . It is a one-year course which (4)
___________ of lectures, seminars, essays, an examination, and a (5)
____________. I (6) _____________ the course at the (7)
_______________ of October last year; the examination will be in
June this year, and the dissertation must be (8) ___________ in
September this year. Generally, I have enjoyed the course and I feel I
(9) ___________ a lot, especially from the reading that I have (10)
________ to do. At (11) ___________ I had some difficulties in (12)
_____________ some of the (13) ___________ : they spoke quickly
and not (14) ____________ clearly. The main difficulty that I have
had this term is (15) ____________ my essays on time. There is so
66
(16) ____________ reading to do for them and I still read (17)
__________ . I am not looking (18) ___________ to the examination
as I have difficulty in writing quickly and (19) _________________
all the necessary facts. (20) ___________ I do not mind doing this
dissertation (21) ____________ I have already (22) _____________
a subject that interests me.
Now that you have completed this lesson, in which you learned the
structure and the organization of a report and the vocabulary used when
writing study or research report, let us move to the next lesson.
67
Lesson 5: Referecing in academic writing
Refer to footnotes, quotations and bibliographies using appropriate

techniques and employ correct procedures when acknowledging
sources in written works.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
1. Footnotes
A footnote is a note at the bottom (or foot) of a page in a book or journal:

It is used to explain a word or other item, or to add some special
information or a reference. Sometimes footnotes appear at the end of the
essay or article, or even at the back of a book. A small number is written
above the word or item in the text. The explanation of the item is then
given the same number. If there are two or more footnotes, then they are
numbered in sequence 1, 2, 3 etc. If they appear at the foot of each page,
the numbering starts anew on each page. If they appear at the end of an
essay, the numbering is continuous throughout the essay. There are
several systems of giving footnotes but this is the simplest:
… has given rise to a school of thought called neo∂-Marxism
___________________________________________________________
∂neo-a new or modern form or development of
2. Quotations
68
When referring to a book or article in an essay, the normal procedure is to
give the author’s surname, the year of publication in brackets, and the
page numbers if possible. The full reference is then given at the end of
the essay.
There are three basic ways of using quotations in an essay:
a) quotation marks around the author’s words which are then

incorporated in the text : this is often used for short quotations :
….(Seers, 1979, pp.27-28), a further dimension is added -

“development now implies, inter alia, reducing cultural dependence
on one or more of the great powers”. Self reliance thus becomes ….
b) The quotation is indented (i.e. it starts further from the margin

than the other lines) -and it may be in a different type size or
style; the quotation marks are usually omitted:
For Seers,
‘Development’ is inevitably a normative concept, almost a synonym

for improvement. To pretend otherwise is just to hide one’s value
judgements.’
(Seers, 1972,p.22)
Posing the question ….
3. Bibliographical references
How to refer to a source, one author book/two or more authors and edited
books.
The order of references
Bibliographical References, at the end of an essay for example, are

arranged in alphabetical order (a - z) of the author’s surname or the name
of the organisation. If more than one reference is given by the same
author, then the earlier dated reference will appear first. If two or more
references by the same author appear in the same year, they will be
69
labelled in sequence with letters (a, b, c, etc) after the year. References to
one author are normally listed before those of joint authorship of the
same author. E.g.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Booth D. (1975) ‘Andre Gunter Frank: an introduction and

appreciation’ in Oxaal I., Barrett T. and Booth D. (eds), Beyond the
Sociology of Development, Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Cairncross A. and Puri M. (eds.) (1976), Employment, Income

Distribution and Development Strategy, Macmillan.
Foxley A. (1976a), ‘Redistribution of consumption: effects on

production and employment in Focley (ed.) (1976b).
Foxley A. (ed.) (1976b), Income Distribution in Latin America, C.U.P.
Jolly R. (1976), ‘Redistribution with growth in Cairncross and Puri

(eds.) (1976)
Murray T. (1973a), ‘How helpful is the generalised system of

preferences to developing countries?’, Economic journal, Vol.83, No.
330
Murray T. (1973b), ‘EEC enlargement and preferences for the

developing countries’, Economic Journal, Vol. 83, No.331
Differences between references to books and journals
a) Note the following sequence of information commonly used in

references to books:
Author’s surname, initials, (date-in brackets), title (underlined or in

italics), place of publication, publisher. E.g.
Frank, A.C. (1967), Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin

America, New York, Monthly Review Press.
70
a) In references to articles in journals there are some differences in
the information given:
Author’s surname, initials, (date-in brackets), title of article, name of

journal (underlined or in italics), volume number, issue number,
sometimes season or month, sometimes page numbers, E.g.
Murray, R. Daniel and Smith, E.O. (1983). The role of dominance

and intrafamilial bonding in the avoidance of close inbreeding.
Journal of Human Evolution, 12,5, 481-486.
Alphabetical order
It is important that references are arranged in strict alphabetical order.

It is usually necessary to include the first names or initials of authors
in addition to their surnames. Surnames beginning with Mac and Mc
are placed together as Mac. E.g. Mckenzie will come before Madison.
After having completed the 5th lesson of this unit, you are now going to
do some exercises to practise what you have just learned. Remember to
do the exercises first , then refer to the feedback section on the last page
Activity 5 of this unit to check your answers.
Exercise I
The following 10 surnames (and initials) are those of authors of books.

Arrange them correctly in strict alphabetical order from 1 to 10 in the
spaces provided.
Dawson, E. 1 _________________________
Davidson, D. 2 _________________________
Davey, A.C. 3 _________________________
Davies, C.T. 4 _________________________
Day, D.A. 5 _________________________
71
Davey, A.M. 6 _________________________
Davis, A. 7 _________________________
Davidson, G.D. 8 ________________________
Davies, C.W. 9 ________________________
Davy, A. 10 _________________________
Exercise II
What is the sequence of information commonly used in references to?
1 books 2 articles in journals
__________________ ___________________
__________________ ___________________
__________________ ___________________
__________________ ___________________
____________________ ___________________
____________________ ____________________
Now that you have completed this lesson, in which you learned to refer to
footnotes and acknowledge sources through quotations and
bibliographical references using appropriate techniques and procedures,
let us turn to the feedback section of the learning activities you have
already done and after that we will move on to the next unit of this
course:
Feedback:
Answer key:
72
Activity 1
Exercise 1
a) Think g) Write n) Write t) Write
b) Understand h) Keep o) Write u) Make
c) Make I) Acknowledge p) Avoid v) Remember
d) Note k) Decide q) Read w) Compile
e) Add l) Select r) Ask x) Ensure
f) Read m) Divide s) Revise y) Add
Answer key:
Exercise 1a
Connectives
A choice of connectives from the list is possible, though hence is less

frequently used.
1. d 2. b 3. e
Exercise 1b
Many answers are possible. Suggested answers:
4. not many students were able to take notes.
5. it took him a long time to finish reading the English text-book.
Exercise 2a
A choice of connectives from the list is possible, though In other words is

the most frequently used.
1. c 2. d 3. a
73
Exercise 2b
Many answers are possible. Suggested answers are:
4. she speaks English and French equally well.
5. if you have a sensitive ‘ear’ (or are sensitive to sound changes) you
will learn languages easily.
Exercise 3a
A choice of connectives from the list is possible, though. However is the

most frequently used.
1. e 2. c 3. b
Exercise 3b
Many answers are possible. Suggested answers are:
4. to everyone’s surprise, he passed it easily.
5. he insisted on continuing (with) it and completing it.
Activity 2
Answer key:
Exercise I
The short passage in the note form will look like as follows:
a) Music. Insts
b) bas. gps.
c) play. hands only e.g. keybd, string, percuss.
d) “ “ + mouth e.g. & woodwd
74
Exercise II
Answer key: TASK 1
Guided note-making
Whales
1. Family: S. liv. Mmls (sea living mammals)
2. Visible characts:
a) l. (large)
b) hz. T. (horizontal tail)
c) sg. nt.(Single nostril)
d) smt. sh. sk (smooth and shiny skin)
3. Main divs:
a) ted (toothed) e.g. the dolphin, the porpoise, the killer
b) tless (toothless) e.g. the blue whale
4. Food:
a) l. mmls (large mammals)
b) sml. f. o. mr. lf (smaller form of marine life)
5. Behav.:w, mv. In schools (whales move in schools)
6. Distrib.: wid. thr the wld. (widely throughout the world)
7. Parts used by man:
a) oil
b) the meat
c) whale bone
75
d) ambergis
Answer key: TASK 2
Controlled note-making
1. 19thC develops: (steamships) and (harpoon) gun.→ catch…(larger)

Ws,e.g. the …(blue W.)…………
2. 20thC: (developed) (factory) ships. Can (process) &

(store)P…(usable) + use of …(spotter)……
…(planes)…………….& ……(radar)……………
3. Results: Depletion of (whale) (species) e.g. 1930s …(estimated)

(population) 14500 1968 “ “ 600
4. Dangers: Destruct. of (whaling) (industries)“ “ (whales)
Activity 3
Summary of the Stages of Writing an Essay
Suggested answer (others may be possible)
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
Topic- Read- Decide Write
think. purpose content Write Read final Compile
Reading first critically draft bibliography
list Make - select- draft

notes Revise - Add at end
draft legible
3 -
academic
Note sections
style
sources
Write
outline
Activity 4
Answer key:
Exercise 1
76
1. 1m 2b 3c 4l 5g 6n 7d 8k 9i 10a 11e 12j 13f
14b
Exercise 2
Several alternatives are possible. The main ones are given below.
(1) studying (2) (any subject) (3) (any department) (4) consists (5)
dissertation (6) started (7) beginning (8) submitted (9) have learned (10)
had (11) first (12) following/understanding (13) lectures (14) very (15) to
finish/in finishing (16) much (17) slowly (18) forward (19)
learning/remembering (20) However (21) as/because (22) thought
of/decided on/chosen
Activity 5
Exercise I
Dawson, E. 9
Davidson, D. 3
Davey, A.C. 1
Davies, C.T. 5
Day, D.A. 10
Davey, A.M. 2
Davis, A. 7
Davidson, G.D.4
Davies, C.W. 6
77
Davy, A. 8
Exercise II
1 books 2 articles in journals
Author’s surname Author’s surname
initials Initials
(date-in brackets) (date-in brackets)
title (underlined or in italics) title of article
place of publication name of journal (underlined or in

italics)
publisher
volume number
issue number
sometimes season or month
sometimes page numbers
Unit summary
In this unit you learned the purposes, the techniques and the importance
of note taking, you also learned how to structure a piece of academic
writing together with the use of connectives to produce coherent text.
Summary
In addition, you learned the procedures to refer to footnotes, quotations
and bibliographies in academic writing, the order of their presentation
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and the sequence of information given in each of them.
Assessment
As you have now concluded the second unit of this course, do the
following Assessment Exercises. Please do the exercises first, then refer
to the feedback section to check your answers.
Assessment 2
Time allowed: 120 minutes
1. Write an outline of the general organization of a piece of academic

writing (e.g. an essay).
2. Write a summary of ways of using footnotes and quotations.
3. Look at the following book details and organise the Bibliographical

References in an order that is academically acceptable.
Investigating Language - Blackwell 238 Main Street

Central Problems Publishers
Cambridge,
in Linguistics 108 Cowley Massachusetts 02142
Road
Ronald Wardhaugh USA
Oxford OX4
First Published 1993
1JF
Reprinted 1994
UK
4. What are the skills needed for good note taking/making?
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5. What is the purpose of using abbreviations and symbols in note

taking?
6. What is the normal procedure when referring to a book or article in

an essay? Give an example.
Feedback:
Answer key:
1.
2. Footnote = a note at the bottom of a page used to explain a word or to

add some information. A small number is written above the word
then the explanation is given the same number.
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Quotations = There are three basic ways of using quotations in an
essay
a) quotation marks around the author’s words incorporated in the

text.
b) the quotation is indented i.e. it starts further from the margin than
the other lines in a different type size or style, there is usually
omission of quotation marks.
c) a paraphrase (i.e. rewriting the author’s words)
3. Wardhaugh, R. (1993), Investigating Language – Central Problem is

Linguistics, UK, Blackwell Publishers.
- Wardhaugh, R. (1994), Investigating Language – Central Problem is

Linguistics, USA, Cambridge Mass.
4. Speed, clarity and accuracy.
5. For speed, and to show the relationship between words within the
text.
6. The normal procedure is to give the author’s surname, the year of

publication in brackets, and the page numbers if possible. E.g. …
(Wardhaugh, 1994, pp. 128-129)
Now that you have completed this unit , let us turn to the next one with
the following topic:
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Unit 3
Speaking Skills
Introduction
This unit is about one of the most important language skill you need to
master as a learner of English as a foreign language. Speaking skills
involve the ability to express one’s ideas clearly, the ability of asking
critical questions, taking part in discussions, participating in seminars or
developing seminar skills, agreeing/disagreeing politely and persuading
as well.
communicate effectively in a variety of oral situations including;
make presentations:
Outcomes
take part in discussions and debates:
seek clarification and information from your teachers and colleagues:
respond to expected and unexpected questions;
explain and put into practice the main principles of the English
phonological system.
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Unit 3 Speaking Skills
Lesson 1: Take parte in discussions
participate actively in discussions.
conduct a discussion.
use explain the importance of discussion

Lesson Outcomes
How long?
What is group discussion?
The term ‘Discussion’ does not include the aimless chatting that goes on
in unorganised groups. While such chat may be interesting and profitable,
it is not ‘discussion’.
− In the special historical sense of the term, true ‘discussion’ occurs

when people meet to consider a common problem.
− Occurs when people exchange information and ideas.
A definition of ‘DISCUSSION’ – A way of thinking together, critically,

in a purposeful conversation.
Where would you find ‘discussion’?
− In many places and at many levels; in clubs, in churches, in

dormitories, in the classroom, in committees, and conferences,
before public audiences, over radio and TV.
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Of whose concern is ‘discussion’?
− Often discussion is not skilfully directed and makes little

progress, yet some of the rudiments are there. Sometimes done
formally and skilfully. Sometimes problems talked over are of
little concern to anyone except those present.
− Sometimes issues concern large groups of people, even the nation

or the world.
INFORMAL GROUP DISCUSSION
− A group of ten or twenty persons talk about a subject of

mutual interest. No audience and no formal speeches. No one
is a special authority. There is no preparation; groups do not
converse under the guidance of a chairperson.
Disadvantages: Often difficult to keep within bounds and to keep

moving profitably through the various steps of the problem.
Members might spend time on some interesting aspect and never get far
into the problem, turn-up a new subject entirely, drop the original one and
follow the new one. Often the discussion is barren - members do not
know enough about the topic: For the collective ignorance of a group
does not add to the individual knowledge of any member, nor do
ideas coalesce in a vacuum.
With all its shortcomings, however, the rudiments of discussion are there:
Cultivation of ideas can aid growth.
Appropriate discussion questions
We do not discuss questions that call for measurable facts, such as who
ran the fastest mile or who is the mayor of Maputo? Nonsense questions
such as “ How many angels can dance on a point of a pin? (In this case no
discussion is needed but producing a pin and angels and counting them
dancing on the point of a pin can solve the matter).
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Group Discussion
1. State the question so that it is limited to one specific problem.
− You cannot discuss four questions at one time, or even two.

Limit your question to one specific problem.
2. State the question so that the answer will not be “Yes” on one side
and “No” on the other. For example ‘Should the government scrap
the bonus salary ?”
− Contrast this with: “How can Mozambique increase its

foreign export trade?” Neither party can argue “yes” or “no”
in fact there will be no sides.
Qualities of good group discussion
Discussion may sound like an ordinary conversation, lively and informal,

and of course interesting, but underneath, it is fundamentally different:
− It is a planned conversation.
Features:
− It starts at a given point and goes through the definite steps of

defining and exploring and solving a problem.
− It requires knowledge of the processes of thinking.
This process has six steps:
1. What is the nature of problem confronting the group?
2. What caused the problem?
3. What are the various possible solutions?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
5. What, finally, seems to be the best solution?
6. How may this solution be put into operation?
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How to participate effectively
Acquire and organize information on the subject.
− People who know little or nothing about a subject cannot discuss it

intelligently or with profit, nor can they form trustworthy opinions on
it. They can only pool their ignorance.
− Firstly, have information. Before people can form

judgements, they must have facts.
− If you are assigned to a discussion, your first task is

preparation.
First - think over what you know about the problem, and jot down the
main points in a concisely organized outline.
Second - Investigate the subject systematically and thoroughly.
Third – Read widely and take notes on what you read - notes help you to
keep information at hand for constant reference. You can also be sure of
exact facts, dates, quotations or opinions.
Fourth- Organize your information into a concise outline
− May write on paper or arrange it on cards.
− Put on paper it is quickly visible to the eye.
Take part in a co-operative spirit
A discussion is not a contest. It is not a debate.
− You do not try to score a point to prove that your “side” is right or
that the other “side” is wrong. There are no sides at all, only different
viewpoints.
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− You do not try to prove yourself clever or witty, or standout as a big

shot. You are a group that is thinking together, anything that disrupts
the process of thinking is out of place.
− Put apart intense individualism and the desire to excel, to dominate

the group, or to insist that others accept your ideas.
− Think and feel and talk in terms of group welfare, and co-operate
with others.
− Learn to listen and to digest what you hear.
− Do not jump on an idea just because it is not yours. Rather consider

what good there is in it and whether it has drawbacks and
weaknesses.
− If the idea is good, say so when it comes your turn to talk. Try to
make an idea better rather than kill it.
− There must mutual sharing of ideas, proper sympathy for the attitude
of others.
According to Murray in his book on speech communication,
“He who has learned to disagree without being disagreeable has

discovered the secret of a diplomat”
− Finally, experience has demonstrated that the final decision of a

group is usually superior to that of an individual.
II
The above attempt to define discussion is a bit complex because it can be

defined in different ways, but most simply it can be seen as
communication practice or the most natural and effective way for learners
to practise talking freely in English by thinking out some problem or
situation together, through verbal interchange of ideas;
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The word discussion here includes anything from the simplest question-
answer guessing process, through exploration of situations by role-play,
to the most complex political and philosophical debates.
Not only is talking considered as discussion but also any reading and
writing that can be entailed9 in it.
Aims:
The main aims in a discussion in a foreign language course may be:
Efficient fluency practice. Today it is commonplace to say that language

is never used in the classroom for its own sake, but always for the sake of
achieving an objective to perform a function: to persuade, inform, enquire
and so on.
Achieving an objective for itself. This in itself must form one of our aims
in holding discussions.
Learning from content may be a third aim: In many discussions there is

much to be learned from what is said. Information may be acquired
through examples, or new points of view considered.
The purpose of a discussion, whether it is solving a problem, exploring

the implications of an idea or constructing proposals, is to be taken very
seriously and the result respected by teachers and students alike.
Constructive and Co-operative discussion
This involves clear, logical thought on the one hand and debating skills
on the other.
Skills involved in leading a discussion:
Speak relevantly and clearly, listen to what someone else has to say and
do not interrupt. Clarify; controlling people who talk too much; keeping
9
Have a necessary accompaniment or consequence to specify.
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the discussion on the subject. Gather ideas and sum up, paraphrase,
check understanding.
Like a good presentation, a good discussion looks easy, but actually is

quite a feat. A successful discussion depends on 2 things:
1. How the individual members of the group behave
2. How the group as a whole behave
Checklist can be used too, for individual questions like:
− Did you ask for clarification when you did not understand a
point?
− Did you think, plan and rehearse in preparation for discussions?
Some suggested vocabulary for leading a discussion
− Getting Started: - Is everyone ready to begin?
− Bringing people into discussion: - (Name) what do you think?
− (Name) do you have anything to add?
− Encourage everyone to participate: - What do you think about

(Name)’s point?
− Would anyone like to comment on what (name) said?
The discussion is usually dominated by a few fluent speakers, and the rest
either listen, or try to give their contribution by small sentences.
A discussion with a good topic can bring the participation of all, By a

‘good’ topic we refer to a topic that is of interest to everyone.
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After having completed the 1st lesson of this unit, you are now going to
do some exercises to practise what you have just learned. Please
remember to do the exercises first then refer to the feedback section on
Activity 1 the last page of this unit to check your answers.
1. What steps do you have to take to participate effectively in a

discussion ? (Put numbers 1 to 4 to show the order).
a) ___ - Organize your information into a concise outline
b) ____ - If you are assigned to a discussion, your first task is

preparation, think over what you know about the problem,
and jot down the main points in a concisely organized
outline.
c) ____ - Read systematically and take notes on what you

read-notes help you to keep information at hand for constant
reference. You can also be sure of exact facts, dates,
quotations or opinions.
d) ____ - Investigate the subject systematically and

thoroughly.
Tick the wrong answer from the alternatives below.
1. The main aims in a discussion lesson in a foreign language

course may be:
a. Efficient fluency practice. ________________________
b. Learning from context. ___________________________
c. Arguing loudly with colleagues. ___________________
2. Some of the main skills involved in a discussion are:
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1. Speaking clearly. _______________________________
2. Shouting at colleagues. ___________________________
3. Listening to others. _____________________________
Now that you have completed this lesson, in which you learned the steps
to take to participate effectively in a discussion, how to conduct a
successful discussion and the importance of carrying out a discussion, we
are now going to move to the next lesson.
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Lesson 2: Presenting/Conducting Seminars
prepare a seminar presentation
conduct a seminar.
Lesson Outcomes explain the procedures for a good seminar presentation
use appropriate language when presenting a seminar
How long?
Language focus: Introducing yourself and your talk
Greeting, name, position
− Good morning, My name’s (…) I’m the new Finance Manager.
− Ladies and Gentlemen. It’s an honour to have the opportunity to

address such a distinguished audience.
− Good morning. Let me start by saying just a few words about my

own background. I started out in …
− Welcome to Standard Electronics. I know I’ve met some of you,

but just for the benefit of those I haven’t, my name’s (…)
Title/Subject
− I’d like to talk (to you) today about …
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− I’m going to:
− present the recent…
− explain our position on…
− brief you on…
− inform you about …
− describe…
The (subject/focus/topic) of my (talk/presentation/paper (academic)

/speech (usually to public audience)
Purpose/Objective
We are here today to (decide/agree/learn about) …
Or
The purpose of this talk is to:
Update you on …
Put you in the picture about…
Give you the background to …
Or
This talk is designed to:
Act as a springboard for discussion.
Start the ball rolling.
Length
I shall only take (…) minutes of your time.
I plan to be brief.
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This should only last (…) minutes.
Outline/Main parts
I’ve divided my presentation into four parts/sections.
They are …
Or
The subject can be looked at under the following headings …
We can break this area down into the following fields:
Firstly/first of all …
Secondly/then/next …
Thirdly/ and then we come to …
Finally/lastly/last of all …
Questions
− I’d be glad to answer any questions at the end of my talk.
− If you have any questions, please feel free to interrupt.
− Please interrupt me if there is something, which needs clarifying.

Otherwise, there’ll be time for discussion at the end
Reference to the audience
− I can see many of you are …
− I know you’ve all travelled a long way.
− You all look as though you’ve heard this before.
What to consider when making an oral presentation/Skills involved

in seminar presentation
1. Presentation
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There is a need to prepare in advance for presenting a seminar and for

participating in it.
1.1 Sources
Different sources can be used (Talking to colleagues about the topic;

asking questions about what a person knows in relation to a particular
topic; and of course consult ing written sources).
1.1 Time management
When preparing for a presentation there is a need to consider the

question of time management. This can be done through rehearsal.
One easy method is to read each paragraph of your final paper and
then comment on each one afterwards. This will give you an
approximate idea of how long it will take you to present it.
2. Presentation
When presenting there is a need to focus on the following:
2.1 The Introduction
It is essential to start a presentation by presenting/introducing the

major topic to be dealt with. In addition, there is a need to refer to the
purpose/goal of the presentation. What do you expect to achieve by
presenting the topic?
− Expect to raise people’s awareness of a particular issue.
− Find solutions to a particular problem.
− Bring up a reflection on a subject, etc…
2.2 Outline/Skeleton
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− When presenting, it is key to draw an outline or present a list of
the major points that are going to be covered.
− This can help the audience to know/to have a clear idea of what
to expect.
2.3 The use of visual Aids
− Visual Aids refer to all the material that can support or help
understanding. Among them, the blackboard or whiteboard,
photocopies, OHP (Overhead projector), etc. Every thing that
helps to clarify something being explained.
− It is always advisable to write the title, or topic of the

presentation and the major issues to be presented on the board.
Body Language
Body language is very important in essay/oral presentation. Of

particular importance is eye contact, because through eye contact the
presenter can check whether the audience is following, if they have
doubts, etc.
Knowledge of the function of certain discourse patterns
Both the audience and the presenter should be aware of the use of
certain discourse patterns such as: for example/for instance, in other
words, but etc
If the expression, ‘in other words’, is used the audience may assume,
for instance that the presenter is going to further explain something
already referred to …
3. Discussion
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There is always a need to allocate time at the end of the presentation for
(discussion) questions, comments, criticisms, suggestions, etc.
This stage is as important as other stages, as the presenter will get to

know different points of view, he/she will have to defend his own ideas,
etc.
Delivery
The way a person speaks can influence an audience’s understanding. Two

aspects of spoken English that are known to cause comprehension
problems are stress and speed of speaking. If you produce a word with
reasonably correct pronunciation but with incorrectly placed stress, the
listener is less likely to understand what you said or to understand
something different to what you meant. Speed is a crucial aspect of
successful performance in seminars in a foreign language.
Non-verbal signals
Our spoken messages may be supplemented (or even changed) by the

unspoken, non-verbal elements of face to face communication. This is
commonly referred to as ‘body language’.
Useful phrases for getting clarification
• Non – comprehension
I’m sorry, I didn’t understand/catch what you said about (x)
Or, Could you repeat ….
• Partial comprehension
What did you mean when you said (x)?
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Could you be more specific about (x)?
Could you expand a little on what you said about (x)?
Could you give an example of / explain in more detail..
• Getting Confirmation
So you’re telling me that I can’t …?
So what you are saying is that …?
So you mean that …?
Did I understand you correctly when you said ….
Useful expressions for indicating whether you agree, disagree or you

do not know.
• Agree
I couldn’t agree more.
On the whole, I think the speaker’s arguments are fair.
• Disagree
I’m afraid I can’t agree with Mr X on this matter.
• Don’t know
Is the speaker saying that …?
Am I correct in assuming …?
THE USE OF BODY LANGUAGE
The importance of Body language
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1. Eye contact. There is a need to maintain good eye contact with

different people in the audience, instead of just looking at one
person. This enables you to check comprehension …
2. Facial expression. Use facial expression (e.g. smiles) to

emphasize your feelings.
3. Hands. Use your hands to emphasise what you say. It is safer to

keep hands out of pockets - in some cultures this shows
disrespect. Hold a pen or pointer if you feel more comfortable,
but do not play with it as it is a distraction.
4. Movement. Do not stand completely still - a little movement

between table + board, or between notes + audience, is more
interesting. Do not move around too much, however, or the
audience may watch you instead of listening to you.
5. Posture. Try to keep your posture upright but relaxed. Look

straight ahead, not down at the floor or up at the ceiling.
Some of the basic steps when preparing for seminars are:
− Preparation (through research - books, written material, consulting

people)
− Timing
− Visual aids (blackboard or photocopies)
− Speakers are expected to allow time at the end of their presentation

for questions and discussion. Many people would say that this
question-and-answer stage is at least as important as the initial
presentation. However, questioning can be a problematic aspect of
seminar performance. Often the speaker misunderstands a question
(and not only when the questioner is a non native speaker) because
the point is lost in a long sentence.
A practical solution is to keep your question short (…)
You need to make clear:
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a) That it’s a question » E.g. I have a question …
b) What the topic is » … about assessment on the course.
c) What the point is »…..how is assessment….?
USING VISUAL AIDS
These can provide useful support to a spoken presentation; in

particular they are an effective means of showing relationships,
presenting statistical data or summarising information. However,
keep two things in mind: Firstly, they are intended to aid your oral
presentation, not to dominate what you say; secondly, they are visual,
so they need to be clear, simple and legible.
SIGN POSTING
When giving a seminar presentation, it is important to organise the

information into a clear and logical order. One way of marking the
talk’s sections and subsections is to use what are called signposts.
These are words and phrases that tell the listeners where you are in
the presentation, where you are taking them next and where they have
just been.
− In a good presentation, what you say – the content- is much

more important than anything. But a clear structure helps
when you move on to your next point or change direction, so
tell the audience.
− You can do this easily and effectively by using simple

phrases as ‘signposts’ to guide the audience through your
presentation. E.g. To move on, To expand on, To digress, To
go back, To conclude, To summarize, To turn to, To
elaborate on
Useful phrases
• Introduction
What I’d like to do is (to) discuss….
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I’m going to talk about…
I want to consider
I intend to explain
• Ordering points
Listing
Firstly
Secondly
Lastly/Finally
• Time order
First/To begin with
Second/Next/Then
Finally
• Transition
I’d like now to move on to …
Turning now to …
Moving now to …
Having looked at (X) let’s consider (Y)
• Conclusion
So…
We’ve seen that …
In short …
To sum up …
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In conclusion
PRESENTING SEMINARS
Introductions
− How you begin your presentation depends on how formal the

situation is. Most audiences prefer a relatively informal approach.
− It is essential to state the purpose of your presentation near at the

beginning. To do this clearly and effectively you need a few
simple presentation verbs: take a look at, report on, give an
overview of, etc.
− It often helps if you state your purpose at each stage of your talk
as well as at the beginning.
− Communication experts all agreed that the first three minutes of a

presentation are the most important. They talk about ‘hooks’ –
simple techniques for getting the immediate attention of the
audience. A good start makes you feel more confident. Here is
how the experts suggest you ‘hook’ your audience:
1. Give them a problem to think about
2. Give them some amazing facts
3. Give them a story or personal anecdote.
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a) Give one example phrase that show the following
a) Listing:
Activity 2 b) Time order:
c) Conclusion:
d) Transition:
b) Tick (√) the wrong answer from the alternatives below.
To ‘hook’ your audience when presenting a seminar you have to:
i. Give them some money ___
ii. Give them a problem to think about ___
iii. Give them some amazing facts ____
iv. Give them a story or personal anecdote. ____
3. Give headings to these preparation stages of seminar

presentation:
a) ___________________
− When presenting there is always a need to present a list of the

major points that are going to be covered.
− This can help the audience to have a clear idea of what to

expect.
b) ____________________
− They refer to all the material that can help understanding.

Among them are the blackboard or whiteboard, photocopies,
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OHP (overhead projector), etc. Every thing that helps to
clarify something being explained.
− It is always advisable to write the title, or topic of the

presentation and the major issues to be presented on the
board.
c) ____________________
The way a person speaks can influence audience’s understanding. Two

aspects of spoken English that are known to cause comprehension
problems are stress and speed of speaking. If you produce a word with
reasonably correct pronunciation but with incorrectly placed stress, the
listener is likely to understand something different to what you meant.
Speed is a crucial aspect of successful performance in seminars in a
foreign language.
As you have completed this lesson in which you learned to prepare

for a seminar or oral presentation, conduct a seminar by using
various stages and procedures involved in the task, let us turn to the
feedback section of the learning activities you have already done
and after that we will move on to the next unit of this course:
Feedback:
Activity 1
1. What steps do you have to take to participate effectively in a

discussion ? (Put numbers 1 to 4 to show the order).
a) 4 - Organize your information into a concise outline
b) 1 - If you are assigned to a discussion, your first task is

preparation, think over what you know about the
problem, and jot down the main points in a concisely
organized outline.
c) 3 - Read systematically and take notes on what you read-

notes help you to keep information at hand for constant
105
reference. You can also be sure of exact facts, dates,

quotations or opinions.
d) 2 - Investigate the subject systematically and thoroughly.
Tick (√) the wrong answer from the alternatives below.
1. The main aims in a discussion lesson in a foreign language

course may be:
a) Efficient fluency practice. _____
b) Learning from context. _____
c) Arguing loudly with colleagues. __√___
2. Some of the main skills involved in a discussion are:
1. Speaking clearly. ____
2. Shouting at colleagues. _√___
3. Listening to others. ____
Activity 2
1. Give one example phrase that shows the following:
a) Listing: Firstly
b) Time order: To begin with
c) Conclusion: In short …
d) Transition: I’d like now to move on to
2. Tick (√) the wrong answer from the alternatives below.
To ‘hook’ your audience when presenting a seminar you have to:
a) Give them some money_√__
b) Give them a problem to think about _____
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c) Give them some amazing facts _____
d) Give them a story or personal anecdote. _____
3. a) Outline/skeleton
b) The use of visual aids
c) Delivery
Unit summary
In this unit you learned to identify what makes a good introduction to a
presentation, to introduce yourself and your talk, to practise giving the
introduction to a presentation. You have improved competence and
Summary
confidence in the areas of presentation skills required for successful
performance and in the areas of participation skills needed in order to
make effective contributions as a member of the seminar audience.
Assessment
Now that you have concluded the second lesson of this course, do the
following assessment exercises. Please, do the exercises first then refer to
the feedback section to check your answers.
Assessment 3
1. Think of any topic of interest to you and prepare for a presentation in

a seminar. Show how you are going to introduce it and yourself in the
presentation and the language you will use.
2. THE USE OF BODY LANGUAGE
Complete the explanations below with the appropriate word or

expression:
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The importance of body language
a. ( )- There is a need to maintain good eye contact

with different people in the audience, instead of just
looking at one person. That enables you to check
comprehension …
b. ( )- Use facial expressions (e.g. smiles) to

emphasize your feelings.
c. ( )- Use your hands to emphasise what you say.

It is safer to keep your hands out of your pockets- in
some cultures this shows disrespect. Hold a pen or
pointer if you feel more comfortable- but do no play with
it.
d. ( )- Do not stand completely still- a little

movement between table + board, or between notes +
audience, is more interesting. Do not move around too
much, or the audience may watch you instead of listening
to you.
e. ( )- Try to keep your posture upright but

relaxed. Look straight ahead, not down at the floor or up
at the ceiling.
Feedback:
Of course there are many topics you can present, so we are only going to
focus on the structure you should follow when introducing yourself and
your talk: Again for each stage you can choose a type of expression to
use:
1. Greeting, name, position
i. Good morning, My name’s (…) I’m the new Finance

Manager.
ii. Ladies and Gentlemen. It’s an honour to have the

opportunity to address such a distinguished audience.
iii. Good morning. Let me start by saying just a few words

about my own background. I started out in …
iv. Welcome to Mcel. I know I’ve met some of you, but just
for the benefit of those I haven’t, my name’s (…)
2. Title/Subject
− I’d like to talk (to you) today about …
− I’m going to…
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− …present the recent…
− …explain our position on…
− …brief you on…
− …inform you about …
− …describe…
The (subject/focus/topic) of my (talk/presentation/paper (academic)

/speech (usually to public audience) is…
3. Purpose/Objective
We are here today to (decide/agree/learn about) …
Or
3.1 The purpose of this talk is to…
update you on …
put you in the picture about…
give you the background to …
Or
3.2 This talk is designed to…
act as a springboard for discussion.
start the ball rolling.
I shall only take (…) minutes of your time.
I plan to be brief.
This should only last (…) minutes.
4. Outline/Main parts
I’ve divided my presentation into four parts/sections.
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They are …
Or
The subject can be looked at under the following

headings …
We can break this area down into the following fields:
Firstly/first of all …
Secondly/then/next …
Thirdly/ and then we come to …
Finally/lastly/last of all …
5. Questions
i. I’d be glad to answer any questions at the end of my

talk.
ii. If you have any questions, please feel free to

interrupt.
iii. Please interrupt me if there is something, which

needs clarifying. Otherwise, there’ll be time for
discussion at the end
6. Reference to the audience
− -I can see many of you are …
− -I know you’ve all travelled a long way.
− -You all look as though you’ve heard this before.
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The importance of body language
2.
a) eye contact,
b) facial expression,
c) hands,
d) movement,
e) posture
Now that you have completed this unit let us turn to the next one with the
following topic
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Unit 4 Reading Skills
Unit 4
Reading Skills
Introduction
Taking into account that you are taking a self-study course in which you
have little contact with the instructor, a great ability to handle written
material by yourself is required. Therefore in this unit you are going to
learn why you have to focus on reading, problems when reading, what
determines fast and slow reading speed, features of different kinds of
reading, and the relationship between reading speed and comprehension.
In addition to many other issues related to reading skills you are also
going to look at the concepts of skimming and scanning so that you
become a proficient reader.
read effectively for gist, specific information, main points and detail
and be able to identify the logic and structure of a text through
identification of discourse markers, references, etc:
Outcomes
scan a text for specific information;
skim a text for general understanding;
assess your reading speed:
explain what reading efficiently is;
select appropriate reading material;
decide the purpose of reading.
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Lesson 1: Reading Efficiency
explain what reading efficiently involves
follow the right steps when deciding what to read
Lesson Outcomes use the appropriate techniques to select reading material
use appropriate ways to handle texts efficiently
How long?
‘Efficient’ means using the least effort to obtain satisfactory results; we

want you to use your time and energy to the best effect. Most of this
section is about helping you to understand texts. But understanding is not
the only criterion for efficient reading; another is the time taken to read.
These two criteria often conflict. Who has read more efficiently- someone
who has understood more, or someone who has read faster? To answer
the question, you need to know the reader’s purpose. This issue of
efficient reading involves three main aspects, which are: 1. Knowing
what you want from reading, 2. Choosing the right material and 3.
Using the text effectively.
1. Knowing what you want from reading
If you are in a hurry to find out how to use a fire extinguisher, speed is at
a premium ; but there is no advantage in reading the instructions quickly
if you still can’t operate the extinguisher at the end. So the demands of
speed and understanding have to be balanced according to the purpose.
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The first requirement for efficient reading is to know what you want.
Then you can judge your success according to how well and how fast you
achieve it.
The criterion of efficiency is of course not always appropriate. If you are

reading for pleasure, there is not much point in defining your purpose
(although it is difficult to enjoy a book if it takes ages to finish it).
However, if you are reading to learn, or for many practical purposes
(finding a train time, checking how to operate a tool and so on), the more
closely you can specify what you want from your reading, the easier you
make your job. This chapter applies chiefly to this kind of purposeful
reading.
So the first thing for you to do is to decide exactly what you want to get
out of your reading. It saves time in the end. We can help by setting clear
purposes for reading by yourself (see next section), and by helping those
of you who are reading for assignments or professional purposes to define
what you need to find out and then decide what and how to read. We will
try to set tasks that reflect the real needs you have.
2. Choosing the right material
Once you have defined your objective, you must next decide what
sources to consult. Here efficiency pays big dividends; it is so easy to
waste time on books or articles that do not help. If you are able to use
skimming and scanning (described below), they can shorten the time
taken to choose material and also make your selection more reliable. You
can do so by :
1) Using external resources
2) Using resources within the text
− Linear and non-linear text
− Title s and Headings
− The blurb
− Biographical information about the author
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− The summary, running titles, table of contents, list of figures
− Preliminary material: foreword, preface, introduction
− Index
− Bibliography
3. Using the text effectively
When you know what you want and have located suitable material, the
next task is to use it efficiently. This does not necessarily mean reading as
fast as possible, nor need it entail understanding every detail. Speed is not
always appropriate: who wants to finish a good novel in ten minutes ?
Similarly, total mastery of the text is pointless if you only need to
understand a single chapter. The important thing is to determine what is
appropriate for your purpose. Next we are going to discuss about the
characteristics a good reader should have : flexibility, adequate
understanding, scanning and skimming (These two last techniques are
going to be discussed next).
Flexibility
One of the principal characteristics of a good reader is flexibility. He

varies his speed, and his whole manner of reading, according to the text
and his purpose in reading it. For students who have read little except in
the lock-step of reading aloud in the classroom, the concept of both speed
and flexibility need careful explanation and plenty of practice.
Adequate understanding
People who read flexibly are skilled at judging what they need to get out
of a text to accomplish their purpose. For example, in an emergency
situation, with an urgent need to put out a fire, one skips the technical
details about the fire extinguisher and goes straight to the section that
tells you how to operate it. But when deciding which extinguisher to buy,
such a person might read the technical details carefully and only skim the
operating instructions.
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Reading flexibly means always keeping in mind how much you need to
read in order to satisfy your purpose. This helps you to decide which
parts of the text to ignore, which to skim to get the gist, and then which
parts (if any) to study closely.
Scanning and skimming
The idea that some parts of a text may be ignored or skipped might be
strange to you, but efficient reading, and specifically the techniques of
scanning and skimming require it.
By scanning we mean glancing rapidly through a text either to search for

a specific piece of information (e.g. a name, a date) or to get an initial
impression of whether the text is suitable for a given purpose (e.g.
whether a book on gardening deals with a particular plant disease).
By skimming we mean glancing rapidly through a text to determine its

general meaning, for example in order to decide whether a research paper
is relevant to our own work (not just to determine its field, which we can
find out by scanning) or to keep ourselves superficially informed about
matters that are not of great importance to us; much newspaper reading is
skimming.
The distinction between the two is not particularly important. In both, the
reader unconsciously forces his eye over print at a rate which permits him
to take in only, perhaps, the beginnings and ends of paragraphs (where
information is often summarised), chapter headings and so on.
Scanning and Skimming are important techniques; they do not remove

the need for careful reading, but they enable you, the reader, to select
texts, or parts of texts, that are worth spending time on. And skimming to
get a ‘top-down’ view is valuable as a way of approaching difficult texts.
You need plenty of practice in these techniques; it is a good idea to

devise races to practise them.
→ Examples of practising scanning exercises
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1. Look at p5 and find out when Shakespeare died.
2. How many times does the word ‘this’ occur on p27?
3. (Using the index) On what page is topic X mentioned?
→ Examples of practising skimming exercises
Skimming requires closer attention to the text than scanning does; it

is difficult to skim if a text has to be shared by more than two people.
1. Task: Which title fits the text best?
2. Which topics are dealt with in this text?
3. Which figure (s) illustrate the text?
After having completed the first lesson of this unit, you are now going to
do some reading to consolidate/ practise what you have just learned.
Please do the reading and the exercises first, then refer to the feedback
Activity 1 section on the last page of this unit to check your answers.
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Reading
Scanning and Skimming
Read the text that comes next and do the tasks that follow. Remember, do
the exercises first and then check your answers on the last section of this
unit
The Whale
Whales are sea-living mammals10. They therefore breathe air but cannot
survive on land. Some species are very large indeed and the blue whale,
which can exceed 30 m in length, is the largest animal to have lived on
earth. Superficially, the whale looks rather like a fish, but there are
important differences in its external structure: its tail consists of a pair of
broad, flat horizontal paddles (the tail of a fish is vertical) and it has a
single nostril on the top of its large, broad head. The skin is smooth and
shiny and beneath it lies a layer of fat (the blubber). This is up to 30 cm
in thickness and serves to conserve heat and body fluids.
There are two main groups of whale – toothed and toothless. The former
includes the dolphin, the porpoise and the killer and sperm whales; the
latter the grey, humpback, right and blue whales. Some toothed species,
like the killer, feed on other large mammals such as the porpoise, while
others – e.g. the sperm whale – eat smaller forms of marine life. The
mouth of the toothless whale is adapted to form a kind of sieve in which
tiny marine animals are caught by a filtering process.
Most whales move about in schools. While swimming they take in air and
dive vertically, sometimes to great depths. Large whales can stay under
water for up to 20 minutes. They then surface and expel air from their
lungs, making the characteristic spout, which is audible from some
distance and can be seen largely because of the concentration of
condensing water vapour in the expelled gases.
10
Def. Mammals are air-breathing, warm-blooded animals which nourish their
young with milk. With one or two exceptions – not including the whale – the
young are born live rather than in egg form.
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Different species of whale are distributed widely throughout the world,
from the North Atlantic to the Antarctic, and they have been hunted by
man for many centuries. The oil has been much prized for use in
cosmetics, the manufacture of margarine, as a lubricant for delicate
mechanisms and the softening of leather. The meat is used for both
human and animal consumption. Indeed, in Japan it has been a staple
protein source for many centuries. Whalebone, in processed form, has
commercial uses but its use as such to strengthen corsets has disappeared
along with corsets, as fashions have changed. There is one other curious
product of the whale, ambergris. This is a wax like secretion of the
intestine, produced to deal with irritants, such as bones, which a toothed
whale may swallow. It is sometimes found floating on the sea or lying on
beaches in greyish or blackish lumps. It is used, in tiny quantities, in the
manufacture of perfume, where it is serves to fix and enhance the various
scents employed.
The commercial value of the whale has led to drastic depletions of whale
stocks and pressures of many kinds are making it very hard to achieve
adequate protection for certain species. In the talk, you will hear
something of the history of whaling and of the present critical situation of
this magnificent animal. (In Text to Note, 1989,26)
A. Content skim
1. What, in general, is the passage about?
2. Read the first sentence of each paragraph and decide on the probable
topic of each.
B. Comprehension scan
Paragraph 1. Line 5. What does ‘its’ refer to?
Paragraph 1. Line 8. What does ‘this’ refer to?
Paragraph 2. Line 1. ‘Two groups’, what are they?
Paragraph 2. Line 4. ‘While others’ what?
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Paragraph 3. Line 4. What does ‘which’ refer to?
Paragraph 3. Line 5. Where does the condensed water concentrate?
Paragraph 4. Line 6. What does ‘it’ refer to?
Paragraph 4. Line 7. What does ‘its’ refer to?
Paragraph 5. Line 2. What is ‘hard to achieve’?
Paragraph 5. Line 3. ‘Species’ of what?
Now that you have completed this lesson, we are now going to move to
the next lesson.
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Lesson 2: Reading habits that should be replaced
identify bad reading habits
explain how bad reading occurs
use appropriate techniques to improve your reading

Lesson Outcomes
How long?
1. Reading habits in the L1
It has been noted that some students do not read efficiently even in their
L1. This hinders efficient reading in the foreign language, for there is a
strong transfer of reading habits from one language to another. Few
readers manage to bring their foreign language speeds up to anything like
their L1 speeds. But if the L1 is not much read, and if bad L1 reading
habits have developed, attention to L1 reading is a useful preliminary,
especially where the writing system is similar to that of the target
language. Improved L1 reading habits can then transfer to foreign
language reading.
2. Faulty reading habits
Several early reading habits are alleged to slow down the reader
when they persist into later stage of reading. One of these
subvocalizing, that is, forming the sounds of the words you are
reading, and even murmuring them aloud. This gives elementary
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L1 readers the support of the spoken language, with which they are
more familiar. Understandably, foreign language readers also value
this support.
Like reading aloud , subvocalization is much slower than silent

reading (the eyes move faster than the tongue), so efficient readers
do not subvocalize. However, we should be cautious in urging
students to break the habit; is it just a pointless defect left over
from early reading days, or is it a symptom of insecure command
of the language, a prop that they still need ?
Similar criticism is made of finger-pointing such as children use to

fix their concentration on the word they are deciphering. Again,
this slows down the reading if the finger points word by word. A
better idea is to use a cardboard guide (as described below), but
fingers can also be made to move swiftly if you realise this can
help you.
Another often criticised habit is the occurrence of regressive eye

movements, that is , the eye moving back to check previous words
instead of sweeping steadily forwards. Naturally, this makes
reading slower. However, in some instances, a skilled reader
continually modifies his interpretation as he reads. To do this, you
may have to return to earlier parts of the text and reinterpret them.
In this case, regression is the sign of an active and responsive
reader and not an incompetent or insecure one.
Caution
All these habits can slow you down, so you need to be aware that
efficient readers seldom use them. But any reader faced with
difficult material makes use of them occasionally. So do not worry
if this is one of your problems, as with improved reading skills and
increased confidence, these habits may eventually disappear
naturally.
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3. Some approaches to improving reading speed
Using a card guide
Obviously, you do not have access to the specialized equipment

that exists to force you to read at a given rate, without regressions,
by exposing text briefly, a bit at a time. However, a similar effect
can be obtained by using a cardboard mask, which you move down
the page as you read. This can be simply a piece of card about the
same width as the page, you hold it just above the first line and
then, as you read, move it down at the desired speed. This focuses
the eyes on the line immediately below it and discourages
regressions. (Many students place the card below the line, but this
interrupts the sweep of the eye from one line to the next, as the
hand moves the mask down the page.)
Using a mask means that you control your own speed. Users of this
method do, in fact, usually move the mask quickly enough to force
up their reading rate, and the control exert ed may itself be
motivating.
Projected texts
Slides, particularly overhead projector (OHP) transparencies, offer

advantages; the projected text holds readers’ attention and
improves concentration. It is impossible for them to use finger
pointing, and you may be able to spot those with problems such as
subvocalizing or using head movements (slower than eye
movements and therefore more inefficient). Use of the dictionary is
also made impossible.
The major advantage is that you have complete control. First,

speed: you can use a mask (on the OHP or, less conveniently, on
the screen), as just described, to expose as much or as little of the
text for as long as you wish. Second, the sequence: for instance,
you can expose questions before, during or after the reading of the
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text. The same text can be briefly exposed for a scanning task and
later projected again for other purposes.
Computers and other machines
Computers can play a valuable part in helping you to read more

quickly. Programs are available which allow you to type in texts
(and questions) of your choice for students to use for speed
practice; so you can ensure that the practice material is suitable.
The text is displayed at a speed selected by you (which may

motivate you). Two modes of controlling speed are possible: the
whole text (or as much as fits on the screen) may be offered, and
then scrolled off the screen at a steady rate.
Alternatively, the text may be presented chunk by chunk, each in

turn flashed onto the screen for a given length of time. Another
variation is to present the text in a narrow column to encourage you
to use just one fixation per line.
The challenge of the moving text is reportedly motivating, and the

reader’s progress is charted without the need for tedious
calculations, since the computer takes care of those. The computer
is a very worthwhile adjunct to a speed-reading programme, if you
can afford it.
A Speed-reading programme
In speed exercises of all kinds, you should be urged to beat your

own records, not to compete with one another. There is no sense
trying to read faster than someone else but there is much sense in
trying to improve your own performance, and almost everyone is
capable of this. You should keep a record of your progress,
especially if you set a regular programme of speed training. You
must be prepared for plateaus, which normally occur now and
again, when no progress is made. In general, speed steadily
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improves, despite occasional falls, because of difficult material or
an off day, and it is this general tendency that counts and gives
satisfaction and continued motivation.
Remember that all the texts used should be of similar difficulty,

otherwise speeds will vary with the text and the results of the
training will not be identifiable.
Improving reading speed
As we have seen, speed is not the only factor to consider when

judging someone’s reading efficiency. But if two readers
understand a text equally well, of course the one who performs
more quickly is judged more efficient. We saw that readers can
speed up their work by finding the relevant texts/sections and
focusing on these; now it is time to consider the speed with which
they process the linear text itself.
Speed and comprehension
Reading crucially involves the mind, however, it is a physical

activity too; it involves vision and the movements of the eyes. Poor
vision makes for slow reading, small and unclear print has the same
effect. In discussing reading speed, we are dealing with the
physical as well as the mental aspects of the skill.
The relationship between reading speed and comprehension is

complex: they are certainly closely linked. A slow reader is likely
to read with poor understanding, if only because his memory is
taxed: the beginning of a paragraph may be forgotten by the time
he has struggled to the end of it. But it is not clear which is cause
and which is effect: do people read quickly because they
understand easily, or do they understand easily because of the
speed at which they read? Each influences the other, a major
consideration in extensive reading. Similarly, there is a strong
relationship between speed and interest or enjoyment, presumably
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because motivation spurs us to get to the end of the story as quickly

as we can. Again, the causal relationship is not clear, but these facts
suggest that students will more easily improve their speed on
material that is readily comprehensible and of interest to them. And
again, this provides justification for an extensive reading
programme.
Eye movement and sense groups
A great deal of work has been done on the improvement of reading

speeds, stemming at least in part from the discovery that good
readers do not read word by word. As we read, our eyes follow the
text, moving from left to right (in English) and then jumping left
again to begin the next line. If you watch a reader’s eyes, you will
see that they do not move continuously along the line but cover the
distance in several jumps, called fixations.
A good reader makes fewer fixations than a poor one; his eye takes
in several words at a time. Moreover, they are not just random
sequences of words: an efficient reader chunks a text into sense
groups, units of meaning each consisting of several words. Each
chunk is taken in by one fixation of the eyes. So a good reader may
chunk:
The good old man/ raised his hand/ in blessing.
Or he might manage with only two fixations for this short sentence.
He would certainly not chunk like :
The good/ old man/ raised his/ hand in / blessing.
Nor would you read word by word.
The words of a text are like jigsaw puzzle pieces. Often you can see
that several pieces fit together, so you can build up various parts –
chunks – of the picture separately. After that you can fit together
whole chunks without paying attention to the small pieces that
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compose them. Clearly, it needs less effort to fit together a few
larger chunks than a lot of small pieces.
In the same way, a good reader takes in the sense of a whole chunk
without pausing to consider the individual words. It is quicker to fit
together the sense of two or three chunks than to do the same with
all the separate words that compose them. So the larger the sense
groups the reader can take in, the more easily he will turn them into
coherent messages.
The student’s problem is often that he does not know the target
language well enough to chunk effectively. Many students read
word by word, especially if the text is difficult, so to encourage
good reading habits, a lot of practice with easy texts is needed.
There is never enough time for this in the classroom, so this is yet
another important purpose for an extensive reading programme.
After having completed the second lesson of this unit, you are now going
to do some reading to consolidate/ practice what you have just learned.
Please do the reading and the exercises first then refer to the feedback
Activity 2 section on the last page of this unit to check your answers.
Reading 1
Faster effective reading
The comprehension passages on this course are designed to help you

increase your reading speed. A higher reading rate, with no loss of
comprehension will help you in other subjects as well as English, and the
general principles apply to any language. Naturally, you will not read
every book at the same speed. You should expect to read a (5)
newspaper, for example, much more rapidly than a physics or economics
textbook – but you can raise your average reading speed over the whole
range of materials you wish to cover , so that the percentage gain will be
the same whatever kind of reading you are concerned with.
127
The reading passages, which follow are all of an average (10)
level of difficulty for your stage of instruction. They are approximately

500 words long. They are about topics of general interest, which do not
require a great deal of specialised knowledge. Thus, they fall between the
kind of reading you might find in your textbooks and the less demanding
kind you will find in a newspaper or light novel. If you read this kind
(15)
of English, with understanding, at, say, 400 words per minute, you might
skim through a newspaper at perhaps 650-700, while with a difficult
textbook you might drop to 200 or 250.
Perhaps you would like to know what reading speeds are common among
native English-speaking university students and how those speeds (20)
can be improved. Tests in Minnesota, U.S.A, for example, have shown

that students without special training can read English of average
difficulty, for example Tolstoy’s War and Peace in translation, at speeds
of between 240 and 250 w.p.m. with about 70% comprehension.
Minnesota claims that after 12 half-hour lessons, one a week, the (25)
reading speed can be increased, with no loss of comprehension, to around
500 w.p.m. It is further claimed that with intensive training over
seventeen weeks, speed of over 1000 w.p.m. can be reached, but this
would be quite exceptional.
If you get to the point where you can read books of average difficulty at
between 400 and 500 w.p.m with 70% or more comprehension, you (30)
will be doing quite well, though of course any further improvements of
speed-with-comprehension will be a good thing.
In this and the following three passages we shall be looking at some of

the obstacles to faster reading and what we can do to overcome them.
Think of the passage as a whole
When you practise reading with passages shorter than book length, (35)
like the passages in this course, do not try to take in each word separately,
one after the other. It is much more difficult to grasp the broad theme of
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the passage this way, and you will also get stuck on individual words
which may not be absolutely essential to a general understanding of the
passage. It is a good idea to skim through the passage very quickly (40)
first (say 500 words in a minute or so) to get the general idea of each
paragraph. Titles, paragraph headings and emphasized words (underlined
or in italics) can be a great help in getting this skeleton outline of the
passage. It is surprising how many people do not read titles, introductions
or paragraph headings. Can you, without looking back, remember the (45)
title of this passage and the heading of this paragraph?
Ideas
Select the answer which is most accurate according to the information

given in the passage.
1. A higher reading rate will help in other subjects as well as

English
a) provided there is no loss of understanding.
b) only if we memorize well.
c) but not in any other language.
d) hough not as a general principle.
2. You would expect to read a difficult economics textbook
a) as fast as you read a newspaper.
b) more slowly than you read a newspaper.
c) more quickly than you read these passages.
d) only very rarely.
3. You can expect to read the passages on this course
a) more quickly than you read your textbooks.
b) more quickly than you read a newspaper.
129
c) more slowly than you read your textbooks.
d) faster than any other kind of material.
4. The average untrained native speaker at the University of

Minnesota.
a) reads at 600 w.p.m.
b) reads at about 300 w.p.m.
c) cannot read difficult works in translation.
d) reads at about 245 w.p.m
5. The University of Minnesota claims that in 12 half-hour lessons
a) it can triple a student’s reading speed.
b) it can double a student’s reading speed.
c) it can increase a student’s reading speed four times.
d) no real increase in reading speed can be achieved.
6. Intensive training over seventeen weeks can
a) triple an untrained student’s reading speed.
b) increase an untrained student’s reading speed four times.
c) double an untrained student’s reading speed.
d) triple the student’s comprehension scores.
7. You will be doing quite well if you can read books of average
difficulty
a) at about 450 w.p.m. with 70% comprehension.
b) at about 600 w.p.m. with 60% comprehension.
c) at about 300 w.p.m. with 70% comprehension.
130
d) at about 250% w.p.m. with 50% comprehension.
8. Reading a word one at a time is bad because
a) it hurts your eyes.
b) all words are equally important.
c) it is more difficult to get the general idea of a passage.
d) some words are longer than others.
9. It is a good idea to skim through a passage quickly first
a) at about 350 w.p.m.
b) to get the general idea of each paragraph.
c) so that you can take in each word separately.
d) to make sure you get to the end at least once.
10. Titles and paragraph headings
a) are more important than anything else.
b) are surprising to many people.
c) can easily be remembered without looking back.
d) can help us get the outline of a passage.
As you have completed this lesson, in which you learned to identify

reading habits in L1 that influence negatively the reading in English or
any other target language, and also looked at ways of improving reading
speed and at some approaches that can help you achieve that, we are now
going to move on to the feedback section for the first of the activities you
have done and then to the next lesson.
131
Feedback
Reading 1
Faster effective reading
Ideas: 1 a), 2 b), 3 a), 4 d), 5 b), 6 b), 7 a), 8 c), 9 b), 10 d).
Reading 2
Scanning and Skimming
A. Content skim
1. What, in general, is the passage about?
− A variety of answers are possible. Our suggestion is: The text is

about the advantages and disadvantages of whale hunting.
2. Read the first sentence of each paragraph and decide on the probable
topic of each.
− Other alternatives are possible. Our suggestions are:
Paragraph 1. Topic: The characteristics of whales
Paragraph 2. Topic: The species of whales
Paragraph 3. Topic: The behaviour of whales
Paragraph 4. Topic: The distribution of whales
Paragraph 5. Topic: The consequence of whale trading
B. Comprehension scan
Paragraph 1. Line5: The whale’s
Paragraph 1. Line 8. The Skin
Paragraph 2. Line 1: Toothed/Toothless
Paragraph 2. Line 4: The toothless
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Paragraph 3. Line 4: The spout
Paragraph 3. Line 5: In the expelled gases
Paragraph 4. Line 6: The meat
Paragraph 4. Line 7: The whalebone
Paragraph 5. Line 2: protection for certain species
Paragraph 5. Line 3: of whale
Unit summary
In this unit you learned what reading effectively for gist, specific
information, main points and detail involves and in addition to that you
also learned issues related to:
Summary
scanning a text for specific information.
skimming a text for general understanding.
assessing your reading speed.
explaining what reading effectively is.
selecting appropriate reading material.
deciding the purpose of reading.
explaining what reading efficiently involves
• following the right steps when deciding what to read
• using the appropriate techniques to select reading material
133
using appropriate ways to handle the text efficiently
identifying bad reading habits
explaining how bad reading occurs
using appropriate techniques to improve your reading
As you have now concluded the fourth unit of this course, do the
following Assessment Exercises. Please, do the exercises first then refer
to the feedback section to check your answers.
Assessment 4
Time allowed: 120 minutes
Reading
Obstacles to faster effective reading
Perhaps you have ery young children – or very old people – learning to
read. They move the index finger along the line of print, pointing to each
word, sometimes even to individual letters, saying the word or letters to
themselves in a low voice. This is called ‘vocalizing’.Sometimes the
leaner is still activating this throat muscles slightly to ‘say’ the words to
himself. He is still vocalizing.
However slight the extent of vocalizing may be it will still be impossible

for such a reader to reach a speed of more than about 280 w.p.m. The
appreciation of written words must be entirely visual and must read more
then one word at a time.
Look at ‘you’, the second word of this passage. Even if you look straight
at the ‘o’ of that word, without moving your eyes at all you can clearly
see ‘perhaps’ and ‘have’ on either side. So you can read three words at
once. Now look at the word ‘word’ on line 4. With a very slight
movement of the eyes, you can take in the whole phrase ‘… saying the
word or letters…’in the same glance. In the same way, you can probably
134
take in a complete short sentence on one line, like the one on line 8, at
one glance. None of the lines of print on page ths size should need more
then three eye movements. Take line 6. This would perhaps break up into
three word groups: (1) … times there is not even … (2) … any
perceptible movement … (3) … of the mouth at all, but … when you are
reading well, your eyes will be one or two word groups ahead of the one
your mind is taking in.
Practise on something easy and interesting
Many students trying to increase their effective reading speed become

discouraged when they find that if they try to race through a passage
faster, they fail to take in what they have read. At the end, they have been
so busy ‘reading faster’ that they cannot remember what the passage was
about. The problem here is that the material they are practising on is
either too difficult for them in vocabulary or content, or not sufficiently
interesting. We hope that the passages in this course material will be both
interesting and fairly easy, but you should also practise as much as you
can in your own time. Read things you like reading. Go to the subject
catalogue in the library. Biography, sport, domestic science, the cinema
… there is bound to be some area that interests you and in which you can
find books of about your level of ability or just below.
If you want a quick check on how easy a book is, read through three or
four pages at random. If there are, on average, more than five or six
words on each page that are completely new to you, then the book
(though you may persevere with it for interest’s sake) is not suitable for
reading-speed improvement. Incidentally, you should try to read three or
four times as fast ‘light’ speed-reading material (whether it is Newsweek,
The Saint or A Tale of Two Cities) as you do close, slow textbook work.
You cannot achieve a permanent improvement in your reading speed if
most of the time you are practising reading slowly.
135
Ideas
Say whether the following statements are true or false according to the
information given in the passage.
1. Very old people and very young children learn to read in much the
same way.
2. Vocalizing will prevent readers from reading at speeds of over 100

w.p.m.
3. It is sometimes possible to see three words at once without moving

the eyes.
4. To read well your eyes should be one or two word groups ahead of
mind.
5. Some students get discouraged when they first start reading faster.
6. It is more important to read fast than to understand what is read.
7. Reading practice material should be interesting and not too hard.
8. It is impossible to check quickly how difficult a book is.
9. You should never read a book that has five or six new words per
page.
10. Newsweek, The Saint and A Tale of Two Cities are unsuitable for
students.
Vocabulary
Find the following words in the passage and select the meaning you think
is most likely to correspond among the choices given.
136
1 index finger (line 2) 3 activating (line 7)
a) little finger a) restraining
b) thumb b) feeling
c) ring finger c) operating
d) first finger d) acting
2 perceptible (line 6) 4 appreciation (line 11)
a) observable a) approval
b) loud b) satisfaction
c) excessive c) perception
d) piercing d) increase
5 glance (line 18) 8 content (line 31)
a) look a) satisfaction
b) line b) ideas
c) breath c) amount
d) stance d) pleasure
6 discouraged (line 27) 9 area (line)
a) interested a) space
b) disabled b) extent
c) dissatisfied c) subject
d) courageous d) width
137
10 persevere with (line 41)
7 race (line 27) a) try hard with
a) hurry b) dispense with
b) compete c) dispose of
c) concentrate d) despair of
d) read carefully
Missing word summary
Fill in the numbered blanks from the selection of words given below. The
correct choices will complete the sense of this summary of the reading
passage.
You only read slowly if you (1) or look at individual words or letters. To
improve reading speeds, your eye must (2) groups of words swiftly (3)
your mind is absorbing the ideas. One (4) of practising faster reading is
that you may not remember the ideas. This (5) be because the English is
too (6) for this type of practice. Choose a book with, on average (7) than
six new words per page.
1. a)glance 3. a) unless 5. a) is 7. a) Fewer
b) vocalize b) while b) has b) more
c)pronunciation c) after c) may c) at least
2. a) take in 4. a) advantage 6. a) easy
b) take over b) method b) difficult
c) take on c) danger c) unlikely
138
Feedback
Reading
Obstacles to faster effective reading
Ideas: 1t, 2f, 3t, 4t, 5t, 6f, 7t, 8f, 9f, 10f
Vocabulary: 1d, 2a, 3c, 4c, 5a, 6c, 7a, 8b, 9c, 10a
Missing word summary: 1b, 2a, 3b, 4c, 5c, 6b, 7a
Now that you have completed the four units in this course let us move on
to the last- but not the least!- with the following topic:
139
Unit 5 Listening Skills
Unit 5
Listening Skills
Introduction
The aim of this unit is firstly to enable you to follow the English language
teaching course, which is obviously in the medium of English. This
means being able to follow a lecture on a non-specialised topic, delivered
in a neutral style by speakers from different backgrounds, and also to
write adequate notes on such a lecture.
The second aim is to provide useful information and to stimulate interest

in the language learning and study skills appropriate for you. This is a
more practical unit and in addition to the material we are going to
present, you will benefit from some cassettes to help you with your
lessons. You can get them from a recommended library or resources
centre.
identify common problems for students in a unfamiliar environment;
explain the type of problems;
categorise the problems;

Outcomes
explain techniques to use to make notes from a lecture.
140
Lesson 1: Some of the problems facing learners of english
identify common problems faced by learners of English
explain the types of problems.
Lesson Outcomes devise approaches to overcome such problems
How long?
All these points will be achieved by doing a listening task.
Note: This is a task based unit i.e. you will actually have to do the tasks
in order to get through the subject matter.
Either the tape of Stage 1 can be played, and a pause button used to give
time to write on paper, or you find someone who can read the text as a
dictation.
Stage 1 Dictation
(The text is in the feedback section on the last page of this lesson)
141
Stage 2
Exercise 1: Listening Comprehension
Read the following sentences and as you listen to the Stage 2 talk decide
whether they are true or false according to the passage. Write T (true) or
Activity
F (false) in the brackets ( ) after each sentence.
1. There are three types of problem: sociological, cultural and

Linguistic.( )
2. The linguistic problems are discussed in most detail. ( )
3. In order to understand English people better, perhaps the most

important thing for a student to do is to listen to the radio and TV. (
)
4. The advise given on how to improve spoken English will seem

difficult to follow. ( )
5. A student should try to think in English and translate from his mother
tongue. ( )
Exercise 2: Listening and Blank-filling
Complete the following by writing one or more words as you listen to the
Talk.
SOME OF THE PROBLEMS FACING LEARNERS OF ENGLISH
Today (1)____ like to talk about some of the problems that students face
when they follow a course of study through the medium of English – if
English is not their mother (2)________ .
The problems (3)___________ divided into three broad categories:
psychological, cultural and linguistic. The first two categories mainly
142
affect those who come to study in Britain. (4)_____________ comment
only briefly on these two categories and then spend most of the time
looking at linguistic difficulties which apply to everyone. Some (5) ___
common psychological problems really involve fear of the unknown: for

example, whether one’s academic (6)_________ will be too difficult.
Looking at the cultural problems, we can see that some of them
(7)________a very practical nature (8)____________arranging
satisfactory accommodation. Others are less easy to define.
The largest category seems to be linguistic. (9)__________ look at this in

some detail. Most students, in their own countries, (10)________ little
opportunity to practise using English. When foreign learners first have
the opportunity to speak to an English-speaking person they may have a
shock: they often have great difficulty in understanding! I’ll just mention
three of the possible reasons (11)_____________.
First, it seems to students that English people speak very quickly. Second,
they speak with a variety (12)___________. Third, different styles of
speech are used. For all of these reasons students will have difficulty,
mainly because they lack everyday (13)_______________ in listening to
English people speaking English.
What can a student do then to overcome these difficulties? Obviously,

attend English classes and if a (14)_____________ laboratory is
available, use it as much as possible. He should also (15) ____________
to programmes in English on the radio and TV. Perhaps most important
of all, he should take every opportunity to meet and speak with native
English-speaking people.
In addition, the student probably has difficulty in speaking English

(16)__________.
The advice here will seem difficult to follow but (17)_________

necessary. Firstly, he must simplify what he wants to say so
(18)___________ express himself reasonably clearly. Secondly,
(19)___________ try to think in English, not translate from his mother
143
tongue. This’ll only begin to take place when his use of English becomes
automatic; using a language laboratory and listening (20)___________
English as much as possible will help.
Stage 3 / Text (NB. To be used for recording/reading out in case you

do not have the cassette)
Today I’d like to talk about some of the problems that students face when
they follow a course of study through the medium of English – if English
is not their mother tongue. The purpose is to show that we’re aware of
students’ problems, and that by analysing them perhaps it’ll be possible
to suggest how some of them may be overcome.
The problems can be divided into three broad categories: psychological,

cultural and linguistic. The first two categories mainly concern those who
come to study in Britain. I’ll comment only briefly on these first two and
then spend most of the time looking at linguistic difficulties which apply
to everyone, wherever they are learning English. Some of the common
psychological problems really involve fear of the unknown: for example,
whether one’s academic studies will be too difficult, whether one will fail
the examinations, etc. All students share these apprehensions. It’s
probably best for a student not to look far ahead but to concentrate day-
by-day on increasing his knowledge and developing his ability. The
overseas student in Britain may also suffer from separation from his
family and possible homesickness; enjoyment of his activities in Britain
and the passage of time are the only real help here.
Looking now at the cultural problems, we can see that some of them are
of a very practical nature e.g. arranging satisfactory accommodation;
getting used to British money (or the lack of it!), British food and weather
(neither is always bad!). Some of the cultural difficulties are less easy to
define: they are bound up with the whole range of alien customs, habits
and traditions- in other words, the British way of life. Such difficulties
include: settling into a strange environment and a new academic routine;
learning a new set of social habits and ranging from the times of meals to
the meanings of gestures; expressing appropriate greetings; understanding
144
a different kind of humour; and learning how to make friends. Being open
minded and adaptable is the best approach to some of the difficulties
listed here.
The largest category is probably linguistic. Let’s look at this in some

detail.
Most students will have learnt English at school, but if they’ve already
been to college or university in their own countries they’ll have studied
mostly in their own language except, perhaps, for reading some textbooks
and journals in English. In other words, they’ll have had little everyday
opportunity to practise using English.
When foreign learners first have the opportunity to speak to an English-

speaking person they may have a shock: they often have great difficulty
in understanding! There are a number of reasons for this. I’ll just mention
three of them.
Firstly, it seems to students that English people speak very quickly.

Secondly, they speak with a variety of accents. Thirdly, different styles of
speech are used in different situations, e.g. everyday spoken English,
which is colloquial and idiomatic, is different from the English used for
academic purposes. For all of these reasons students will have difficulty,
mainly because they lack practice in listening to English people speaking
English. Don’t forget, by the way, that if students have difficulty in
understanding English-speaking people, these people may also have
difficulty in understanding the students!
What can a student do then, to overcome these difficulties? Well,

obviously, he can benefit from attending English classes and if a
language laboratory is available use it as much as possible. He should
also listen to programmes in English on the radio and TV. Perhaps most
important of all, he should take every available opportunity to meet and
speak with native English speaking people. He should be aware, however,
that English people are, by temperament, often reserved and may be
unwilling to start a conversation. Nevertheless, if he has the courage to
take the initiative, however difficult it may seem to be, most English
people will respond. He will need patience and perseverance!
145
In addition to these problems regarding listening and understanding, the

student probably has difficulty in speaking English fluently. He has the
ideas, he knows what to say (in his own language) but he doesn’t know
how to say it in English. The advice here will seem difficult to follow but
it’s necessary. Firstly, he must simplify his language so that he can
express himself reasonably clearly; for example, short sentences will be
better than long ones. Secondly, he must try to think in English, not
translate from the mother tongue. This’ll only begin to take place when
his use of English becomes automatic. Using a language laboratory and
listening to as much English as possible will help. In general, he should
practise speaking as much as possible. He should also notice the kind of
English, and its structure, that educated people use, and to imitate it.
Other difficulties that the student may have, e.g. note-making, writing,
reading, etc, will be dealt with in other talks.
Now that you have completed this listening task lesson, in which you
learned about common problems encountered by learners studying in the
medium of English, you are enabled to explain how they occur and
discuss what approaches can be devised to overcome such problems, we
are now going to move to the next lesson.
Feedback
Stage 1 Dictation
The problems which face learners of English can be divided into three
categories: psychological, cultural and linguistic. The largest category
seems to be linguistic. As regards linguistic factors, students often have
great difficulty in understanding spoken English. Possible reasons are:
Firstly, it seems that English people speak very quickly.
Secondly, they speak with a variety of accents.
Thirdly, different styles of speech are used.
146
Stage 2
Answer Key
1 F, 2F, 3F, 4T, 5F
(1)I’d (2) tongue (3) can/may be (4) I’ll (5) of the [most](6) studies (7)
are of (8) e.g. (9) Let’s (10) will have had (11) for this (12) of accents
(13) practice (14) language (15) listen (16) fluently (17) it’s (18) that
can/as to (19) he must (20) to [as much]
Note: Vocabulary
Practise (verb) / Practice (noun): same pronunciation, different spelling
147
148
Lesson 1: Listenig to lectures and note making
explain the techniques, procedures and skills involved in the process

of note taking
decide on what to note by identifying hints or signs given by

Lesson Outcomes
lecturers,
All these points will be achieved by doing a listening task in this subject
matter.
How long?
Attention: This is a task based unit i.e. you will actually have to do the
tasks so that you can get through the subject matter.
Either the tape of Stage 1 can be played, and a pause button used to give
time to write on paper, or you find someone who can read the text as a
dictation.
Stage 1 Dictation
(The Text is in the feedback section on the last page of this unit)
Stage 2
149
Read the following sentences and as you listen to the Stage 2 talk decide
whether they are true or false according to the passage. Write T (true) or
Activity
F (false) in the brackets ( ) after each sentence.
1. A student normally has only one chance to understand the lecturer.( )
2. You can be sure that a lecture will always indicate if an important

point is to follow. ( )
3. A student needs to make a note of every point that the lecturer makes.
( )
4. A student should write his notes when the lecturer is giving important
information. ( )
5. Spacing and underlining help to show the structure of the lecture. ( )
Complete the following by writing one or more words in each space as

you listen to the talk.
LECTURES AND NOTE-TAKING
When a student takes notes in a lecture he (1)___________ do four

things.
Firstly, he has to understand (2)____________, as the speaker says it. He

(3)___________ stop the lecture in order to look up a new word or check
an unfamiliar sentence (4)______________.
The second thing the student has to do is to decide what’s important in

the lecture. Often the lecturer signals (5)____________. He may do this
150
directly or indirectly. If he (6)____________ ‘This next point is
important’ the student will have little difficulty. The lecturer may,
however, use a more colloquial style. A sentence (7)____________ ‘This
is the crunch’, meaning (8)_____________ the really important point,
will often cause difficulty. Many lecturers pause, and speak more slowly
and loudly, when (9)__________ making an important point. If the
student can’t recognize these (10)___________ signals,
(11)____________ find it difficult to decide what’s important.
The third task (12)_____________ the student is that he has to write

down the important points. There are two problems here in addition to
(13)_____________ what’s important. The first one is speed. The second
one is clarity. The student (14)____________ abbreviate, should write
down the important information words (usually nouns, sometimes verbs
or adjectives) and should write one point on each line. He
(15)_______________, if possible, (16)___________ a moment to write
when the lecturer (17)______________ giving vital information.
Finally, the student’s notes must show the connections between the
various points (18)____________ noted. If he makes intelligent use of
spacing and underlining, together with the employment of conventional
(19)_____________ and the numbering of points, (20)____________ to
understand the frame of the lecture more easily.
Stage 3 / Text (NB. To be used for tasks in case you do not have the
cassette)
Note-taking is a complex activity which requires a high level of ability in

many separate skills. To-day I’m going to analyse the four most
important of these skills.
Firstly, the student has to understand what the lecturer says as he says it.
The student cannot stop the lecture in order to look up a new word or
check an unfamiliar sentence pattern. This puts the non-native speaker of
English under a particularly severe strain. Often - as we’ve already seen
in a previous lecture - he may not be able to recognize words in a lecture
which are completely new to him. While he should of course try to
151
develop the ability to infer their meaning from the context., he won’t
always be able to do this successfully. He must not allow failure of this
kind to discourage him however. It’s often possible to understand much
of a lecture by concentrating solely on those points, which are most
important. But how does the student decide what’s important? This is in
itself another skill he must try to develop.
It is, in fact, the second of the four skills I want to talk about today.
Probably the most important piece of information in a lecture is the title

itself. If this is printed (or referred to) beforehand the student should
study it carefully and make sure that he writes it down accurately and
completely. A title often implies many of the major points that will be
later covered in the lecture itself. It should help the student therefore to
decide what the main point of the lecture will be.
A good lecturer, of course, often signals what’s important or unimportant.

He may give direct signals or indirect signals. Many lecturers, for
example, explicitly tell their audience that a point is important and that
the student should write it down.. Unfortunately, the lecturer who’s trying
to establish a friendly relationship with his audience is likely on these
occasions to employ a colloquial style. He might say such things as ‘This
is, of course the crunch’ or ‘perhaps you’d like to get it down’. Although
this will help the student who’s a native speaker, it may very well cause
difficulty for the non-native English speaker. He’ll therefore have to
make a big effort to get used to the various styles of his lecturers.
It’s worth remembering that most lecturers also give indirect signals to
indicate what’s important. They either pause or speak slowly or speak
loudly or use a greater range of intonation, or they employ a combination
of these devices, when they are saying something important. Conversely,
their sentences are delivered quickly, softly, within a narrow range of
intonation and with short or infrequent pauses when they are saying
something which is incidental. It is, of course, helpful for the student to
be aware of this and for him to focus his attention accordingly.
Having sorted out the main points, however, the student still has to write
them down. And he has to do this quickly and clearly. This is, in fact, the
152
third basic skill he must learn to develop. In order to write at speed most
students find it helps to abbreviate. They also try to select only those
words which give maximum information. These are usually nouns, but
sometimes verbs or adjectives. Writing only one point on each line also
helps the student to understand his notes when he comes to read them
later. An important difficulty is, of course, finding time to write the notes.
If the student chooses the wrong moment to write he may miss a point of
greater importance. Connecting words or connectives may guide him to a
correct choice here. Those connectives which indicate that the argument
is proceeding in the same direction also tell the listener that it’s a safe
time to write. ‘Moreover’, ‘furthermore’, ‘also’, etc, are examples of this.
Connectives such as ‘however’, ‘on the other hand’ or ‘nevertheless’
usually mean that new and perhaps unexpected information is going to
follow. Therefore, it may, on these occasions, be more appropriate to
listen.
The fourth skill that the student must develop is one that is frequently
neglected. He must learn to show the connections between the various
points he’s noted. This can often be done more effectively by a visual
presentation than by a lengthy statement in words. Thus the use of
spacing, of underlining, and of conventional symbols plays an important
part in efficient note-taking. Points should be numbered, too, wherever
possible. In this way the student can see at a glance the framework of the
lecture.
Congratulations! You have finally completed your last lesson in

this module, basically a listening task based lesson in which you learned
skills, procedures and techniques to take effective notes in lectures by
deciding which notes to take from hints or signals given by lecturers. We
are now going to move on to the feedback section. Later, as a way to
assess your performance throughout the course, you are going to write a
set of three (3) examinations. Good luck!
Feedback
Stage 1 Dictation
153
When a student takes notes in a lecture, he has to do four things:
Firstly, he has to understand what’s said, as the speaker says it.
Secondly, he has to decide which points are most important.
Thirdly, he has to write these points down.
Fourthly, he has to show how these points are connected.
Stage 2
Answer Key
1 T, 2F, 3F, 4F, 5T
(1) has to (2) what’s said (3) can’t (4) pattern (5) this (6) says (7) such as
(8) this is (9) they’re (10) indirect (11) he’ll (12) that faces (13) deciding
(14) should (15) ought (16) to choose (17) isn’t (18) he’s (19)signs (20)
he’ll be able.
154
155

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MODULE

Study Skills Module 1

Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso, nº 135

Fax: +258 21-322113

Author: Carlos Baptista Victorino

Instructional Designing: Andrea Folgado Serra

Language Review: James Johnson

Graphic Designing: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Edition: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Getting around this MODULE 8

Lesson 1: Take parte in discussions ...................................................................... 84

How this MODULE is structured

 If the course is suitable for you.

 What you will already need to know.

 What you can expect from the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Where to get help.

 Course assignments and assessments.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

 An introduction to the unit content.

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

 Course content and structure.

 Course reading materials and resources.

 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

Welcome to Study Skills Module 1

Study Skills Module 1—is this

dictionary and a good grammar book to refer to when existing knowledge

You should be an upper- intermediate (the level of the Cambridge First

 operate in the English Language in all four skills- listening,

 use all the necessary skills to meet the requirements of an academic

 communicate effectively in a variety of oral situations, including

You should take at least two hours on self-study.

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

Faculty of Languages: English Department

Rua: Comandante Augusto Cardoso no. 135 Maputo

Telephone: 21 420860-2 or 21 306720

Monday to Friday: 8:00 to 12:00

In each province there is a resource centre available and a local Provincial

For any assistance related to academic issues the Provincial English

We recommend that you go through all exercises indicated without

Getting around this MODULE

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 use and explain library layout and organisation;

 find out what a book is about;

 find information in books;

 keep book records;

Reference : Each book on a list.

Catalogue: A list of books.

microfilm: A length of film on which pages of a book have

microfiche: A piece of microfilm, about the size of an index

If the course is suitable for you.

What you will already need to know.

What you can expect from the course.

Where to get help.

Course assignments and assessments.

An introduction to the unit content.

Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Course content and structure.

Course reading materials and resources.

Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

operate in the English Language in all four skills- listening,

use all the necessary skills to meet the requirements of an academic

communicate effectively in a variety of oral situations, including

use and explain library layout and organisation;

find out what a book is about;

find information in books;

keep book records;

search for written materials in libraries or any resource centre.

use a reading list.

use the title catalogue.

use the subject catalogue.

recognise a periodical reference.

find a periodical in the catalogue.

find a current periodical.

find a back copy of a periodical.

1. _2. 3. 4. 5. __

1. ____ 2. _ 3. __ 4. _ 5. ____

ask for and use library or resource centre services.

use library or resource centre facilities.

develop your own reference scheme.