RDBMS FUNDAMENTALS

I. INTRODUCING DATABASES :
Concept of a Database :

Traditional Approach : In this approach, independent application programs access their own independent
data files. This results in many problems in data storage and retrieval.

Database Approach : In this approach, all application access a common database, which is a centralized
data storage system.

This approach has the following advantages :

Redundancy of data storage is reduced, Inconsistency in data is eliminated & Data sharing between
applications is possible. Interacting with a Database :

Database Management System (DBMS) : DBMS is a software that interfaces between applications and a
database for all data processing activities.

Users of a DBMS : End Users, Application Programmers and Database Administrators use a DBMS, either
directly or indirectly. How users interact with a Database :
1. End users send queries to the DBMS through applications.
2. The DBMS translates the queries.
3. The DBMS retrieves data from the database.
4. The DBMS sends data to the application, which present the data to the end users.

Functions of a DBMS :
Function of DBMS Description Provided by using
Defining the data structure Defining structure of data to be stored in database Data Definition Language
(DDL)
Manipulating Data Retrieving, adding, modifying, deleting data. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Data Security Preventing unauthorized access to data. User-ids and Passwords.
Control of Data Access Allowing users to use only relevant data Data Control Language (DCL)

Architecture of a Database :
Need for an Architecture : The details about complexity and structure of data in a database in not required
by end-users. Therefore, differentiating what the end-users see and what is actually there in a database is
important. Architecture of a Database : The architecture of a database comprises a set of three levels at
which a database can be viewed.
External Level or View, Conceptual Level or View & Internal Level or View.

II. USING RELATIONAL DATABASE :

Basics of Relational Database :

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) : RDBMS is the most popular form of DBMS used in
the world. It uses a relational database to organize data. A relational database comprise relations, which are
represented as tables.

Relation : A relation stores information about an object in the real world. A relation is represented as a table.

Attribute : Each attribute of a relation stores a piece of information about an object. Attributes are
represented as columns in a tables and can be arranged in any order. Each attribute in a relation is unique
and contain atomic values i.e. Atomic value contain a single value of data and Non-Atomic values contain a
set of values. The number of attributes in a relation is called the degree of the relation.

Tuple : A row in a table is called a tuple of the relation. The number of tuples in a relation is known as the
cardinality of the relation. Tuples in a table are unique and can be arranged in any order.

Domain : A domain is a set of valid atomic values that an attribute can take. Within a single database, an
attribute cannot have different domains associated with it. A domain can include a null value, if the value for
the domain is unknown or does not exist.

Identifiers for Relations :

Primary Key : An attribute that uniquely identifies a row in a table is called its primary key. A relation can
have only one primary key. The primary key cannot have any null values. In case no unique key is found in a
relation, two or more attributes can be treated as the primary key. Such keys are called Composite Keys.
Candidate Key : A relation can have more than one attribute that uniquely identifies a tuple. Any one of these
keys can be selected as the primary key. All such attributes are called Candidate Keys. All candidate keys
that are not primary keys are called Alternate Keys.
Foreign Key : An attribute that is not a candidate key is called a Nonkey. A nonkey attribute of a relation
whose value matches the primary key in some other table is called Foreign Key OR is a column in a table
that uniquely identifies rows from a different table.

III. INTERPRETING DATA :

Entities and Relationships :

Entity : An entity is an object that exists in the real world and is distinguishable from other objects. Each
entity is represented as a table in a relational database.

Types of Entities : Entities can be classified in two ways - based on existence and based on subsets. Based
on existence, entities can be classified as Dominant and Weak entities. Based on subsets, entities can be
classifies as Supertypes and Subtypes.

Relationships : A relationship is an association between two entities.

Types of Relationships : Relationships are classified into three types based on the occurrence of the related
entities. One-to-One(1-1), One-to-Many(1-M) & Many-to-Many(M-M).

Using E/R Diagram : A E/R diagram represent entities and relationships in a database system.

Reducing E/R Diagrams to Relations :

Mapping Entities : A dominant entity is mapped to a new relation. A weak entity is mapped to a new relation.
The primary key of the corresponding dominant entity is included as the foreign key in the weak entity
relation. Supertypes and subtypes are mapped to separate relations. The primary key of the supertype
becomes the primary key of the subtype.
Mapping Relationships : A 1-1 relationship is mapped using a foreign key. The primary key of either of the
entities is include as a foreign key in the relation of the other entity. This relationship is rare, because data
elements related in this way are normally placed in the same table.
A 1-M or M-1 is mapped by introducing a foreign key. A primary key is the ??one?? side of the relationship,
and the foreign key is the ??many?? side of the relationship. This relationship are most common.
A M-M involves the creation of a new relation. M-M are problematic and cannot be adequately expressed
directly in a relational db. It is expressed using intersection tables. An intersection table contains two (or
more) foreign keys, relating the primary key values of two (or more) tables to each other. The role of an
intersection table is to convert the M-M into two 1-M relationships that can be easily handled by the
database.

IV. SIMPLIFYING DATA :

Need for Simplifying Data :

Normalization : Normalization is a formal process of developing data structures in a manner that eliminates
redundancy and promotes integrity. You need to simplify structure of data in relations for easy storage and
retrieval. The process of simplifying relations is called normalization. The new relations that are obtained
after normalization are called normalized relations.

Normalization has three well defined steps :

The relations that you get at the end of the first step are said to be in 1NF.
The relations that you get at the end of the second step are said to be in 2NF.
The relations that you get at the end of the third step are said to be in 3NF.
Simplifying Data to 1NF (Eliminate Repeating Groups) : A repeating group is a set of columns that store
similar info that repeats in the same table. To simplify data to 1NF, you ensure that all attributes values in a
relation have atomic values. If there are attributes in a relation with non-atomic values, move these attributes
to a new relation and choose an appropriate primary key for it. E.g. SupItem Table Item field having atomic.

Simplifying Data to 2NF (Eliminate Redundant Data) :

Redundant data is data that is expressed multiple times unnecessarily, or depends only on part of a multi-
valued key. Functionally Dependent Attributes : Functionally Dependent Attributes are those that belong to a
single entity or relationship and depend on its unique identifier. To simplify data to 2NF, you ensure that all
nonkey attributes in a relation are functionally dependent on the whole key and not part of the key.

Conversion from 1NF to 2NF : To convert a relation in 1NF to 2NF, move all nonkey attributes that are not
wholly dependent on the primary key, to a new relation. Then, choose an appropriate primary key for the
new relation. E.g. Separating Sup. table and Item table.

Simplifying Data to 3NF (Eliminate Columns not Dependent on the Key) :

Columns in each table should be a group of columns in which the data in each column contributes to the
description of each row in the table.

Transitively Dependent Attributes : Transitively Dependent Attributes in a relation are those that are
dependent on a nonkey attribute and not the primary key. To simplify data to 3NF, you ensure that there are
no attributes in a relation that are transitively dependent on other attributes.

Conversion from 2NF to 3NF : To convert a relation in 2NF to 3NF, move all transitively dependent attributes
to a new relation. Then, choose an appropriate primary key for the new relation. E.g. Status is dependent on
City in Sup. table, so move those two to separate table.
Simplifying Data to 4NF (Isolate Independent Multiple Relationships) :

V. STORING & RETRIEVING DATA :

Language Support for an RDBMS :

SQL :SQL is the language that provides command to interact with the data in the database. SQL consists of
three components - DDL, DML & DCL.
DDL : DDL comprises commands you can use to create and modify the database structure.
DML : DML comprises commands you can use to add, modify, delete and query data in the database.
DCL : DCL comprises commands you can use to control the user access to the database.

Organizing the Database :

Base Tables : A database comprises base tables, which have the following features :
They physically exist on the disk, Each of them has a unique name & they contain data that is crucial to an
organization. Their attributes have data types such as character, integer, decimal, date and time.
CREATE TABLE : This is a DDL command in SQL that creates a new table in a database.
Syntax : CREATE TABLE table-name (column-name data-type [[size]]
NOT NULL/DEFAULT default-value]]
CHECK (column-name > 0)
UNIQUE (column-name)
PRIMARY KEY (column-name)
FOREIGN KEY (column-name) REFERENCES table-name)
ALTER TABLE : This is a DDL command in SQL that modifies the structure of an existing table.
Syntax : ALTER TABLE table-name
ADD (column-name data-type [[size]] [[NOT NULL DEFAULT]]...)
primary key definition / foreign key definition
DROP PRIMARY KEY / DROP FOREIGN KEY)
DROP TABLE : This is DDL command in SQL that deletes the an existing table. Once you delete a table, all
data contained in it is lost and cannot be recovered. The storage space used by this table is also released.
Syntax : DROP TABLE table-name

Interacting with a Database :

SELECT : This is a DML command in SQL that retrieves data from the database in the form of query results.
The command supports the following keywords and clauses :
FROM This keyword specifies the name of the table.
* This keyword selects all the columns of the table.
WHERE This keyword gives the search condition that specifies the data to be retrieved.
AND This operator is used to combine two or more search conditions.
ORDER BY This keyword sorts the query result on one or more columns.
GROUP BY This keyword groups the query result and lets you generate summary result for each group.
NULL values This value indicates that the data is not present.
Subquery This is the query that is place inside the main query. It passes its query result to the main query.
INSERT : This is a DML command in SQL that you use to add data in rows of a table.
SYNTAX : INSERT INTO table-name (column-names) VALUES (constant/NULL)
UPDATE : This is a DML command in SQL that you use to change data on rows of a table.
Syntax : UPDATE table-name SET column-name-value WHERE condition
DELETE : This is a DML command in SQL that removes one or more rows of data from a table.
Syntax : DELETE FROM table-name WHERE condition.

End-user's View of a Database :

Views : Views are relations that are derived from one or more source tables. Views have the following
features:
Views let you restrict the access to data so that end-users see data relevant to them.
Views do not physically exist in the database and only their definition is stored by an RDBMS.
An RDBMS accesses the source tables for data to be retrieved from a view.
Any changes that users make to views do not reflect in the source tables if the view has been created using
a Join condition.
Views created WITH CHECK OPTION allows for an added measure of security in a view. For example, the
user will not be able to insert or update a row that could not be selected by the view-with check option
prevents this from happening.
CREATE VIEW : A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW command.
Syntax : CREATE VIEW view-name (column-names) AS query.
Retrieving Data from a View : Once you create a view, you can retrieve data from it using the SELECT
command, just as you do for a table.

Restricting Access to a Database :

GRANT : This is a DCL command in SQL that you use to grant a specific set of authorities to one or more
users.
Syntax : GRANT (SQL command) (column-names) ON table-name TO user-name.
REVOKE : This is a DCL command in SQL that you use to take away a specific set of authorities from one or
more users.
Syntax : REVOKE (SQL command) ON table-name TO user-name.

VI. ENSURING INTEGRITY OF DATA :

The concept of Data Integrity :
v Data Integrity : Data Integrity refers to the correctness and completeness of data in a database.

Integrity Constraints : Integrity constraints allows only correct changes to be made to a database. There are
two types of integrity constraints - entity integrity and referential integrity.

Entity Integrity : Entity Integrity ensures that for each row in a table, the value of the primary key is unique
and is not null.

Referential Integrity : Referential Integrity ensures that for each row in a table, the value of the foreign key is
present in the reference table.

Grouping commands related to a task :

Transaction Processing : A transaction is a sequence of one or more SQL commands that together form a
logical task. Transaction Processing ensures that when the RDBMS is making changes related to a single
task, either all changes are made as a unit or no changes are made.

Commit : Commit is an SQL command that indicates the successful end of a transaction. After an RDBMS
executes this command all the changes are made to the database.

Rollback : Rollback is an SQL command that cancels a transaction before it is complete. The rollback
command removes the changes of all previous commands in a transaction from the buffer.

Controlling Concurrent Data Access :

Concurrency Control : All RDBMS must ensure that the transactions of concurrent users do not interfere with
each other. If it does not handle the transactions properly, the problems of lost update, uncommitted data, or
inconsistent data might occur.

Lost Update Problem : Lost update problem occurs when an update made by a transaction is lost due to an
update made by another transaction.

Uncommitted Data Problem : Uncommitted data problem occurs when a transaction accesses data that has
been updated by a previous transaction that has not yet ended.

Inconsistent Data Problem : Inconsistent data problem occurs when a transaction accesses data from the
database and simultaneously another transaction is changing that data.

Locking : Locking is a facility provided by an RDBMS to ensure that a transaction does not interfere with any
other transaction. Locking prevents the problem of lost update, uncommitted data and inconsistent data. An
RDBMS provided two types of locks for locking a part of the database - shared locks and exclusive locks.

Shared Locks : If a transaction is only reading data from a database, it gets a shared lock on that part of the
database. Other transactions can also get a shared lock on that part of the database to read data. However,
they cannot change the data.

Exclusive Locks : If a transaction is updating data in a database, it gets an exclusive lock on that part of the
database. No other transaction can read or change this data.
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